UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 
AT  LOS  ANGELES 


fr^ 


^- 


MEXICO  AND  THE  UNITED  STATES 


A   STUDY   OF   SUBJECTS  AFFECTING   THEIR   POLITICAL, 

COMMERCIAL,  AND   SOCIAL  RELATIONS,   MADE 

WITH  A  VIEW  TO  THEIR  PROMOTION 


BY 

y  MATIAS  ROMERO 


VOLUME  I. 


G.  p.  PUTNAM'S  SONS 

NEW   YORK   AND  LONDON 
Cbe  Iknicfterbocfter  press 
1898 


?  8  0  8  5 


Copyright,  1898 

BY 
MATIAS   ROMERO 

Entered  at  Stationers'  Hall,  London 


/ 


Tlbe  Ikniclterboclser  press,  neve  @otk 


V 


PREFACE. 

.  At  two  different  periods  I  have  been  in  Washington  as  the  official 

^  representative  of  Mexico  in  the  United  States.  My  first  sojourn  be- 
■^  gan  on  December  24,  1859,  when  I  came  as  First  Secretary  of  the 
Mexican  Legation,  continuing  as  such  until  August  14,  i860,  the  day 
on  which  Minister  Mata  left  Washington  on  leave,  and.  I  became 
Charg^  d'  Affaires  and  continued  in  that  capacity  until  October  29, 
1863.  On  that  day  I  presented  to  President  Lincoln  my  credentials 
as  Envoy  Extraordinary  and  Minister  Plenipotentiary  of  Mexico,  in 
which  capacity  I  remained  in  Washington  until  July  16,  1868,  when 
I  took  my  departure  for  Mexico.  I  was  therefore  in  Washington  dur- 
ing nearly  two  years  of  Mr.  Buchanan's  administration,  the  whole  of 
Mr.  Lincoln's  first  and  second  administrations,  and  of  his  successor,  Mr. 
Johnson.  I,  therefOTe^"was  fortunate  enough  to  be  in  this  capital  during 
the  most  serious  crises  that  this  government  ever  passed  through,  that 
is,  during  the  preparation  for  the  secession  of  the  Southern  States,  dur- 
ing the  secession,  the  Civil  War  that  it  brought  about,  and  the  Re- 
construction Period,  as  well  as  during  the  whole  period  of  the  French 
^  Intervention  in  Mexico,  which  was  an  incident  closely  connected  with 
the  Civil  War  in  the  United  States.  It  was  my  fortune  to  meet  the 
most  prominent  men  of  this  country,  both  in  political  and  social  life, 
and  to  hold  very  friendly  personal  relations  with  many  of  them,  such 
as  Secretary  Seward  and  General  Grant.' 

'  The  extent  of  the  personal  friendship  with  which  Mr.  Seward  favored  me,  appears 
from  the  following  official  communication  dated  at  Washington,  October  7,  1867,  in 
which  he  tendered  me  a  public  vessel  of  the  United  States  to  convey  me  and  my 
friends  from  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  to  the  port  of  Veracruz  in  Mexico,  on  my 
return  home.  Governor  Morton,  of  Indiana,  and  General  Banks  had  intended  to  go 
to  Mexico  with  me,  but  could  not  leave  when  I  started,  and  I  only  left  with  my  family. 

Department  of  State, 

Washington,  Oct.  7,  /S67. 
To  SeNor  Don  Matias  Romero 
etc.,  etc.,  etc. 
Sir  :  You  are  aware  of  the  intention  of  the  Government  to  provide  you  with  a 
passage  to  Mexico  in  a  public  '  essel  of  the  United  States.      I  now  have  the  honor  to 
acquaint  you  that  in  a  letter  of  this  date,  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  informs  me 


iv  Ipretacc. 

The  second  period  of  my  service  in  Washington  extends  from  March 
7,  1882,  to  the  present  time,  and  it  has  continued  without  interruption 
excepting  from  May,  1892,  to  February,  1893,  when  I  discharged,  while 
absent  on  leave,  the  duties  of  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  of  Mexico, 
filling  that  office  for  the  third  time. 

During  the  years  which  elapsed  between  these  periods  I  served  at 
two  different  times  as  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  in  Mexico,  and  for  a 
few  months  as  Postmaster-General  of  that  country,  although  that  office 
is  not  in  Mexico,  as  in  the  United  States,  a  cabinet  position;  and  during 
the  intervals  I  travelled  in  different  parts  of  Mexico  and  spent  about 
three  years  in  agricultural  pursuits  in  the  District  of  Soconusco,  State 
of  Chiapas,  bordering  upon  Guatemala,  an  incident  which  gave  me 
the  opportunity  of  becoming  familiar  with  the  political  and  social  con- 
ditions of  Guatemala,  a  country  which  I  twice  visited,  and  which  fur- 
nished me  practical  knowledge  of  the  boundary  question  between 
Mexico  and  that  republic,  which  several  times  threatened  to  disturb 
the  peace  between  the  two  countries. 

During  my  second  official  residence  in  the  City  of  Washington,  I 
have  contributed  to  the  Press  of  this  country  several  papers  relating  to 
Mexican  affairs,  prepared  with  a  view  to  correct  misapprehensions  con- 
cerning the  laws  of  Mexico,  and  its  social,  political,  industrial,  and  com- 
mercial conditions,  the  feelings  and  disposition  of  its  people  towards 
the  United  States,  and  several  other  subjects  affecting  the  relations  be- 
tween the  two  Republics,  and  to  furnish  information  on  matters  concern- 
ing Mexico,  which  ought  to  be  better  understood  in  the  United  States. 
It  has  been  my  special  desire  to  do  whatever  might  lie  in  my  power 
to  lessen  the  risk  of  misunderstandings  and  to  further  the  know- 
ledge of  each  country  by  the  other,  and  thus  to  develop  friendly 
political,  commercial,  and  social  relations  between  the  two  nations, 
and  establish  the  basis  of  lasting  peace  between  them.  The  contiguity 
of  the  two  Republics,  the  peculiarities  of  each,  and  the  special  ad- 
vantages which,  in  certain  respects,  each  possesses  over  the  other,  are 
such  as  to  promote  and  preserve,  in  the  near  future,  the  strongest  ties 
of  interest,  respect,  and  friendship.  It  was  with  the  view  of  further- 
ing such  a  result  that  these  articles  were  originally  written,  and  it  is 
the  same  purpose  that  has  induced  me  to  reissue  them  in  book  form. 

that  the  Revenue  Cutter  IVilderness  will  be  ordered  to  Charleston,  South  Carolina, 
for  the  purpose  of  receiving  you  and  your  friends  and  of  making  the  voyage  re- 
ferred to. 

If,  therefore,  you  should  reach  Charleston  by  the  14th  of  this  month,  it  is  prob- 
able that  you  may  then  embark  in  the  Wilderness  there. 

I  will  avail  myself  of  the  occasion  to  renew  the  assurance  of  my  high  consideration. 

William  H.  Seward. 

I  had  enough  letters  from  General  Grant  to  fill  a  volume,  and  may  use  some  of 
them  hereafter. 


preface.  v 

These  contributions  have  now  become  quite  numerous,  and  be- 
cause of  the  frequent  demands  received  for  copies,  I  have  considered 
it  advisable  to  revise  and  publish  them  in  book  form,  in  such  manner 
as  to  make  the  collection  a  convenient  source  of  knowledge  and 
reference  for  citizens  of  the  United  States  who  desire  to  have  a 
more  intimate  knowledge  of  Mexican  affairs.  At  first  I  thought  that 
I  would  group  my  papers  in  the  chronological  order  of  their  publica- 
tion in  this  country;  but  after  further  consideration  I  decided  to  fol- 
low the  order  in  which  they  now  appear. 

I  have  carefully  revised  the  articles  embraced  in  this  volume  with 
the  view  of  making  them  parts  of  a  comprehensive  work.  When  I 
began  to  prepare  these  papers  I  thought  it  would  be  proper  to  begin  the 
same  with  a  short  description  of  Mexico,  and  I  used  for  the  purpose  a 
paper  I  published  in  the  Bulletin  of  the  American  Geographical  Society 
of  New  York  on  December  31,  1896,  adding  to  it  considerably,  so 
as  to  embrace  the  more  recent  geographical  and  statistical  informa- 
tion on  Mexico  that  could  be  obtained,  and  in  that  way  the  first  paper 
of  this  set  came  out  in  a  more  voluminous  way  than  I  had  intended. 
The  several  articles  I  had  published  bearing  on  historical  affairs  con- 
cerning Mexico  were  grouped  together  under  the  head  of  Historical 
Notes  on  Mexico^  and  followed  the  one  containing  geographical  and 
statistical  data,  and  those  of  a  miscellaneous  character  are  grouped 
together  rather  on  my  theory  of  their  importance  than  on  the  date  of 
their  publication. 

As  each  article  was  written  with  a  certain  purpose,  a  repetition 
of  some  facts  and  views  on  a  given  subject  has  at  times  been  unavoid- 
able, because  the  statement  of  such  facts,  or  the  expression  of  such 
views,  was  in  each  case  indispensable  to  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the 
subject-matter  of  the  article.  I  have  tried  to  avoid  these  repetitions  as 
much  as  possible,  but  I  have  found  that  I  could  not  altogether  succeed 
in  doing  so. 

I  feel  constrained  to  say  that  my  stay  in  Washington  has  been  so 
long,  and  my  acquaintance  with  the  leading  public  men  of  this  country 
so  intimate,  that  I  can  state  with  truth  that  I  know  a  great  deal 
of  the  unwritten  history  of  this  country,  which  if  carefully  collected 
would  afford  material  for  very  interesting  personal  memoirs.  Although 
these  articles  are  far  from  having  that  character,  they  contain  facts 
which  throw  light  upon  some  incidents  of  the  inside  political  history 
of'the  times,  and  which  have  not  heretofore  been  within  the  reach  of  the 
general  public.  I  trust  therefore  that  for  this  reason  these  papers  will 
be  found  of  interest  to  those  who  may  wish  to  know  something  of  the 
workings  of  the  great  Government  of  the  United  States  as  viewed  by 
friendly  foreign  eyes. 

This  book  makes  no  pretensions  to  literary  merit.     I  have  been 


VI 


preface. 


in  this  country  long  enough  to  learn  something  of  the  English  lan- 
guage, but  of  course  I  cannot  aspire  to  as  perfect  a  knowledge  and 
command  of  it  as  if  it  were  my  mother  tongue.  These  articles  were 
written  by  me  originally  in  English,  as  they  were  intended  to  be  read 
by  the  people  of  this  country,  and  although  I  have  submitted  them  to 
friends  of  mine  for  correction  of  the  style,  the  corrections  that  have 
been  made  have  been  of  small  importance,  and  the  style,  therefore,  re- 
mains my  own.  I  know  very  well  that  it  is  far  from  being  perfect,  or 
even  as  terse  or  correct  as  I  could  reasonably  desire,  but  I  have  done 
my  best  to  make  it  as  good  as  I  knew  how. 

I  know  that  it  is  something  new  and  a  rather  delicate  undertaking 
for  a  diplomatic  representative  of  a  foreign  country  to  write  articles  for 
the  Press  of  the  country  to  which  he  is  accredited,  and  I  am  well 
aware  that  to  an  European  diplomat  this  would  be  considered  a  serious 
breach  of  etiquette;  but  the  conditions  in  this  country  are  so  different 
from  those  prevailing  elsewhere,  and  the  relations  between  Mexico  and 
the  United  States  are  so  exceptional,  that  I  have  felt  myself  justified  in 
following  this  course,  and  so  far  I  have  had  no  occasion  to  regret  it.  I 
have  found,  besides,  that  some  of  my  colleagues,  not  only  representing 
American,  but  even  European  countries,  have  acted  in  a  similar  man- 
ner; the  former  Brazilian  Minister  in  Washington,  Senor  Mendon^a, 
who  is  a  very  accomplished  diplomat,  the  former  Argentine  Minister, 
Senor  Zeballos,  the  former  Belgian  Minister,  Monsieur  Le  Ghait,  an 
able  man  of  very  wide  diplomatic  experience,  representing  a  very  con- 
servative European  State,  and  also  two  Japanese  Ministers,  Messrs. 
Tateno  and  Kurino,  have  published  articles  on  important  subjects 
relating  to  their  respective  countries.'  I  am  also  able  to  cite  as  a 
precedent  the  example  of  the  diplomatic  representatives  of  the  United 

'  The  articles  referred  to  are  two  from  Seftor  Don  Salvador  de  Mendon9a,  pub- 
lished in  the  North  American  Review,  one  in  January,  1894,  entitled  "  Republican- 
ism in  Brazil,"  and  the  other  in  the  February  number  of  the  same  year,  entitled 
"Latest  Aspects  of  the  Brazilian  Rebellion";  one  from  Seiior  Don  Estanislao  S. 
Zeballos,  published  in  the  August,  1894,  number  of  the  same  paper,  entitled  "Civil 
Wars  in  South  America "  ;  two  from  Mon.  Alfred  Le  Ghait,  one  published  in  the 
March,  1892,  number  of  the  North  American  Review,  entitled  "  The  Anti-Slavery 
Conference,"  and  another  published  in  November,  1893,  entitled  "  The  Revision  of 
the  Belgian  Constitution  "  ;  one  from  Mr.  G.  Tateno,  published  in  the  January,  1893, 
number  of  the  same  paper,  entitled  "  Japan  at  the  World's  Fair"  ;  and  two  from  Mr. 
S.  Kurino,  one  published  in  November,  1894,  entitled  "  The  War  in  the  Orient,"  and 
the  other  published  in  May,  1895,  entitled  "The  Future  of  Japan." 

Senor  Zeballos  published  besides,  in  1894,  while  he  was  Argentine  Minister  in 
Washington,  a  book  of  656  pages  entitled  La  Concurrencia  Universal y  la  Agricultura 
de  Ambas  A'^Mcas,  which  he  prepared  in  the  shape  of  a  report  to  the  State  Depart- 
ment of  his  country  on  the  agricultural  conditions  of  the  United  States.  I  understand 
this  book  was  published  simultaneously  in  English  and  Spanish,  but  it  was  written  in 
Spanish,  and  I  have  only  seen  the  Spanish  edition  of  the  same. 


preface.  vU 

States  in  England.  This  country  bears  towards  England,  in  some 
respects,  relations  similar  to  those  borne  by  Mexico  towards  the  United 
States;  and  it  may  therefore  not  be  considered  extraordinary  that  the 
Mexican  representative  in  Washington  should  feel  justified  in  follow- 
ing their  example.  If  a  representative  of  an  European  Government 
should  make  public  addresses  in  London  on  subjects  of  common  in- 
terest to  his  own  and  the  British  Government,  or  on  other  subjects  of 
a  political  character,  public  opinion  in  Europe  would  find  ample  ground 
for  criticism,  and  he  would  possibly  even  be  reprimanded  by  his  Govern- 
ment; but  the  peculiar  position  of  the  United  States  representative  at 
the  Court  of  St.  James  has  been  held  to  justify  the  course  taken  by 
Ambassadors  Bayard  and  Hay  and  their  predecessors  during  their  mis- 
sion in  Great  Britain. 

I  have  also  thought  that  the  presentation  of  trustworthy  informa- 
tion for  the  purpose  of  avoiding  misunderstandings  between  two  sister 
Republics,  and  of  furthering  satisfactory  and  friendly  relations,  was 
not  only  a  privilege  permissible,  but  a  duty  of  the  representative  of 
Mexico  in  the  United  States.  Besides,  in  this  case  I  have  only  collected 
in  book  form,  papers  which  I  have  already  published  in  this  country, 
some  of  them  as  early  as  1883,  and  I  cannot  see  any  impropriety  in 
reprinting  them.  The  American  public  has  very  kindly  received  my 
papers,  and  with  perhaps  a  single  exception,  in  which  I  touched  on  a 
question  which  was  at  the  time  paramount  in  a  hot  political  discussion 
in  the  United  States,  which  preceded  a  Presidential  election,  they  all 
have  been  commented  upon  in  a  great  deal  more  kindly  and  compli- 
mentary manner  than  I  had  any  reason  to  expect. 

My  experience  in  dealing  with  two  peoples  of  different  races,  speak- 
ing different  languages  and  with  different  social  conditions,  has  shown 
me  that  there  are  prejudices  on  both  sides,  growing  out  of  want  of  suf- 
ficient knowledge  of  each  other,  which  could  be  dispelled,  and  by  so 
doing,  a  better  understanding  be  secured.  This  fact  was  very  plainly 
shown  to  me  during  the  Pan-American  Conference,  which  met  in 
Washington  from  October,  1889,  to  April,  1890,  where  serious  preju- 
dices prevailing  among  some  of  the  delegates  regarding  the  various 
countries  were  dispelled  by  the  close  contact  with  their  respective 
representatives  at  the  Conference.  I  have  often  witnessed  in  Wash- 
ington very  serious  misunderstandings  to  the  prejudice  of  the  Latin- 
American  nations,  and  especially  in  regard  to  Mexico,  resulting  from 
want  of  proper  information  on  the  questions  involved,  and  I  thought 
that  I  would  render  a  service  both  to  Mexico  and  the  Latin-American 
countries  at  large,  as  well  as  to  the  United  States,  if  I  did  what  I 
could  to  dispel  those  errors,  and  so  obtain  a  more  satisfactory  under- 
standing between  the  two  races  inhabiting  the  American  continent. 

On  account  of  my  long  residence  in  the  United  States,  the  greater 


viii  preface. 

part  of  my  life  having  been  spent  here,  many  people  in  Mexico,  and 
especially  those  who  are  unfriendly  to  this  country,  have  thought  that 
pleasant  and  agreeable  associations  may  have  imperceptibly  influenced 
and  controlled  my  judgment  and  methods  of  thought.  While  this  be- 
lief may  be  perfectly  correct,  in  so  far  as  a  full  knowledge  and  appre- 
ciation of  the  American  people  and  their  institutions  and  tendencies 
is  concerned,  it  is  not  true  that  I  am  the  less  jealous  of  the  rights  and 
interests  of  my  own  country.  The  peculiar  position  which  I  thus  occupy 
enables  me  to  judge  correctly  of  the  conditions  of  the  two  countries, 
and  of  the  manner  in  which  such  obstacles  as  are  in  the  way  of  a  better 
understanding  of  each  other  may  best  be  removed. 

I  do  not  need,  of  course,  to  say  that  I  publish  this  book  in  my 
personal  character  as  a  Mexican  citizen,  and  not  in  my  official  capacity 
as  a  diplomatic  representative  of  the  Mexican  Government  in  Wash- 
ington. Everything  that  it  contains  is  therefore  sai,d  on  my  own  per- 
sonal responsibility,  and  in  no  case  should  the  Mexican  Government 
be  held  responsible  for  any  views  or  statements  of  mine. 

Although  the  first  term  of  my  residence  in  Washington  was  the  more 
important  of  the  two — both  because  of  the  Civil  War  in  this  country  and 
of  the  French  Intervention  in  Mexico  which  took  place  during  that 
time — it  would  swell  this  book  to  unreasonable  proportions  were  I  to 
collect  here  all  my  writings,  speeches,  interviews,  and  other  papers 
written  during  that  trying  period;  and  therefore  I  shall  include  in  this 
work  only  such  matter  as  has  been  published  during  the  second  period, 
excepting  a  few  short  papers  that  I  think  I  ought  to  present  now. 

My  correspondence  Avith  the  United  States  Government  during  my 
first  sojourn  in  Washington,  which  I  consider  of  great  importance,  was 
sent  by  Presidents  Lincoln  and  Johnson  to  Congress,  and  published 
in  several  volumes,  containing  a  record  of  important  events  then  oc- 
curring in  Mexico.  I  append  a  list  of  the  different  Messages  sent  by 
the  President  of  the  United  States  to  Congress  during  the  French 
Intervention  in  Mexico,  bearing  on  Mexican  affairs.  Most  of  that 
correspondence,  together  with  my  official  letters  to  the  Mexican  Gov- 
ernment, and  the  instructions  from  that  Government  to  the  Mexi- 
can Legation  at  Washington,  from  1859  to  1867,  I  published  in 
Spanish  in  Mexico,  in  ten  large  volumes,  some  of  them  of  over  1,000 
pages,  containing  data  in  my  opinion  indispensable  to  write  an  accu- 
rate history  of  the  events  which  took  place  in  Mexico  during  that 
eventful  period.'  As  those  papers  are  already  printed  I  do  not  think 
it  advisable  to  include  them  here,  notwithstanding  that  they  belong  to 
a  most  interesting  historical  period. 

'  The  extent  of  the  labor  I  accomplished  during  that  period,  appears  from  the 
following  extract  of  a  statement  of  work  done  by  the  Mexican  Legation  at  Washing- 
ton, from  August  16,  i860,  when  I  became  Charge  d' Affaires,  to  December  31,  i566, 
which  I  published  on  that  date  : 


preface. 


IX 


As  an  instance  illustrating  the  importance  of  those  documents,  I  ap- 
pend to  this  Preface  an  autograph  letter  from  Mr.  Lincoln,  dated  at 
Springfield,  111.,  on  January  21,  1861,  addressed  to  me  after  a  short 
visit  that  I  made  to  him  at  his  home,  a  few  weeks  before  his  inaugura- 
tion as  President  of  the  United  States.  This  letter,  which  has  not  be- 
fore seen  public  light,  shows  his  feelings  towards  Mexico,  and  is  quite 
typical  of  that  great  man. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  say  that  in  the  publication  of  these  papers,  I 
have  had  no  thought  of  pecuniary  profit.  I  have  often  been  asked  by  the 
editors  of  the  periodicals  in  which  they  were  originally  printed  to  con- 
sent to  receive  an  honorarium,  which  I  have  always  declined.  My  object 
in  writing  them  was,  as  already  stated,  to  diffuse  important  information, 
and  not  to  make  money,  and  I  considered  that  the  periodicals  which 
published  my  papers  did  me  a  favor,  as  they  contributed  to  the  accom- 
plishment of  that  object.  I  have  now  decided  to  print  the  book  con- 
taining them  through  a  leading  New  York  and  London  editorial  house, 
because  that  is  the  only  effective  way  of  putting  it  within  the  reach  of 
the  general  public  for  continued  reading  and  reference.  If  I  had 
printed  this  volume  for  private  circulation  it  would  have  reached  com- 
paratively few  readers,  and  my  object  would  not  have  been  accomplished. 

I  shall  be  Avell  satisfied  if  I  succeed  in  my  purpose  of  placing  within 
reach  of  the  people  of  the  United  States  a  knowledge  of  Mexican  affairs 
which  is  the  result  of  many  years  of  experience  and  of  an  intimate 
acquaintance  with  the  condition  of  things  in  my  own  country,  and  will 
feel  still  more  pleased  if  I  succeed  in  accomplishing  my  object  of  contrib- 
uting to  establish  a  lasting  friendship  between  the  two  Sister  Republics. 

Washington,  July,  1898. 


AGGREGATE  STATEMENT  OF  WORK. 


LETTERS  AND  EN- 
CLOSURES TO 

PAGES. 

LETTERS  AND  EN- 
CLOSURES FROM 

PAGES. 

Department     of     State     of 
Mexico 

6,643 
1,720 
I  301 

23,791 
8,948 
T   ion 

1,905 
483 

1,379 

7,405 

4,834 
721 

I.95I 
16,678 

Department  of  State  of  the 
United  States 

Mexican    Consulates,    Lega- 
tions, etc 

Private  Letters 

7,430                  14,920 

Total 

17  OQJ                     in  ^RR 

11,172 

24,184 

TOTALS. 

LETTERS  AND  ENCLOSURES. 

Number. 

Pages. 

From  the  Legation 

17,094 
11,172 

49,388 
24,184 

To  the  Legation 

Total 

28,266 

73,572 

erf  L^    C^cyCO^ye^o^       J' z^XSCe^    ^:^4C:>  /O-t^^Ujt^ 

Facsimile  of  autograph  letter  of  Abraham  Lincoln,  written  a  few  weeks  before  his 
inauguration  as  President  of  the  United  States,  to  express  his  sympathy  for  Mexico, 
This  letter  was  written  on  note  paper  7-J  by  5-J-  inches. 


PARTIAL  LIST  OF  SPECIAL  MESSAGES  ON  MEXICO  SENT 
BY  THE  PRESIDENTS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  TO 
CONGRESS  DURING  THE  PERIOD  OF  THE  FRENCH 
INTERVENTION.' 

1862. 

President's  Message  to  the  House  of  Representatives  of  April  14,  1862,  enclosing 
papers  on  the  present  condition  of  Mexico.  (House  of  Representatives,  Ex.  Doc. 
No.  100,  37th  Congress,  2d  Session.)    434  pages. 

1863. 

President's  Message  to  the  House  of  Representatives  of  January  5,  1863,  in  relation 
to  the  alleged  interference  of  the  United  States  Minister  to  Mexico  in  favor  of  the 
French.  (House  of  Representatives,  Ex.  Doc.  No,  23,  37th  Congress,  3d  Session.) 
27  pages. 

President's  Message  to  the  Senate  of  January  20,  1863,  enclosing  correspondence  be- 
tween the  United  States  Government  and  Mexican  Minister  in  relation  to  the 
exportation  of  articles  contraband  of  war  for  the  use  of  the  French  army  in 
Mexico.     (Senate,  Ex.  Doc.  No.  24,  37th  Congress,  3d  Session.)     17  pages. 

President's  Message  to  the  House  of  Representatives  of  February  4,  1863,  enclosing 
report  of  Secretary  of  State  and  accompanying  papers  on  present  condition  of 
Mexico.     (House   of   Representatives,    Ex.    Doc.    No,    54,    37th    Congress,    3d 

Session.)     802  pages. 

1864. 

President's  Message  to  the  Senate  of  June  16,  1864,  enclosing  papers  relative  to  the 
condition  of  affairs  in  Mexico.  (Senate,  Ex.  Doc.  No.  11,  38th  Congress,  ist 
Session.)     496  pages. 

'  This  list  veas  made  from  a  set  of  the  President's  Special  Messages  on  Mexico, 
from  1862  to  1867,  which  I  kept  at  the  time  for  my  personal  use  and  have  bound  in  seven 
volumes.  Fearing  that  some  messages  might  have  escaped  me,  notwithstanding  that 
I  was  very  careful  to  collect  them  all,  I  requested  Mr.  Cliffton  Warden,  Assistant 
Librarian  of  the  United  States  Senate  Library,  a  very  competent  person,  to  make  a 
complete  list,  and  to  revise  mine.  He  furnished  me  with  a  list  which  is  fuller  than 
mine,  and  which  appears  at  the  end  of  the  volume.  He  adds  to  my  list  messages 
sent  confidentially  by  the  President  to  the  Senate,  to  which  I  had  no  access,  and  gives 
of  others  more  details  than  I  do. 


xii  partial  Xist  of  Special  /IDessaoes. 

1865. 

President's  Message  to  the  Senate  of  December  13,  1865,  containing  information  of  a 
decree  of  the  so-called  Emperor  of  Mexico.  (Senate,  Ex.  Doc.  No.  5,  39th 
Congress,  ist  Session.)     20  pages. 

President's  Message  to  the  House  of  Representatives  of  December  14,  1865,  bearing 
on  the  so-called  decree  re-establishing  slavery  or  peonage  in  Mexico.  (House  of 
Representatives,  Ex.  Doc.  No.  13,  39th  Congress,  ist  Session.)     14  pages. 

President's  Message  to  the  Senate  of  December  21,  1865,  containing  information  re- 
specting the  occupation  by  French  troops  of  the  Republic  of  Mexico,  and  the 
establishment  of  a  monarchy  there.  (Senate,  Ex.  Doc.  No.  6,  39th  Congress,  ist 
Session.)     100  pages. 

1866. 

President's  Message  to  the  Senate  of  January  5,  1866,  containing  information  of  plans 
to  induce  the  dissatisfied  citizens  of  the  UniteJ  States  to  immigrate  into  Mexico. 
(Senate,  Ex.  Doc.  No.  S,  39th  Congress,  ist  Session.)     44  pages. 

President's  Message  to  the  House  of  Representatives  of  January  5,  i366,  on  the  steps 
taken  by  the  so-called  Emperor  of  Mexico  to  obtain  a  recognition.  (House  of 
Representatives,  Ex.  Doc.  No.  20,  39th  Congress,  ist  Session.)     12  pages. 

President's  Message  to  the  House  of  Representatives  of  January  10,  1866,  on  t'ne 
alleged  kidnapping  in  Mexico  of  a  child  (Iturbide)  of  an  American  lady.  (House 
of  Representatives,  Ex.  Doc.  No.  21,  39th  Congress,  ist  Session.)     i  page. 

President's  Message  to  the  Senate  of  January  26,  1866,  containing  information  regard- 
ing the  present  condition  of  affairs  on  the  southeastern  frontier  of  the  United 
States  and  any  violation  of  neutrality  of  the  army  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rio 
Grande.     (Senate,  Ex.  Doc.  No.  16,  39th  Congress,  ist  Session.)     i  page. 

President's  Message  to  the  Senate  of  January  26,  1866,  enclosing  the  report  of  the 
Secretary  of  State  regarding  the  transit  of  United  States  troops,  in  1861,  through 
Mexican  territory.  (Senate,  Ex.  Doc.  No.  17,  39th  Congress,  ist  Session.)  8 
pages. 

President's  Message  to  the  House  of  Representatives  of  January  26,  1866,  in  regard 
to  any  demonstration  in  honor  of  President  Juarez  of  Mexico.  (House  of  Repre- 
sentatives, Ex.  Doc.  No.  31,  39th  Congress,  ist  Session.)     20  pages. 

President's  Message  to  the  House  of  Representatives  of  February  i,  1S66,  on  the 
"Imperial  Mexican  Express  Company."  (House  of  Representatives,  Ex.  Doc. 
No.  38,  39th  Congress,  ist  Session.)     17  pages. 

President's  Message  to  the  House  of  Representatives  of  March  6,  1866,  in  regard  to 
the  term  of  office  of  President  Juarez  of  Mexico.  (House  of  Representatives, 
Ex.  Doc.  No.  64,  39th  Congress,  ist  Session.)     i  page. 

President's  Message  to  the  House  of  Representatives  of  March  20,  1866,  enclosing  in- 
formation upon  the  present  condition  of  affairs  in  Mexico.  (House  of  Representa- 
tives, Ex.  Doc.  No.  73,  39th  Congress,  ist  Session.)  In  two  volumes,  Part  I., 
706  pages;  Part  II.,  613  pages. 

President's  Message  to  the  Senate  of  April  20,  1866,  enclosing  correspondence  in 
regard  to  the  prohibition  of  the  exportation  of  arms  and  munitions  of  war  over  the 
frontier.     (Senate,  Ex.  Doc.  No.  40,  39th  Congress,  ist  Session.)     10  pages. 


partial  Xist  of  Special  /il>essage6.  xiii 

President's  Message  to  the  House  of  Representatives  of  April  23,  1866,  on  the  evacua- 
tion of  Mexico  by  the  French.  (House  of  Representatives,  Ex.  Doc.  No.  93, 
39th  Congress,  ist  Session.)     47  pages. 

President's  Message  to  the  House  of  Representatives  of  May  10,  1866,  on  discrimina- 
tions against  American  commerce  by  the  so-called  Maximilian  government,  (House 
of  Representatives,  Ex.  Doc.  No.  no,  39th  Congress,  ist  Session.)     2  pages. 

President's  Message  to  the  Senate  of  June  15,  1S66,  regarding  the  departure  of  troops 
from  Austria  for  Mexico.  (Senate,  Ex.  Doc.  No.  54,  39th  Congress,  ist  Session.) 
21  pages. 

President's  Message  to  the  House  of  Representatives  of  June  18,  1866,  regarding  the 
despatch  of  military  forces  from  Austria  for  service  in  Mexico.  (House  of  Repre- 
sentatives, Ex.  Doc.  No.  130,  39th  Congress,  ist  Session.)     i  page. 

President's  Message  to  the  House  of  Representatives  of  June  22,  1866,  regarding  em- 
ployment of  European  troops  in  Mexico.  (House  of  Representatives,  Ex.  Doc. 
No.  137,  39th  Congress,  ist  Session.)     2  pages. 

President's  Message  to  the  House  of  Representatives  of  December  8,  1866,  on  the 
occupation  of  Mexican  territory  by  United  States  troops.  (House  of  Representa- 
tives, Ex.  Doc.  No.  8,  39th  Congress,  2d  Session.)     4  pages. 

President's  Message  to  the  House  of  Representatives  of  December  20,  1866,  on  the 
attempt  of  Santa  Anna  and  Ortega  to  organize  armed  expeditions  in  the  United 
States  to  overthrow  the  national  government  of  Mexico.  (House  of  Representa- 
tives, Ex.  Doc.  No.  17,  39th  Congress,  2d  Session.)     179  pages. 

1S67. 

President's  Message  to  the  House  of  Representatives  of  January  14,  1867,  on  the 
occupation  of  Mexico  by  United  States  troops.  (House  of  Representatives,  Ex. 
Doc.  No.  37,  39th  Congress,  2d  Session.)     6  pages. 

President's  Message  to  the  House  of  Representatives  of  January  29,  1867,  on  the  con- 
dition of  affairs  in  Mexico,  and  the  evacuation  of  the  French  troops.  (House  of 
Representatives,  Ex.  Doc.  No.  76,  39th  Congress,  2d  Session.)     735  pages. 

President's  Message  to  the  Senate  of  February  11,  1867,  on  grants  to  American  citizens 
for  railroad  and  telegraph  lines  through  Mexico.  (Senate,  Ex.  Doc.  No.  25,  39th 
Congress,  2d  Session.)     30  pages. 

President's  Message  to  the  House  of  Representatives  of  March  20,  1867,  on  the  with- 
drawal of  the  French  troops  from  Mexico,  (House  of  Representatives,  Ex,  Doc. 
No.  II,  40th  Congress,  ist  Session.)     2  pages. 

President's  Message  to  the  Senate  of  April  12,  1867,  on  the  prisoners  of  war  taken  by 
the  belligerents  in  the  Mexican  Republic.  (Senate,  Ex.  Doc.  No.  5,  Special  Ses- 
sion, U.  S.  Senate.)     4  pages. 

President's  Message  to  the  House  of  Representatives  of  July  10,  1867,  on  the  United 
States,  European,  and  West  Virginia  Land  and  Mining  Company  and  the  Republic 
of  Mexico.  (House  of  Representatives,  Ex.  Doc.  No.  23,  40th  Congress,  ist 
Session.)     250  pages. 

President's  Message  to  the  House  of  Representatives  of  July  11,  1867,  enclosing  cor- 
respondence between  the  Department  of  State  and  United  States  Ministers  to 
Mexico.  (House  of  Representatives,  Ex.  Doc.  No.  30,  40th  Congress,  ist 
Session.)     76  pages. 


xiv  partial  Xist  ot  Special  /iDessaaes. 

President's  Message  to  the  Senate  of  July  12,  1S67,  enclosing  correspondence  between 
the  Department  of  State  and  Hon.  Lewis  D.  Campbell,  United  States  Minister  to 
Mexico.     (Senate,  Ex.  Doc.  No.  15,  40th  Congress,  ist  Session.)     i  page. 

President's  Message  to  the  Senate  of  July  18,  iSb7,  enclosing  correspondence  relating 
to  recent  events  in  Mexico.  (Senate,  Ex.  Doc.  No.  20,  40th  Congress,  ist 
Session.)     298  pages. 

President's  Message  to  the  House  of  Representatives  of  July  18,  1867,  on  the  capture 
and  execution  of  Maximilian  and  the  reported  arrest  and  execution  of  Santa  Anna 
in  Mexico.  (House  of  Representatives,  Ex.  Doc.  No.  31,  40th  Congress,  ist 
Session.)     1  page. 


CONTENTS. 


CONTENTS  OF  GEOGRAPHICAL  AND   STATISTICAL 
NOTES  ON  MEXICO         .... 

Part  I.     Geography    . 

Location,  Boundaries  and  Area     . 

Location         ..... 

Boundary  with  the  United  States  . 
Boundary  with  Guatemala 

Boundary  with  Belize     . 
Cession  of  Mexican  Territory  to  the  United  States 
General  Characteristics 
Geology         .... 
Mining  ..... 

Silver      .... 

Real  del  Monte  Company 

New  Mines,  Topia 

Li  Hung  Chang  and  the  Mexican  Silver  Mines 

Gold 

Coinage  of  the  Precious  Metals 

Coinage  of  Mexico  from  the  Establishment  of  the  Mints 
in  1537  to  the  End  of  the  Fiscal  Year  1896 

Iron 

Iron  Foundries 

Copper  . 

Quicksilver     . 

Coal 

Mexican  Miners 

Mining  Laws  . 

Mints  and  Duties  on  Silver 

Smelting  Plants 

Mexican  Metallurgical  Company 

National  Mexican  Smelter  at  Monterey 


5 
5 
5 
6 

6 

7 

8 

12 

13 
13 

15 

17 
18 

19 
21 

21 
21 

2  2- 
22 

23 
23 

25 
25 
27 
28 
28 
28 


XVI 


Contents. 


Central  Mexican  Smelter 

Velardena  Mining  Company  . 

The  Chihuahua  Mining  Company 

The  Mazapil  Copper  Company,  Limited 

Sabinal  Mining  and  Smelting  Company,  Chihuahua 

La  Preciosa    . 

The  Boleo  Smelter 
Orography     . 
Hydrography 
Climate 

Summary    of    the    Meteorological    Observations    Taken    in 
Several  Cities  of  Mexico  during  Several  Years 

Summary    of   the    Meteorological    Observations    Taken    in 
Several  Localities  of  Mexico  during  the  Year  1869 
Mexico  as  a  Sanitarium 
Flora     . 

Coffee     . 

Sugar-cane 

Tobacco 

India-rubber 

Cotton 

Agave     . 

Henequen 

Pulque    . 

Cactus    . 

Cocoa     . 

Vanilla  . 

Silk  Culture 

Cochineal 

Rice 

Chicle,  or  Chewing-gum 

Yuca 

Ginger    . 

Canaigre 

Peppermint 

Cabinet  and  Dye  Woods 

Grasses  . 

Alfalfa  . 
Cattle-raising 
Sheep    . 

Products  of  Cold  and  Temperate  Regions 
Pruits    . 

Oranges 

Lemons . 


Contents. 

xvii 

PAGE 

Limes  and  Shaddocks    ...         .... 

.       6i 

Bananas 

.       6i 

Pineapple 

.       62 

Cocoanut 

.       62 

Mangoes 

.       (>i 

Alligator  Pear 

.       (>^^ 

Mamey  . 

.       6j 

Zapote    . 

.       63 

Papaya  . 

•       63 

Flowers 

.       63 

Irrigation 

.       64 

The  Nazas  Irrigation 

.       67 

Fauna    .... 

•       70 

Ethnology     . 

.       72 

Mexican  Indians    . 

•       7^ 

Increase  of  Mexican  Population    .         .         ,         .         , 

.       76 

Decrease  of  the  Indian  Population        .... 

.       77 

The  Spaniards  in  Mexico       ...... 

.       78 

English  and  Germans  in  Mexico    ..... 

.       79 

Americans  in  Mexico 

.       79 

Ruins     .... 

.       80 

Uxmal 

.       80 

Palenque     . 

.       81 

Cholula 

.       81 

Teotihuacan 

.       81 

Mitla 

•       83 

Languages     ..... 

. 

85 

Synopsis  of  the  Indian  Languages  of  Mexico  according  tc 

Don  Francisco  Pimentel      ..... 

86 

Population 

89 

Classification  of  Mexican  States 

90 

Area  and  Population  of  the  United  Mexican  States 

91 

Religion 

9^. 

Protestantism  in  Mexico 

91 

Political  Organization    ....... 

98 

Political  Division 

99 

Army  and  Navy 

99 

Education 

100 

Universities  Established  by  the  Spanish  Government    . 

101 

School  of  Medicine 

102 

School  of  Engineering 

103 

Mexican  Technical  Schools  in  the  Present  Time  . 

103 

Reorganization  of  the  Technical  Colleges      .      '', 

104 

Primary  Education 

. 

104 

Contents. 


the  City  o 


School  Statistics     . 

Libraries 

Newspapers    . 
The  Valley  of  Mexico  . 
The  City  of  Mexico 

Climate  . 

Mortality  in  the  City  of  Mexico 

Climatological  Data  of  the  City  of  Mexico 

Summary  of  the  Meteorological  Observations  of 
Mexico  in  1896    . 
Railways        ..... 

President  Diaz's  Railway  Policy 

President  Diaz's  Statistics  on  Mexican  Railways 

Financial  Condition  of  Mexican  Railways     . 

Annual  Buildings  and  Earnings  of  Mexican  Railways 
Approximate  Tonnage  Moved  by  Central,  National,  Inter- 
oceanic,  and  Mexican  Railways  for  Ten  Years  ended 
December  31,  1896 
Telegraphs    .... 
Postal  Service 
Public  Lands 
Immigration  .... 

Immigration  from  the  United  States 
Public  Debt  .... 
Banking         .... 
Patents  and  Trademarks 

Patents  .... 

Trademarks    . 
Shipping  and  Communications 
Money,  Weights,  and  Measures 
Non-Official  Publications  (English) 

Part  II. — Statistics 
Revenues  and  Expenses        .... 

Revenue  and  Expenses  of  the  Federal  Government  of  Mexico 

in  1808  and  from  1822  to  June  30,  1867 
Revenue  and  Expenses  of  the  Mexican  Government  from 

July  I,  1S67,  to  June  30,  1888 
Revenue  and  Expenses  of  the  Mexican  Government  from 

July  I,  1888,  to  June  30,  1896 
Federal  Appropriations  during  the  Fiscal  Years  from  1868  to 

1895     . 
Sources  of  Revenue 
Import  Duties 


FAGB 

106 
106 
106 
107 
no 
III 
112 

IIS 
115 

117 
118 
119 

120 


121 
121 

123 
124 

129 

131 
132 
132 
132 
133 
133 
134 

135 

137 

139 

140 

141 

142 
143 
143 


Contents.  xjx 

PAGB 

Additional  Import  Duties      .......  144 

Export  Duties         ....  ....  144 

Amount  of  Import  Duties       .......  144 

Custom  Receipts  from  1823  to  1875        .....  145 

Internal  Revenue  .........  146 

Receipts  of  the  Custom  Houses  during  the  Twenty-seven 

Fiscal  Years  Ending  June  30,  1896  ....  147 
Internal  Revenue  Receipts  from  January  i,  1875,  to  June 

30,  1896       .........  148 

Direct  Taxes  .........  148 

Receipts  from  Direct  Taxes  in  the  Federal  District  during 

the  Twenty-seven  Fiscal  Years  Ending  June  30,  1896  .  149 

Revenues  of  the  Mexican  States  from  1884  to  1895  .  .  150 
Expenses  of  the  Mexican  States  from  1884  to  1895        .         -151 

Revenues  of  the  Municipalities  of  Mexico  from  1884  to  1895  152 

Expenses  of  the  Municipalities  of  Mexico  from  1884  to  1895  153 
State  and  Municipal  Finances       .         .         .         .         .         .         .154 

Foreign  Trade 155 

Imports. 155 

Mexican  Imports  and  Exports  from  1826  to  1828  .         .  155 

Imports  in  Mexico  from  July  i,  1872,  to  June  30,  1875,  and 

in  the  year  1884-1885  ......  156 

Imports  in  Mexico  from  July  i,  1885,  to  June  30,  1886,  and 

from  July  i,  1888,  to  June  30,  1890  .  .  .  -157 
Imports  in  Mexico  from  the  Fiscal  Year  1892-1893,  to  the 

Fiscal  Year  1895-1896 158 

Exports 159 

Imports  in  Mexico  by  Countries  in  the  Fiscal  Years  1888-1889 

and  1889-1890,  and  Imports  and  Exports  by  Countries 

and  Custom  Houses  in  the  Fiscal  Years  1894-1895  and 

1895-1896 160 

Exports    of   Mexican   Commodities  from   July   i,    1886,  to 

June  30,  1896 162 

Statement  of  Exports  of  some  Agricultural  Products  during 

the  Fiscal  Years  from  July  i,  1877,  to  June  30,  1896  .  164 
Value  of  Imports  from  Mexico  from  July  i,  1882,  to  June 

30,  1892 165 

Resume  of  Total  Imports 167 

Destination  and  Value  of  Exports  from  Mexico  in  the  Fiscal 

Years  from  1882  to  1892 168 

Total  Exports 169 

Trade  between  Mexico  and  the  United  States  ....  170 
Total   Imports  to   Mexico    and    Imports   from   the  United 

States  for  the  Fiscal  Years  1872-1873  to  1895-1896  172 


Contents. 


Total  Exports  from  Mexico  and  the  Exports  to  the  United 

States  from  1877-1878  to  1895-1896  ....  173 
Statement  of  the  Commercial  Transactions  between  Mexico 

and  the  United  States  from  1826  to  1850  .  .  .  173 
Commerce  in  Merchandise  between  the  United  States  and 

Mexico  by  Years  and  Decades  from  1851  to  1897  .  174 
Total  Commerce  between  the  United  States  and  Mexico  by 

Years  and  Decades  from  185 1  to  1897  .  .  -175 
Quantities  and  Values  of  the  Principal  and  all  other  Articles 

of  Imports  into  the  United  States  from,  and  of  Exports 

from  the  United  States  to,  Mexico,  1858-1883  .  .176 
Quantities  and  Values  of  the  Principal  and  all  other  Articles 

of  Imports  into  the  United  States  from,  and  of  Exports 

from  the  United  States  to,  Mexico,  from  1889-1897  .     181 

Increase  of  Trade  during  the  year  1896-1897        .         .         .     184 

Leading  Merchandise  Imports  from  Mexico       .         .         .184 

Exports  from  the  United  States  to  Mexico         .         .         .184 

Tropical  Products  Supplied  by  Mexico  to  the  United  States     185 

Cattle  Exported  to  the  United  States 186 

Coinage  .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .186 

Coinage  by  the  Mexican  Mints  from  their  Establishment  in 

1535  to  June  30,  1895 187 

Production  of  Gold  and  Silver  in  Mexico  in  1879-1880,  1889- 

1890,  and  1894-1895 188 

Export  of  Precious  Metals  and  Minerals  from  Mexico  in  the 

years  1879-1880,  1889-1890,  and  1894-1895        .         .     188 

Exports  of  Silver  from  July  i,  1872,  to  June  30,  1896  .         .     190 

Mexican  Gold  Exports  .         .         .         .         .         .         .    '     .     190 

Mexican  Gold  Exported  to  the  United  States  .  .  .  191 
Imports  of  Gold  Bullion,  Ore,  and  Coin  from  Mexico  into 

the  United  States  from  1891  to  1895  ....  191 
Imports  of  Gold  Bullion,  Ore,  and  Coin  from  Mexico  into 

the  United  States  from  1892  to  1896  ....  191 
Gold  Exported  from  Mexico  to  the  United  States  from  1891 

to  1896 192 

Railways         .         .         .         .         .  .         .         .         .         .         .193 

Statement  by  the  Department  of  Communications  of  Mexico 

of  the  Railroad  Mileage  in  Operation  on  October  31, 

1896 193 

Resume  of  Railways  in  Mexico  in  1895  ....     195 

Mexican  Central     .........     196 

Mexican  National  .........     196 

Earnings  and  Expenses  of  the  Mexican  National  from  1889 

to  1896 198 


Contents 


Mexican  International   ...... 

Mexican  Southern . 

Other  Railroads 

Mexican  Railroad       ...... 

Interoceanic  Railway  ..... 

Sonora  Railway  ...  .... 

Hidalgo  and  Northeastern  Railway    . 

Merida  and  Progreso  Railway    .... 

Tehuacan  and  Esperanza  Railway 

Merida  and  Peto  Railway  ..... 

Sinaloa  and  Durango  (Altata  to  Culiacan)  Railway 

Merida  and  Campeche  Railway .... 

Merida  and  Valladolid  Railway 

Tlalmanalco  Railway ...... 

San  Juan  Bautista  and  Carrizal  Passenger  Railway 

San  Andres  and  Chalchicomula  Railway   . 

Orizaba  and  Ingenio  Railway     .... 

Santa  Ana  and  Tlaxcala  Railway 

Cdrdenas  and  Rio  Grijalva  Railway  . 

Toluca  and  San  Juan  de  las  Huertas  Railway   . 

Vanegas,  Cedral,  Matehuala,  and  Rio  Verde  Railway 

Merida  and  Izamal  Railway 

San  Marcos  and  Nautla  Railway 

Monterey  and  Gulf  Railway 

Cordova  and  Tuxtepec  Railway 

Maravatio  and  Cuernavaca  Railway  . 

Salamanca  and  Santiago  Valley  Railway 

Monte  Alto  Railway  .... 

Valley  of  Mexico  Railway  . 

Puebla  Industrial  Railway 

Mexican  Northern  Railway 

Mexico,  Cuernavaca,  and  Pacific  Railway 

Federal  District  Tramways 

Veracruz  and  Alvarado  Railway 
Total  Traffic  and  Receipts  of  Mexican  Railways 

Traffic  and  Receipts  of  the  Mexican  Railways 
Railway  Subsidies  Paid  by  the  Mexican  Government  . 
Subsidies  Paid  by  the  Mexican  Government  to  Railway 
panics  up  to  June  30,  1896 
Detailed  Statement  of  the  Subsidies  Paid  by  the  Mexican 
Government  to  the  Railway  Companies 

1.  Mexican  Railway 

2.  Hidalgo  Railway 

3.  Veracruz  &  Alvarado  Railway 


Com 


199 
200 
201 

20I 
202 
202 
202 
203 
203 
203 
204 
204 
204 
205 
205 
205 
206 
206 
206 
207 
207 
207 
207 
208 
208 
208 
208 
209 
209 
209 
209 
209 
210 
210 
210 
211 
211 


213 
213 
213 
213 


Contents. 


4.  Merida  &  Peto  Railway  .... 

5.  Interoceanic  Railway     ..... 

6.  Occidental  Railway        ..... 

7.  Mexican  Central  and  sundry  branches  . 

8.  Mexican  National  and  branches    . 

9.  Sonora  Railway  with  a  branch 

10.  Merida  «Sc  Valladolid  Railway  with  a  branch 

11.  Merida  &  Campeche  Railway  via  Kalkini 

12.  San  Marcos  &  Nautla  Railway 

13.  Toluca  &  San  Juan  de  las  Huertas  Railway. 

14.  Vanegas,  Cedral,  Matehuala,  &  Rio  Verde  Railway 

15.  Jimenez  &  Sierra  Madre  Railway 

16.  Mexican  Southern  Railway    . 

17.  Tonala  &  Frontera  Railway  . 

18.  Monterey  &  Mexican  Gulf  Railway 

19.  Tecolula  &  Espinal  Railway 

20.  Pachuca  &  Tampico  Railway 

21.  Maravatio  &:  Iguala  Railway 

22.  Mexican  Northeastern  Railway 

23.  Veracruz  &  Boca  del  Rio  Railway 

24.  Tula,  Zacualtipan  &  Tampico  Railway 

25.  Matamoros,  Izucar,  &  Acapulco  Railway 

26.  Lower  California  Railway 

27.  Monte  Alto  Railway 

28.  Tehuantepec  Railway    . 

1.  Contractors,  Edward  Learned  &  Co 

2.  Contractor,  Mr.  Delfin    Sanchez 

3.  Mac-Murdo  Contract         .... 

4.  Stanhope,  Hampson,  &  Corthel  Contract . 
Public  Debt 

Statement  of  the  National  Debt  of  Mexico  to  June  30,  1896 
Statement  of  the  Federal  Public  Debt  on  June  30,  1896 
Post-Office  and  Telegraph  Service        ..... 
Post-Offices  in  Mexico  in  1895  by  States 
Earnings  and  Expenditures  of  the  Post-Office  and  Telegraph 

Services  from  July  i,  1869  to  June  30,  1896 
Number  of  Pieces  Transported  by  Mexican  Mails  from  1878 

1879  to  1894-1895        

Banks    ........... 

List  of  Mexican  Banks  ....... 

Situation  of  the  Mexican  Banks  on  December  31,  1894 
Public  Lands         ......... 

Free  Titles  of  the  Indian-town  lands  issued  to  the  inhabitants 
from  1877  to  1895        ....... 


227 


Contents. 


XXIU 


Titles  issued  for  unwarranted  possession  of  Public  Lands  by 

Private  Parties  in  1894  and  1895  .         .         .         . 

Titles  of  public  lands  issued  to  Private  Parties  in  1894  and 

1895 • 

Titles  issued  in  1894  and  1895  to  Surveying  Companies 

Education      .......... 

Newspapers  Published  in  Mexico  in  1895 

Public  Schools  supported  by  the  Federal,  State,  and  Muni 
cipal  Administrations  in  1895      .... 

Schools  supported  by  Private  Parties    .... 

Public  Libraries  in  Mexico 

Manufacturing  Establishments  in  Mexico  in  1893 

Summary  of  Factories  existing  in  Mexico  in  1893 
Navigation     .......... 

Vessels  arrived  at  Mexican  Ports  in  1895 

Vessels  departed  from  Mexican  Ports  in  1895 

Resum6  of  arrivals  and  departures  from  1885  to  1895   . 

Foreign  Passengers  arrived  at  Mexican  Ports  in  1895   . 

Foreign  Passengers  departed  from  Mexican  Ports  in  1895 

General  resum^  of  Passengers  arrived  and  departed  by  Port 
and  Rail  in  1895 

Vessels  arrived  at  and  departed  from  Mexican  Ports  during 
the  Fiscal  Years  1894-95  to  1895-96  . 
Agricultural  Products  : 

Resum^  of  Agricultural  Products  in  Mexico 
Conclusion 


227 

227 
228 
228 
228 

229 
231 
233 
233 
236 

237 
238 

239 
239 

240 

241 

242 


243 
244 


ADDENDA 245 

Federal  Revenue  and  Expenses  of  Mexico  in  the  Fiscal  Year 

1896-97 245 

Imports    and    Exports    of   Mexico   by   Countries  and    Custom- 

Houses  in  the  Fiscal  Year  1896-97     .....  246 

Trade  between  Mexico  and  the  United  States  during  the  first 

nine  months  of  the  Calendar  Year  1897      .         .         .         .247 

Mexican  Exports  to  the  United  States          ....  247 

Mexican  Imports  from  the  United  States 248 


APPENDIX    . 

Mexico  as  a  Central  American  State     . 

Five  States  of  Central  America     . 

Mexico  ....... 

Geographical  Extension  of  Central  America 


249 

249 

250 

251 
251 


Contents. 


Mexican  Profiles  .......... 

From  Veracruz   to    Mexico   by    Orizaba,   by  the  Mexican 

Railway        ........ 

From  Apizaco  to  Puebla,  a  branch  of  the  same  road    . 
From  Veracruz  to  Mexico,  by  the  Interoceanic  Railway 
From  the  City  of  Mexico  to  Morelos,  a  branch  of  the  same 

road     ...... 

From  Puebla  to  Izucar  de  Matamoros,  a  branch  of  the  same 

road     ...... 

From  Mexico  to  El  Paso  del  Norte  or  Ciudad  Juarez  by  the 

Central  Mexican  Railroad  ..... 
From  Aguascalientes  to  Tanipico,  a  branch  of  the  same  road 
From  Irapuato  to  Guadalajara,  a  branch  of  the  same  road 
From  Mexico  to  Laredo  Tamaulipas  by  the  Mexican  Na 

tional  Railway     ....... 

From  Acambaro  to  Patzcuaro,  a  branch  of  the  same  road 
From  Piedras  Negras  or  Ciudad  Porfirio  Diaz  to  Durango 

by  the  Mexican  International  Railway 
From  Sabinas  to  Hondo,  a  branch  of  the  same  road 
From  the  City  of  Mexico  to  Cuernavaca  and  Acapulco 
From  Puebla  to  Oaxaca,  by  the  Mexican  Southern  Railway 
From  Coatzacoalcos  to  Salina  Cruz,  by  the  National  Te- 

huantepec  Railway      ...... 

From  the  City  of  Mexico  to  Pachuca,  by  the  Hidalgo  and 

Northeastern  Mexican  Railway  .... 

Northeastern  Railway  from  Mexico  to  Tizayuca 

Hidalgo  Railway  to  Tuxpan        .... 

From  Tepa  to  Pachuca,  a  branch  of  the  Hidalgo  Rail 
way       ........ 

From  San  Augustin  to  Irolo,  a  branch  of  the  Hidalgo 
Railway         ....... 

Bridie-Path  from  Durango  to  Mazatlan 

Wagon  Road  from  Manzanillo  to  Guadalajara 

Wagon  Road  from  Tehuacan  to  Oaxaca  and  Puerto  Angel 

THE  VALLEY  OF  MEXICO'S  DRAINAGE 

Topographical  Conditions  of  the  Valley  of  Mexico 

Work  done  by  the  Indians 

Work  done  by  the  Spaniards 

Work  done  by  the  Mexican  Government 

The  Tunnel    ...... 

The  Canal      ...... 

The  Sewage    ...... 

Completion  of  the  work 


PACK 

253 


Contents. 


XXV 


HISTORICAL  NOTES  ON  MEXICO      . 
Part  I.     Genesis  of  Mexican  Independence. 

I.  Genesis  of  Mexican  Independence  .... 

European  Conspiracy  to  Accomplish  Independence 
Expedition  of  General  Miranda  to  Venezuela  in  1806 
Origin  of  Mexican  Independence    .... 
The  War  of  Independence  in  South  America . 
Spanish  Overtures  for  Compromise 
American  Monarchical  Views  ..... 
Differences  between  the  Independence  in  Mexico  and 

South  America       ...... 

Recognition  of  Independence  by  the  United  States 
Recognition  of  Belligerency  by  the  United  States  . 
The  United  States  Congress  on  Recognition  . 
Commissioners   Sent  by  the  Revolted   Colonies  to  the 

United  States         ...... 

Commissioners  Sent  by  the  United  States  to  the  Revolted 

Colonies         ....... 

The  Spanish-American  Republics  and  Cuba  . 
The  Monroe  Doctrine      ...... 

The  Panama  Congress      ...... 

Conclusion       ........ 


II. 


Philosophy  of  the  Mexican  Revolutions 

War  of  Independence      ...... 

Opposition  of  Privileged  Classes  to  Independence 

Proclamation  of  Independence 

Morelos's  Leadership 

Slavery  in  Mexico    . 

Bra.vo's  Magnanimity 

Mina's  Expedition   . 

Independence  Achieved 
Revolutionary  Period 

Iturbide's  Ephemeral  Empire 

Establishment  of  a  Republic 

Federal  Constitution  of  1824 

Santa  Ana's  Leadership  . 

Federal  Constitution  of  1835 

Santa  Ana's  Third  Presidency 

Conservative  Constitution  of  June  12,  1843 

Restoration  of  the  Federal  Constitution  of  1824 

War  with  the  United  States  of  1846  and  1847 


PAGE 
281 

285 

287 
290 

294 
296 
308 

312 
316 
320 
321 

322 

324 
324 
330 

333 
335 


Part  II.     Philosophy  of  the  Mexican  Revolutions.       337 


339 
339 
341 
342 
343 
344 
345 
346 
346 
348 
348 
349 
349 
353 
354 
355 
355 
356 
357 


XXVI 


Contents. 


the  Presei 


Acol 


Anaya's,    Pefia  y   Pena's,   Herrera's,  and  Arista's  Adminis 
trations        .... 

Santa  Ana's  Last  Administration   . 
War  of  Reform  and  French  Intervention 
Federal  Constitution  of  1857 
Juarez's  Leadership 
Laws  of  Reform     .... 

French  Intervention  in  Mexico  and  Maximilian's  Rule 

Restoration  of  the  Repubh'c  . 

Diaz's  Leadership  ..... 

Civil  Wars  from  1868  to  1875 
Disappearance  of  the  Causes  of  Civil  War 
Conclusion      ...... 

Rulers  of  Mexico  from  the  Most  Remote  Period  up  to 
Time  ...... 

First  Period    ..... 

Before  the  Conquest  ;  Kingdom  of  Tula  (Tollan) 

Kingdom   of    the    Chichimecans    (afterwards   of 
huacan) 

Aztec  Kingdom 
Second  Period        .... 

From  the  Conquest  until  the  End  of  the  War  of  Inde 
pendence       .... 
Viceroys      ...... 

During  the  Reign  of  Charles  V. 

During  the  Reign  of  Philip  II. 

During  the  Reign  of  Philip  III. 

During  the  Reign  of  Philip  IV. 

During  the  Reign  of  Charles  II. 

During  the  Reign  of  Philip  V. 

During  the  Reign  of  Ferdinand  VI. 

During  the  Reign  of  Charles  III.    . 

During  the  Reign  of  Charles  IV.    . 

During  the  Reign  of  Ferdinand  VII. 
Third  Period 

After  the  Independence — The  Regency 

Empire    ...... 

Provisional  Government — Executive  Power 

Federal  Republic — Presidents 

Central  Republic     . 

Federal  Republic    . 

Central  Republic     . 

Federal  Republic    . 

Central  Republic — Dictatorship 


Contents.  xxvii 

PAGE 

Federal  Republic 376 

Revolutionary  Leaders  who,  without  Legal  Title,  Held 
Possession  of  the  City  of  Mexico  during  the  War 

of  Reform 376 

Administrations  Upheld  by  the  French   Invaders,  and 
who  Governed   in   the   Places  that  were  in   the 

Hands  of  the  Foreign  Army — Regency      .         .  377 

Mexican  Intervention  and  Napoleon's  Downfall    .         .         .  377 

Memorandum          .........  377 

Memorandum  by  Senor  Don  Luis  Maneyro,  Mexican  Consul 

at  Bordeaux          ........  379 

Addresses  on  the  Causes  of  the  Mexican  Revolutions  .         .         .  382 

Banquet  in  New  York  City  on  March  29,  1864      .         .         .  382 

Banquet  at  New  York  City  on  October  2,  1867      .         .         .  387 

Banquet  at  New  York  City  on  December  16,  1891         .         .  392 

Banquet  at  Boston  on  January  7,  1892 395 

THE  ANGLO-SAXON  AND  ROMAN  SYSTEMS  OF 

CRIMINAL  JURISPRUDENCE  .          .         .  401 

THE  ANGLO-SAXON   AND  ROMAN  SYSTEMS  OF  CRIMINAL 

JURISPRUDENCE 403 

The  Anglo-Saxon  and  Roman  Systems  of  Criminal  Jurisprudence,  404 

The  Jury  System    .........  405 

Lynch  Law     ..........  409 

The  Mexican  Jury  System     .         .         .         .         .         .         -411 

The  Old  Spanish  System  of  Criminal  Jurisprudence     .         .  412 

Right  of  Appeal 414 

Writ  of  Habeas  Corpus  and  Amparo 415 

Rights  Guaranteed  by  the  Mexican  Constitution  .         .         .  416 
Length  of  Trials  under  Both  Systems    .         .         .         .         -417 

Summary  Proceedings  under  the  Mexican  Constitution         .  417 

Mexican  Prisons     .........  418 

The  Common  Law  and  Roman  Civil  Jurisprudence      .         .  419 

Literal  Application  of  the  Law       ......  423 

Precedents  and  the  Common  Law          .....  423 

Conclusion      ..........  424 

Mr.  Godkin's  Opinions  on  the  Jury  System  ....  424 

Mistakes  of  Mr.  P.  M.  Smith  about  Judicial  Proceedings  in 

Mexico         .........  426 

THE  MEXICAN  FREE  ZONE    .         .         .  429 

THE  MEXICAN  FREE  ZONE    ....  43I 

The  Mexican  Free  Zone        ........  433 

Establishment  of  the  Free  Zone 434. 


XXVlll 


Contents, 


erse  to  the  Free 
ess  on  the  Free 

has  been  in  the 


Discussion  of  the  Free  Zone  in  the  Mexican  Congress 

Extension  of  the  Free  Zone  ..... 

Public  Opinion  in  Mexico  about  the  Free  Zone    . 

Right  of  Mexico  to  Establish  the  Free  Zone 

How  far  the  Free  Zone  Favors  Smuggling  into  the  United 
States  ........ 

Advantages  of  the  Free  Zone  to  the  United  States 

Disadvantages  of  the  Free  Zone  to  Mexico 

Action  of  the  United  States  Government  Adv 
Zone    ..... 

Adverse  Action  of  the  United  States  Congr 
Zone    ...... 

Reaction  in  Favor  of  the  Free  Zone 

United  States  Opposition  to  the  Free  Zone 
Way  of  its  Abolition    . 

The  Free  Zone  and  the  Hanseatic  Cities 

Conclusion     ...... 

Appendix  to  the  Mexican  Free  Zone    . 

President's  Message  of  March  i6,  1888,  on  the  Free  Zone 

List  of  Accompanying  Documents  .... 

Letter  from  Mr.  Romero  to  Mr.  Bayard  of  February  10,  1888, 

Letter  from  Mr.  Romero  to  Mr.  Bayard  of  February  14,  1888, 

Mr.  Crain's  Speech,  Delivered  in  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives on  February  27,  1895  . 

Mr.  Sutton's  Opinion  on  the  Free  Zone,  in  the  New  York 
Evening  Post  of  May  19,  1894 

LABOR  AND  WAGES  IN  MEXICO 

LABOR  AND  WAGES  IN  MEXICO 

Labor  and  Wages  in  Mexico 

Different  Theories  on  Wages 
A  Main  Factor  Regulating  Wages 
The  Mexican  Laborer    . 
Mexican  Peonage  .... 

Rate  of  Agricultural  Mexican  Wages 
Tabular  Statement  of  Daily  Wages 
in  Mexico  in  1891,  accordi 
from  the  Department  of  Public  Works  of  Mexico 
Mr.  Ransom's  and  Mr.  Crittenden's  Reports  on  Wages  . 

Tabular  Statement  of  Wages  per  Day  of  Agricultural 
Labor  in  1893 — Men     ...... 

Tabular  Statement  of  Mexican  Wages    .         .         .         . 

Low  Wages  in  Mexico    ........ 


Paid  to  Field  Hands 
iig  to  Data  Obtained 


513 
514 

514 

515 
516 


Contents.  xxix 

PAGB 

High  Wages  to  Skilled  Laborers    .         .         ,         .         .         .518 
Why  Mexican  Labor  is  Cheap        .         .         .         .         .         .519 

Difference  in  Amount  of  Work  Accomplished  by  Mexican 

and  American  Workmen      .  .         .         .         .  .521 

Low  Wages  Mean  High  Cost  of  Production  .         .         .         .522 

Use  of  Modern  Implements  and  Machinery  by  Mexicans      .     526 
Mexican  Wages  and  Silver     .         .         .         .         .         .         .528 

Transportation  in  Mexico       .......     531 

Cost  of  Living  in  Mexico,  from  Data  Taken  from  the  Depart- 
ment of  Public  Works  of  Mexico,  and  from  Reliable 
Data  Obtained  in  the  United  States    ....     532 

Prices  of  Wearing  Apparel  in  1896     .         .         .         .         -532 

Average  Prices  of  Commodities  in  Mexico  and  the  United 

States  in   1891     ........     533 

Retail  Prices  of  Food  Products  in  the  City  of  Mexico       .     533 
Retail  Prices  of  Food  Products  Consumed  in  Mexico  and 

Exported  in  1896,  according  to  Mr.  Ransom's  Report,     534 
Prices,  Wholesale  and  Retail,  of  Articles,  according  to  Mr. 

Crittenden's  Report .     535 

Prices  of  Mexican  Manufactures,  according  to  Mr.  Critten- 
den's Report 535 

Wholesale  Prices,  City  of  Mexico,  1886  and  1896,  Mexican 

Currenc)'-,  according  to  Mr.  Crittenden's  Report         .     536 

Report  of  Labor  Assembly 

Mexican  Labor  is  not  Organized   .... 

Feast  Days  in  Mexico    ...... 

Immigration  from  the  United  S,tates  into  Mexico 
Conclusion     ........ 


538 
539 
542 
542 
543 


Appendix  No.  1 544 

I.  Wages,  as  Comprised  in  Mr.  Ransom's  Report  on  Money 
and  Prices  in  Mexico,  Dated  at  the  City  of  Mexico 
on  September  26,  1896    ......     544 

Wages  Paid  in  the  City  of  Mexico  in  1896    .         .         .     544 
Wages  per  Day  in  the  Repubhc  of  Mexico  in  1896        .     545 
Wages   per   Day   in   Ten    Cotton   Factories — Ordinary 

Hands — ^in  1896      .......     545 

Wages  per  Day  Paid  to  Mexican  Cotton  Factory  Oper- 
atives according  to  their  Respective  Occupations 
in  1896    .........     546 

Wages  of  Railway  Employees         .  ...     546 

Wages  per  Day  Paid  to  Miners  in  the  Different  States  .     547 
Daily  Wages  of  Street-Car  Employees  in  the  City  of 

Mexico  in  1896 548 


Contents. 


II.  Cost  of  Living,  asComjirised  in  Mr.  Ransom's  Report  on 
Money  and  Prices  in  Mexico,  Dated  at  the  City  of 
Mexico  on  September  26,  1896     .         .         .         . 

Prices  of  Agricultural  and  Pastoral  Products  Exported 
in   1896  ........ 

Prices  of  Products  Consumed  in  the  Country  (Mexico), 

Comparative  Table  Setting  forth  the  Current  Prices  of 
Manufactures  and  Merchandise  for  the  Years 
Enumerated,  as  Published  by  the  Board  of  Com- 
mission Agents      ....... 

Prices  of  Goods  Manufactured  in  Mexico,  Wholesale  . 

Wholesale  Prices  per  Pound  in  Mexico  (Fourteen 
States),  

Prices  of  Commodities  in  Certain  Cities 
III.  Prices  and  Wages,  as  Comprised  in  Mr.  Ransom's  Report 
on  Money  and  Prices  in  Mexico,  Dated  at  the  City 
of  Mexico  on  September  26,  1896 

Tabular  Statement  of  Prices  and  Wages  at  Variou 
Points  in  Mexico  ...... 

Appendix  No.  II. 

Opinions  of  American  Statesmen  on  Wages  as  Affecting  the 
Cost  of  Production      ....... 

THE  SILVER  STANDARD  IN  MEXICO  . 

The  Silver  Standard  in  Mexico     ...... 

Introduction       ......... 

Senator  Morgan's  Request  for  Information   . 

Paper  Prepared  for  the  North  American  Revic7v    . 

Senator  Allen's  Request  for  Information 

How  the   Paper  Published  by  the  North  American  Review 

was  Quoted  ....... 

President  Diaz's  Views  on  Silver   ..... 

The   Silver  Question  Became  the  Leading  Political  Ques 

tion  in  the  United  States     ..... 
Newspaper    Agents  Sent  to    Mexico    to    Study    the    Silver 

Question      ........ 

Comments  on  the  SiU'er  Standard  in  Mexico 

Mr.  Kennedy's  Misstatement  about  the  Value  of  the  Mex 

ican  Dollar  and  about  the  Mexican  Debt    . 
Official  Declarations  of  Mexico  on  the  Monetary  Question 
Mexican  Opinion  Favorable  to  the  Silver  Standard 
The  Natural  Ratio  and  the  World's  Production  of  Precious 

Metals 


549 

549 
549 


550 
550 

550 
551 


551 
551 
555 

555 

559 
561 

561 
561 

563 
564 

564 
566 

568 

568 

570 

573 
574 
576 

578 


Contents, 


England  and  Silver         ........     582 

The  United  States  and  Silver  from  a  Mexican  Standpoint    .     585 

Mexico  and  the  Gold  Standard 5S6 

Mexico  and  the  Ratio  between  Silver  and  Gold    ..         .         .591 

Important  Papers  on  Silver  Printed  by  the  United  States 

Senate  .........     591 

The  Paper  as  Published  in  the  North  American  Review        .     592 

The  Silver  Standard  in  Mexico.      (The  Main  Paper.)       .         .     593 
No  Possible  Comparison  between  Mexico  and  the  United 

States  ......,.,     593 

Reasons  why  Mexico  has  the  Silver  Standard  .  .  .  594 
Advantages  of  the  Silver  Standard  to  Mexico  .  .  .  595 
Disadvantages  of  the  Silver  Standard  to  Mexico  .  .  .  604 
Conditions  Resulting  in  Mexico  from  the  Silver  Standard  .  608 
Conclusion      .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .611 

Appendix. 

1.  M.  Romero's  Remarks  before  the  American  International 

Monetary  Conference  on  the  Position  of  Mexico  on 

the  Monetary  Question        .         .         .         .         .         .613 

2.  List  of  Papers  Bearing  on  the  Silver  Question  Printed  by 

Order  of  the  Senate     .         .         .         .         .         .         .615 

3.  Loss  of  Mexican  Roads  in  Reducing  their  Earnings  to 

Gold    .         .         . 619 


THE  PAN-AMERICAN  CONFERENCE  OF  1889     .     621 


The  Pan-American  Conference  of  1889 
Introduction       ...... 

The  Pan-American  Conference  of  1889  . 
Act  Convening  the  Conference 
Fears  of  the  Spanish-American  Nations 
Personnel  of  the  Conference 
Difficulties  Growing  out  of  the  Use  of  Different  Languages, 
Reported  Agreement  between  the  Latin-American  Countries, 
Jealousy  Among  the  South  American  Nations 
Preliminary  Meeting  of  the  Conference 
Election  of  Mr.  Blaine  as  President 
Question  of  Precedence  among  the  Delegates 
Formal  Opening  of  the  Conference 
The  Excursion  of  the  Delegates  . 
Election  of  Two  Vice-Presidents  . 
Right  of  Delegates  to  Express  Personal  Opinions 
Appointment  of  Committees 


623 

623 

627 

627 

630- 

632 

^Zl 

635 
636 

638 

638 

640 

640 

640 

641 

644 

645 


Contents. 


Rules  of  the  Conference         .......  645 

Mr.  William  E.  Curtis    ........  647 

Senor  Don  Fidel  G.  Pierra     .......  648 

Arbitration 650 

Mexico  on  the  Treaty  of  General  Arbitration        .         .         .  656 

Reciprocity  Treaties 658 

Lasting  Results  of  the  Conference         .....  662 

Intercontinental  Railway  Project  ......  662 

Monetary  Union    .........  665 

Commercial  Bureau  of  American  Republics  .         .         .  667 

The  Montevideo  Treaties      .......  668 

Commercial  Nomenclature    .......  669 

Discussion  of  Other  Subjects  by  the  Conference  .         .         .  670 

Final  Results  of  the  Conference    ......  670 

Conclusion      ..........  672 

Appendix. 

1.  Act  of  May  24,  1888,  Convening  the  American  Interna- 

tional Conference         . 673 

2.  List  of  Delegates,  Secretaries,  and  Attaches     .         .         .  674 

3.  List  of  Committees    ........  676 

4.  Ex-Senator  Henderson  and  the  Arbitration  Project  of  the 

Pan-American  Conference 679 

A.  Plan  of  Arbitration  Submitted  to  the  International 

American  Conference  by  the  Members  from  Ar- 
gentina and  Brazil        ......  681 

B.  Arbitration  Project  Submitted  by  Mr.  Henderson  to 

the  Committee  of  General  Welfare  on  February 

19,  1890        ........  682 

5.  Facsimile  Copy  of  the  Amendments  Made  by  Mr.  Blaine 

to  First  Page  of  the  Argentine  Plan  of  Arbitration     .  684 

6.  Plan  of  Arbitration   Reported  by  the  Committee  to  the 

Conference  .........  685 

7.  Resolutions  on  Right  of  Conquest  Reported  to  the  Con- 

ference by  the  Committee   ......  687 

8.  Treaty   of    Arbitration  Signed  by  the   Delegates  to  the 

Pan-American  Conference  ......  688 

I.  Arbitration  Treaty 688 

II.  Recommendation    to    European    Powers   to   Accept 

Arbitration  .  ......  690 

III.  Recommendation  Regarding  the  Right  of  Conquest  690 
-9.  Recommendation  Adopted  by  the  Pan-American  Confer- 
ence  on    April    10,    1890,    in    Favor  of   Reciprocity 

Treaties        .........  690 


Contents.  ^xxiii 


PACK 


692 


10.  Recommendation  of  the  Pan-American  Conference  Ap- 

proved on  February  26,  1898,  on  Railway  Communi- 
cation .....•••• 

11.  Mr.  Blaine's  Report  to  the  President,  Containing  the  Rec- 

ommendations of  the  International  American  Con- 
ference of  April  7,  1890,  on  the  Meeting  of  an  Ameri- 
can International  Monetary  Union  ....     693 

12.  Censure  of  a  Mexican   Delegate  by  the  Mexican  Press 

and  a  Prominent  Mexican  Writer    . 

13.  M.  Romero's  Answer  to  Senor  Pierra's  Attacks 

Senor  Pierra's  Personality 

His  Appointment  as   Spanish   Secretary  of  the   Con 

ference     ....•■•• 

Mr.  Pierra's  Resignations 

Efforts  to  Retain  Mr.  Pierra  as  Secretary      . 

Mr.  Pierra's  Imputations 

Efforts  to  Avoid  Misunderstandings  among  the  Dele 

gates .         ■ 

Alleged  Subsidy  of  New  York  Papers  by  M.  Romero 

Mr.  Sutton's  Memorandum 

Conclusion     .....••• 


694 
696 
696 

697 
697 
699 

699 


700 
701 
701 
701 


SUPPLEMENT  TO  THE  FREE  ZONE  PAPER. 

Supplement  to  the  Free  Zone  Paper     ...•••     7^2 
Foreign  Commodities  Imported  into  the  Free  Zone  in  the 

Two  Fiscal  Years  Ending  June  30,  1897  .         .     70^ 

Action  of  the  55th  Congress  on  the  Free  Zone       .         •         .704 

Joint  Resolution  introduced  in  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives, 55th  Congress,  2d  Session,  on  March  20, 
1897,  by  Mr.  Cooper,  to  Repeal  the  Joint  Resolution 
of  March  i,  1895 704 

Letter  from  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  on  January 
26,  1898,  to  the  Chairman  Committee  on  Ways  and 
Means,  House  of  Representatives,  Expressing  Views 
on  Mexican  Free  Zone 704 

Joint  Resolution  Introduced  in  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives, 55th  Congress,  2d  Session,  on  January 
31,  1898,  by  Mr.  Slayden,  Repealing  the  Joint 
Resolution  of  March  i,  1895 7^5 

Resolution  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  55th  Con- 
gress, 2d  Session,  of  February  16,  1898,  Asking  the 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury  to  Report  whether  Frauds 
are  Committed  by  the  Mexican  Free  Zone      .         .     7°^ 


Contents, 


Report  of  the  Treasury  of  March   ii,  1898,  on  Smug- 
gling which  can  be  Carried  on  by  Way  of  Free  Zone,     706 

Report  of  the  Committee  on  Ways  and  Means  of  the 
House  of  Representatives,  55th  Congress,  2d  Ses- 
sion, on   Free  Zone  of  Mexico,  presented  by  Mr. 
Grosvenor  on  March  11,  1898.         ....     708 
The  House  of  Representatives  Repeals  tlie  Joint  Resolution 

of  March  i,  1895      .......     709 

LIST  OF  PRESIDENT'S  MESSAGES  SENT  TO  CON- 
GRESS DURING  THE  PERIOD  OF  FRENCH  IN- 
TERVENTION, FROM  1861  TO  1867.  Prepared  by  Mr 
Clifford  Warren,  Assistant  Librarian  of  the  United  States 
Senate    .......... 


INDEXES      .... 

Geographical  and  Statistical  Notes  on  Mexico     . 
Historical  Notes  on  Mexico  ...... 

The  Anglo-Saxon  and    Roman   Systems  of   Criminal    Jurispru 
dence      .......... 

The  Mexican  Free  Zone        ....... 

Labor  and  Wages  in  Mexico         ...... 

The  Silver  Standard  in  Mexico  ..... 

The  Pan-American  Conference  of  1889         .... 


712 

725 

725 
731 

740 

743 
748 
751 

754 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PACB 


Facsimile  of  Autograph  Letter  of  Abraham  Lincoln     .  x 

Map  of  the  Valley  of  Mexico,  Showing  the  Canal  and 

Tunnel 274 

Drainage  of  the  Valley  of  Mexico — Longitudinal  Sec- 
tion OF  the  Main  Canal 276 

Vertical  Section  of  the  Tunnel 278 


GEOGRAPHICAL  AND  STATISTICAL  NOTES 
ON  MEXICO 


GEOGRAPHICAL  AND  STATISTICAL 
NOTES  ON  MEXICO.' 


(Corrected  to  June  jo,  iSgy.) 

FOR  a  long  time  past  I  have  felt  the  need  of  a  short  treatise  con- 
taining geographical  and  statistical  information  about  Mexico, 
to  answer  the  many  queries  received  on  that  subject  by  the  Mexican 
Legation  in  Washington.  A  statistical  abstract  about  Mexico,  such  as 
most  nations  publish  every  year,  is  greatly  needed,  especially  now 
when  the  attention  of  business  men  and  young  men  is  awakening  to  the 
possibilities  of  Mexico.  It  was  partly  with  the  purpose  of  supplying 
that  need  that  I  prepared  this  article,  which  will,  I  hope,  at  least  serve 

'  This  article  first  appeared  in  the  Bulletin  of  the  American  Geographical  Society 
of  New  York  oi  December  31,  1896.  A  club  of  the  City  of  Washington  requested 
me,  in  January,  1888,  to  deliver  a  lecture  on  Mexico,  and,  as  I  had  not  time  to  prepare 
one,  I  consented  to  give  an  informal  talk  on  the  subject,  which  I  did  on  January  i6th 
of  that  year.  Most  of  my  talk  was  taken  down  by  a  stenographer,  and  was  the  basis 
of  the  article  which  appeared  in  the  Bulletin  of  the  American  Geographical  Society 
of  N^ew  York.  That  Society  did  me  the  honor  of  electing  me  one  of  its  honorary 
members,  at  the  request  of  Honorable  Frederick  A.  Conkling,  on  January  25,  1870, 
and  I  have  ever  since  felt  that  I  owed  it  a  debt  which  I  could  only  pay  by  sending  it 
a  contribution  about  Mexico.  The  pressure  of  my  official  duties  in  Washington  on 
the  one  hand,  and  my  inability  to  treat  properly  the  many  subjects  connected  with  a 
description  of  Mexico,  added  to  the  difficulty  of  compressing  them  into  a  few  pages  ; 
on  the  other,  delayed  that  work  much  longer  than  I  desired  or  expected.  I  have 
added  considerably  to  this  article  in  the  present  edition,  especially  in  that  part  which 
embraces  statistical  information  about  Mexico,  and  I  am  sure  that  in  so  far  as  concerns 
the  fulness  of  that  information  and  the  most  recent  data,  my  article  stands  above  any 
previous  publication  on  the  subject. 

I 


2       (^eoarapbical  anD  Statistical  IRotes  on  /Rejico* 

to  call  attention  to  that  country,  and  awaken  a  desire  for  reading  other 
and  better  monographs  and  books  on  Mexico  written  by  more  com- 
petent men.  I  have  borrowed  from  the  descriptions  of  others,  espe- 
cially in  what  appears  under  the  heading  of  Geology,  Orography,  and 
Fauna. 


PART  I. 

GEOGRAPHY 


1.    GEOGRAPHY. 


LOCATION,  BOUNDARIES,  AND    AREA. 

Location. — Mexico  is  situated  between  14°  30'  42'  and  32°  42'  north 
latitude,  and  between  %(i°  46'  8"  and  117°  7'  31"  89  longitude  west 
of  the  meridian  of  Greenwich,  embracing  therefore  18°  11'  18"  of 
latitude  and  30°  21'  23"  89  of  longitude.  It  has  an  area  of  767,326 
square  miles.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  United  States  of 
America,  on  the  southeast  by  Guatemala  and  Belize,  on  the  south  and 
west  by  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  on  the  north  and  east  by  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  and  the  Carribean  Sea. 

Boundary  with  the  United  States. — The  boundary  with  the  United 
States  is  fixed  by  the  treaties  of  February  2,  1848,  and  December  30, 
1853,  and  begins  at  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  Grande  River  on  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico,  follows  the  river  for  11 36  miles,  to  the  point  where  it  strikes 
parallel  31°  47'  north  latitude,  beyond  El  Paso,  Texas,  and  from 
there  runs  along  said  parallel  for  a  distance  of  one  hundred  miles,  and 
thence  south  to  parallel  31°  20'  north  latitude ;  from  there  west 
along  this  parallel  as  far  as  the  iiith  meridian  of  longitude  west  of 
Greenwich  ;  thence  in  a  straight  line  to  a  point  on  the  Colorado  River, 
twenty  English  miles  below  the  junction  of  the  Gila  ;  thence  up  the 
middle  of  the  said  River  Colorado  to  the  intersection  with  the  old  line 
between  Upper  and  Lower  California,  and  thence  to  a  point  on  the 
Pacific  Ocean,  distant  one  marine  league  due  south  of  the  southern- 
most point  of  the  Bay  of  San  Diego  on  the  Pacific  ;  the  total  distance 
from  El  Paso  to  the  Pacific  being  674  miles.  The  whole  extent  of  the 
boundry  line  between  the  two  countries  is  1833  miles. 

The  boundary  line  with  the  United  States  runs  from  southeast  to 
northwest,  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  Grande  being  in  25°  57'  14"  74"'  north 
latitude  ;  while  the  line  reaches  on  the  Pacific  latitude  32°  32'  x"  34"'  ; 
the  point  where  the  boundary  line  strikes  the  Colorado  River  is  farther 
north,  reaching  32°  42'  of  north  latitude.  Mexico  has,  therefore,  on 
the  western,  or  Pacific  side,  6°  34'  46"  20"'  of  latitude  more  than  on  the 
eastern  or  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  side. 


6  (Beograpbical  IKlotes  on  /IDejico. 

Boundary  rvith  Guatemala. — The  boundary  with  Guatemala  is  fixed 
by  the  treaties  of  September  27,  1882,  and  April  i,  1895,  and  runs  from 
a  point  on  the  Pacific  coast  three  leagues  distant  from  the  upper  mouth 
of  the  River  Zuchiate,  and  thence,  following  the  deepest  channel 
thereof,  to  the  point  at  which  it  intersects  the  vertical  plane  which 
crosses  the  highest  point  of  the  volcano  of  Tacana,  and  distant  twenty- 
five  miles  from  the  southernmost  pillar  of  the  gate  of  Talquian,  leav- 
ing that  gate  in  the  territory  of  Guatemala  ;  the  determinate  line  by 
the  vertical  plane  defined  above  until  it  touches  the  River  Zuchiate  at 
the  point  of  its  intersection  with  the  vertical  plane  which  passes  the 
summit  of  Buenavista  and  Ixbul ;  the  determinate  line  by  the  vertical 
plane  which  passes  the  summit  of  Buenavista,  determined  by  the  astro- 
nomical observations,  and  the  summit  of  the  Ixbul  hill  from  where  it 
intersects  the  former  to  a  point  four  kilometres  beyond  said  hill  ; 
thence  to  the  parallel  of  latitude  which  crosses  the  last-named  point, 
and  thence  eastward  until  it  reaches  the  deepest  channel  of  the  Chixoy 
up  to  its  junction  wdth  the  Usumacinta  River,  following  that  river 
until  it  reaches  the  parallel  situated  twenty-five  kilometres  to  the  south 
of  Tenosique  in  Tabasco,  to  be  measured  from  the  principal  square  of 
that  town  ;  the  parallel  of  latitude  referred  to  above,  from  its  inter- 
section with  the  deepest  channel  of  the  Usumacinta,  until  it  intersects 
the  meridian  which  passes  at  one  third  of  the  distance  between  the 
centres  of  the  Plazas  of  Tenosique  and  Sacluc,  this  distance  being 
calculated  from  Tenosique  ;  from  this  meridian,  from  its  intersection 
with  the  parallel  above  mentioned  to  the  latitude  of  17°  49'  ;  and  from 
the  intersection  of  this  parallel  with  the  latter  meridian  indefinitely 
toward  the  east. 

The  southern  end  of  the  Guatemalan  line  on  the  Pacific  is  in  14°  24' 
north  latitude,  while  the  northern  end,  on  the  Caribbean  Sea,  is  in  17° 
49'  north  latitude,  being  a  difference  of  3°  25'  in  favor  of  the  latter. 
The  calculated  length  of  the  southern  boundary  is  642  miles. 

Boundary  with  Belize. — To  the  southeast  of  Yucatan  extends  the 
territory  of  Belize,  occupied  by  a  British  settlement  under  a  permit 
granted  to  them  by  the  Spanish  Government  to  cut  wood  within  the 
limits  mentioned  in  the  treaty  concluded  between  the  Kings  of  Great 
Britain  and  Spain  on  November  3,  1783,  and  amended  on  July  14, 
1786. 

British  Honduras,  according  to  Mr.  George  Gil,  F.R.G.S.,  in  his 
book,  *'  British  Colonies,"  published  in  London  in  1896,  was  declared 
a  separate  colony  of  Great  Britain,  under  a  Lieutenant-Governor  sub- 
ordinate to  the  Governor  of  Jamaica,  in  the  year  1862,  previous  to 
which  time  it  had  been  a  dependency  of  Jamaica,  In  1884  a  Governor 
and  Commander-in-Chief  was  appointed,  by  Letters  Patent,  and  thus 
the  colony  became  independent  of  Jamaica.    On  April  30,  1859,  Great 


Xocatlon,  Boundaries,  an&  Hrea,  7 

Britain  signed  a  treaty  with  Guatemala,  within  whose  boundaries 
most  of  British  Honduras  was  situated,  defining  the  boundary  of  that 
colony. 

The  limits  between  Mexico  and  Belize  are  defined  by  a  treaty  signed 
at  the  City  of  Mexico  on  July  8,  1893,  as  follows  :  "  Beginning  at  Boca 
Bacalar  Chica,  the  strait  which  separates  the  State  of  Yucatan  from  the 
Ambergris  Cay  and  its  dependent  isles,  the  boundary-line  runs  in  the 
centre  of  the  channel  between  the  above-mentioned  cay  and  the  main- 
land, southwestward  as  far  as  the  parallel  18°  9'  north,  and  then  north- 
west midway  between  two  cays,  as  marked  on  the  annexed  map  (to  the 
treaty),  as  far  as  the  parallel  of  18°  10'  north  ;  then  turning  to  the  west- 
ward, continues  across  the  adjoining  bay,  first  westward  to  the  meridian 
of  88°  2'  west,  then  north  to  the  parallel  18°  25'  north,  again  westward 
to  the  meridian  88°  18'  west,  and  northward  along  that  meridian  to 
latitude  18°  28^^'  north,  in  which  is  situated  the  mouth  of  the  River 
Hondo,  which  it  follows  in  its  deepest  channel,  passing  west  of  Albion 
Island,  continuing  up  Blue  Creek  until  the  said  creek  crosses  the 
meridian  of  Garbutt's  Falls  at  a  point  due  north  of  the  point  where  the 
boundary  lines  of  Mexico,  Guatemala,  and  British  Honduras  intersect ; 
and  from  that  point  it  runs  due  south  to  latitude  17°  49'  north,  the 
boundary-line  between  the  Republics  of  Mexico  and  Guatemala,  leav- 
ing to  the  north,  in  Mexican  territory,  the  so-called  River  Snosha,  or 
Xnohha." 

Cession  of  Mexican  Territory  to  the  United  States. — Mexico  has  ceded 
to  the  United  States,  by  the  treaty  of  Guadalupe-Hidalgo  of  February 
2,  1848,  and  the  Gadsden  Treaty  of  December  30,  1853,  930,590  square 
miles,  comprising  over  one-half  of  her  former  territory.  The  same 
cession  is  considered  in  the  United  States  under  three  heads — first 
under  the  boundary  treaty  signed  in  Washington  on  April  25,  1838, 
between  the  United  States  of  America  and  the  Republic  of  Texas, 
under  which  Texas  was  annexed  to  the  United  States  in  1845;  second, 
under  the  cession  of  the  Guadalupe-Hidalgo  Treaty,  and  the  third 
under  the  Gadsden  Treaty. 

As  Mexico  did  not  recognize  the  independence  of  Texas  until  the 
treaty  of  Guadalupe-Hidalgo  was  signed,  we  consider  that  she  only 
gave  her  consent  to  that  annexation  by  said  treaty,  and  therefore  that  the 
cession  of  territory  made  then  to  the  United  States  embraced  also  Texas. 

Mr.  S.  W.  Lamoreaux,  former  Commissioner  of  the  General  Land 
Office,  published  in  1896  a  map  of  the  United  States,  which  contained 
in  detail  the  different  sections  of  territory  annexed  to  the  same  in  dif- 
ferent periods  from  France,  Spain,  Mexico,  and  Russia,  where  the 
Mexican  annexations  are  clearly  defined.  From  official  data  of  that 
office,  I  take  the  following  figures  representing  the  area  of  each  of 
the  Mexican  cessions  : 


8  (Beoorapbical  IHotes  o\\  /iDejico. 

First,  annexation  of  Texas,  which  embraces  in  whole  or  in  part  the 
following  States  and  Territories  : 

Sq.  Miles. 

Texas 265,780 

Colorado,  in  part 18,000 

Kansas,  in  part 7,766 

New  Mexico 65,201 

Oklahoma 5,74° 

Total 362,487 

Second,  cession  by  the  Guadalupe-Hidalgo  Treaty,  em- 
bracing in  whole  or  in  part  the  following  States  and  Terri- 
tories : 

Sq.  Miles. 

Arizona 82,381 

California 157,801 

Colorado,  in  i)art 29,500 

Nevada 11 2,090 

New  Mexico 42,000 

Utah 84,476 

Wyoming,  in  part 14,320 

Total 522,568 

Third,  cession  by  the  Gadsden  Treaty,  containing  ad- 
ditions to  the  following  Territories  : 

Sq.  Miles. 

Arizona 3i»535 

New  Mexico 14,000 

Total 45,535 

Grand  Total  in  Square  Miles 930,590 

General  Characteristics. — Mexico  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  the 
long  curve  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  by  the  Caribbean  Sea,  and  its 
eastern  coast  is  1727  miles  long;  on  the  west  it  is  washed  by  the 
Pacific  Ocean,  its  coast  describing  the  arc  of  a  still  larger  circle,  for  a 
length  of  4574  miles  ;  but  after  passing  the  latitude  of  the  City  of 
Mexico,  about  the  meridian  19°  of  north  latitude,  going  south,  the 
continent  makes  a  decided  turn  towards  the  east,  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
forming  the  northern  border,  and  the  Pacific  Ocean  the  southern 
border. 

Mexico  has  the  shape  of  a  cornucopia,  with  its  narrowest  end 
tapering  toward  the  southwest,  its  convex  and  concave  sides  facing 


location,  Boundaries,  ant)  Hrea.  9. 

the  Pacific  and  the  Atlantic,  respectively,  and  its  widest  end  toward 
the  north,  or  the  United  States.  I  look  forward  to  the  time,  which  I 
do  not  think  far  distant,  considering  our  continuity  of  territory  to  the 
United  States  and  our  immense  elements  of  wealth,  wlien  we  shall  be 
able  to  provide  the  United  States  with  most  of  the  tropical  products, 
such  as  sugar,  coffee,  tobacco,  india-rubber,  etc.,'  which  they  now  im- 
port from  several  other  countries. 

The  widest  portion  of  Mexico  is,  therefore,  its  northern  extremity, 
or  its  boundary  with  the  United  States.  The  narrowest  point  is  the 
Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec,  about  one  hundred  miles  from  one  ocean  to 
the  other  ;  and  after  passing  it  the  country  expands  again  to  the  south- 
east towards  Yucatan  and  Chiapas  until  it  reaches  the  boundary  with 
Guatemala  and  Belize. 

Yucatan  resembles  but  little  in  its  configuration  Mexico  proper,  as 
it  is  a  level  country  formed  by  coral  reefs  and  beds,  and  whose  ruins 
show  it  to  have  been  the  seat  of  a  high  civilization  and  an  advanced 
people. 

Although  the  greater  part  of  Mexico  is  on  the  North  American  con- 
tinent proper,  as  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  divides  North  from  South 
America,  a  large  portion  of  it  lies  in  Central  America.  Geographically 
speaking.  Central  America  is  the  portion  of  North  America  embraced 
between  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec  and  Panama,  and  of  this  vast 
territory  Mexico  holds  about  one-third.  In  a  paper  published  in  the 
Bulletin  of  the  American  Geographical  Society  of  Ne7V  York,  of  March 
31,  1894,  I  dealt  especially  with  this  subject.  * 

The  broken  surface  of  Mexico  formerly  made  travelling  there  very 
difficult,  for  which  reason  the  country  was  but  little  known,  even  by 
Mexicans  themselves,  as  its  configuration  did  not  allow  of  the  building 
of  good  roads,  and  to  travel  any  considerable  distance  it  was  necessary 
to  go  by  mule  paths,  without  comfortable  inns,  and  running  great  risks, 
owing  to  the  disturbed  condition  of  the  country.  It  required,  there- 
fore, time,  expense,  endurance,  and  an  object  in  view  to  travel  widely 
there.  I  was  always  desirous  of  knowing  as  much  as  possible  of  the 
country,  and  I  have  made  long  trips,  many  of  them  on  horseback, 
solely  for  the  purpose  of  studying  certain  regions,  and  I  think  that 
before  the  railway  era,  I  was  perhaps  one  of  the  Mexicans  who  knew 

'  In  his  iVoies  on  Mexico,  Lempriere,  a  distinguished  traveller  and  historian,  says: 
"  The  merciful  hand  of  Providence  has  bestowed  on  the  Mexicans  a  magnificent  land, 
abounding  in  resources  of  all  kinds — a  land  where  none  ought  to  be  poor,  and  where 
misery  ought  to  be  unknown — a  land  whose  products  and  riches  of  every  kind  are 
abundant  and  as  varied  as  they  are  rich.  It  is  a  country  endowed  to  profusion  with 
every  gift  that  man  can  desire  or  envy  ;  all  the  metals  from  gold  to  lead  ;  every  sort 
of  climate,  from  perpetual  snow  to  tropical  heat,  and  of  inconceivable  fertility." 

^  A  copy  of  that  paper  is  appended  to  this  article. 


lo  ©eograpbical  IRotes  on  /IDejico. 

most  of  the  country  and  who  could,  therefore,  most  clearly  realize  the 
difficulty  of  knowing  it  thoroughly.  From  this  it  can  be  readily  under- 
stood how  difficult  it  would  be  for  a  foreigner,  without  any  previous 
knowledge  of  the  country  and  ignorant  of  its  language,  to  know  it  by 
a  few  days'  sojourn  there.  Yet  many  travellers  who  have  been  in 
Mexico  only  a  few  days  write  about  it  on  their  return  home,  just  as  if 
they  knew  it  perfectly,  making  necessarily  many  serious  and  sometimes 
laughable  mistakes. 

The  natural  beauties  of  Switzerland  are  well  known  ;  but  to  me  that 
country  is  hardly  to  be  compared  with  Mexico,  as  everything  in  Mexico 
is  on  a  much  grander  scale.  In  the  latitude  in  which  Switzerland  is 
situated  the  snow  line  is  quite  low,  and,  therefore,  most  of  the  peaks  of 
the  Swiss  mountains,  while  not  so  high  as  the  Mexican  mountains,  are 
covered  with  perpetual  snow,  which  embellishes  the  country,  and  which, 
melting  in  summer,  supplies  the  beautiful  lakes  of  that  country  with 
fresh  water.  Therefore,  only  in  the  beauty  of  many  snow  peaks, 
beautiful  fresh-water  lakes,  good  roads,  and  fine  hotels  has  Switzerland 
the  superiority  over  Mexico. 

Historians,  travellers,  and  writers  of  the  present  day  compare  Mexico 
with  Egypt.  There  is  no  doubt  that  between  the  legends  and  romance 
with  which  the  history  of  each  of  these  countries  abounds  there  is  a 
striking  resemblance.  The  pyramids  and  ancient  relics  in  the  form  of 
buildings,  images,  and  undeciphered  hieroglyphics  on  stones,  coins, 
etc.,  found  in  both  countries,  all  contribute  to  the  general  belief  that, 
centuries  ago,  the  people  of  Mexico  and  Egypt  were  connected  by 
some  tie,  were  in  some  way  of  the  same  race  and  had  the  same  ideas. 
To-day  in  Mexico,  the  manner  of  living,  of  cultivating  the  soil,  and 
many  other  peculiarities  in  the  manners  and  customs  of  the  Mexican 
people  forcibly  remind  the  traveller  of  Upper  and  Lower  Egypt.' 

'  In  a  very  bright  article  about  Mexico  by  Mr.  Charles  Dudley  Warner,  published 
in  Harper's  Illustrated  Monthly  Magazine  for  June,  1897, 1  find  the  following  sentence 
supporting  my  assertion  : 

"  In  the  cities  he  is  reminded  of  Spain,  and  often  of  Italy  (since  the  Catholic  Church 
prevails),  but  in  the  country  and  in  small  towns  the  appearance  is  Oriental,  or  rather 
Egyptian.  This  resemblance  to  Egypt  is  due  to  the  color  or  colors  of  the  inhabitants, 
to  the  universal  use  of  the  donkey  as  a  beast  of  burden,  to  the  brown  adobe  walls  and 
mud  huts  covered  with  cane,  to  the  dust  on  the  foliage,  the  clouds  of  dust  raised 
in  all  the  highways,  and  to  a  certain  similarity  of  dress,  so  far  as  color  and  rags  can 
give  it,  and  the  ability  of  men  and  women  to  squat  all  day  on  the  ground  and  be 
happy." 

Mr.  Theodore  W.  Noyes,  of  Washington,  in  a  descriptive  article  on  Mexico,  pub- 
lished in  December,  1895,  makes  the  following  parallel  between  Mexico  and  Egypt : 

"  .  .  .  The  Egyptian  shaduf  finds  its  counterpart  in  the  well  sweep  of  Irapuato 
where  strawberries  are  grown  and  sold  every  day  in  the  year,  and  where  irrigation  is 
resorted  to,  systematized,  and  on  a  grand  scale.     In  the  absence  of  trees  and  rocks 


I 


Xocation,  Boun&aries,  anb  Hrea,  n 

I,  myself,  although  I  have  only  visited  Lower  Egypt,  and  that  as  a 
tourist  in  a  very  hasty  manner  and  for  a  very  few  days,  was  greatly 
struck  by  the  great  similarity  that  I  found  between  the  two  countries 
and  between  the  habits  of  the  native  Egyptian  and  the  Mexican  In- 
dians. The  Egyptian  plows  are  used  by  the  Mexican  Indians,  and 
they  are  drawn  in  Mexico  as  in  Egypt  by  oxen  whose  yokes  are  fast- 
ened to  their  horns,  while  in  other  countries  they  are  fastened  on  their 
necks.  Several  of  the  agricultural  products  of  Egypt  and  Mexico  are 
exactly  the  same,  and  the  way  in  which  foods  are  prepared  in  both 
countries  is,  too,  very  similar  ;  and  I  also  found  similar  traits  and 
race  characteristics  between  the  Egyptian  Copts  and  some  tribes  of 
the  Mexican  Indians. 

The  great  difference  between  Egypt  and  Mexico  is  that  Mexico 
lacks  "  irrigation,"  which  has  made  Egypt — that  small  corner  of  the 
earth — the  most  remarkable  and  productive  country  in  the  world. 
Owing  to  the  great  stretch  of  latitude  from  the  Rio  Grande  to  the 
Guatemala  boundary,  everything  that  grows  in  Egypt,  and  in  fact  in 
any  other  part  of  the  world,  can  be  ]iroduced  in  Mexico  by  the  aid  of 
irrigation. 

the  Egyptian  shaduf  is  small,  is  composed  of  prepared  timbers,  and  the  counterpoise 
to  the  well  bucket  is  an  immense  chunk  of  dried,  hardened  Nile  mud.  The  Mexican 
shaduf  utilizes  a  forked  tree  and  swings  across  it  a  long  tapering  tree  trunk  or  branch, 
and  the  counterpoise  consists  of  a  large  sink  stone  or  mass  of  stones  fastened  together. 
Although  Mexico  stretches  farther  south  than  Egypt,  the  two  countries  lie,  generally 
speaking,  between  the  same  parallels  of  latitude,  but  the  altitude  of  Irapuato  is  5000 
feet  above  the  sea-level  of  the  Nile,  so  that  the  same  degree  of  undress  is  not 
expected  or  found  in  the  Mexicans  as  in  the  Egyptian  shaduf  workers.  I  saw,  how- 
ever, in  the  neighborhood  of  Irapuato  two  Indians  at  well  sweeps  working  side  by  side 
who  were  dressed  only  in  white  cotton  loin  cloths,  who  looked  like  the  twin  brothers  of 
shaduf  workers  whom  I  have  seen  photographed  on  the  Nile.  .  .  .  The  water- 
carrier  of  Cairo  is  much  like  his  brother  of  Guanajuato,  where  a  long  earthen  jar  is 
used.  The  groups  about  the  fountains  with  jars  of  water  bodily  borne  on  the  women's 
heads  or  on  a  protecting  turban-like  ring,  or  balanced  on  the  men's  shoulders,  are  also 
Oriental.     Com  is  ground  between  two  stones  in  Asiatic  fashion. 

"  Egyptian  sand  spouts  are  common.  Also  Egyptian  types  of  domestic  utensils 
of  pottery.  The  Mexican  woman  with  a  baby  at  her  back  securely  fastened  in  the 
reboso,  which  throws  the  infant's  weight  on  the  mother's  shoulders,  is  to  be  compared 
with  the  Egyptian  woman  whose  reboso  covers  her  face  while  the  child  straddles  her 
shoulders,  holding  to  her  head  and  leaving  her  hands  unfettered  as  in  the  Mexican 
fashion.  There  are  no  Egyptian  camels,  but  even  more  numerous  donkeys,  the  patient 
burros.  The  Indian  villages,  either  of  adobe  or  bamboo,  the  thatched  roofs  and  organ 
cactus  fences,  and  alive  with  goats,  donkeys,  or  snarling  curs,  are  African  in  effect. 
There  Aztecs  picture  writings  resemble  the  Egyptian,  the  paper  being  made  from  the 
maguey  instead  of  the  papyrus.  The  Aztecs  employed  captives  on  great  public  works 
as  in  Egypt.  Mexico  thus  has  pyramids  with  much  broader  base  than  those  of  Egypt, 
though  not  nearly  so  high,  and  idols  quite  as  ugly.  Gold  ornaments,  beads,  and  other 
highly  prized  antiquities  are  found  in  the  tombs  as  in  Egypt." 


12  6eotjrapbical  IRotcs  on  /IDejico. 

GEOLOGY. 

The  geology  of  Mexico  has  been  but  imperfectly  studied.  In  the 
higher  ranges  the  prevailing  formations  are  granite,  which  seem  also 
to  form  the  foundations  of  the  plateaus,  above  which  rise  the  traps, 
basalts,  mineral-bearing  porphyries,  and  more  recent  lavas.  Hence^ 
Lyell's  theory  that  Mexico  consisted  originally  of  granite  ranges  with 
intervening  valleys  subsecpiently  filled  up  to  the  level  of  the  plateaus 
by  subterranean  eruptions.  Igneous  rocks  of  every  geologic  epoch  cer- 
tainly form  to  a  large  extent  the  superstructure  of  the  central  plateau. 
But  the  Mexican  table-land  seems  to  consist  mainly  of  metamorphic 
formations  which  have  been  ]:)artly  upheaved,  partly  interpenetrated, 
and  overlaid  by  igneous  masses  of  all  epochs,  and  which  are  chiefly 
represented  by  shales,  greywacke,  greenstones,  silicious  schists,  and 
especially  unfossiliferous  limestones.  All  these  formations  are  alike 
remarkable  for  the  abundance  and  variety  of  their  metalliferous  ores, 
such  as  silver,  silver  glance,  copper,  and  gold.  Gneiss  and  micaceous 
schists  prevail  in  Oaxaca  and  on  all  the  southern  slopes  facing  both 
oceans.  But  the  highest  ranges  are  formed  mainly  of  plutonic  and 
volcanic  rocks,  such  as  granites,  syenites,  diorites,  mineral-bearing 
trachytes,  basalts,  porphyries,  obsidian,  pearlstone,  sulphur,  pumice, 
lavas,  tufa,  and  other  recent  volcanic  discharges.  Obsidian  (itzli)  was 
the  chief  material  formerly  used  by  the  natives  in  the  manufacture  of 
their  cutting  implements,  as  shown  by  the  quarries  of  the  Cerro  de  las 
Navajas  (Knife  Cliff),  near  Real  del  Monte  and  Pachuca  in  the  State 
of  Hidalgo.  Vast  deposits  of  pumice  and  the  purest  sulphur  are  found 
at  Huichapam  and  in  many  of  the  craters.  But  immeasurably  the 
most  valuable  rocks  are  the  argentiferous  porphyries  and  schists  of 
the  central  plateau  and  of  Sinaloa,  unless  they  are  destined  to  be 
rivalled  by  the  auriferous  deposits  of  Sonora,  Horizontal  and  strati- 
fied rocks,  of  extremely  limited  extent  in  the  south,  are  largely  devel- 
oped in  the  northern  states,  and  chalk  becomes  very  prevalent  towards 
the  Rio  Grande  and  Rio  Gila  valleys.  To  this  chalk  and  to  the  sand- 
stones are  probably  due  the  sandy  plains  which  cover  vast  tracts  in 
North  Mexico,  stretching  thence  far  into  New  Mexico  and  Texas. 
Here  the  Bolson  de  Mapimi,  a  vast  rocky  wilderness  inhabited  until 
recently  by  wild  tribes,  occupies  a  s|)ace  of  perhaps  50,000  square 
miles  in  Coahuila  and  parts  of  the  surrounding  States. 

None  of  the  horizontal  layers  seem  to  be  very  rich  in  ores,  which 
are  mainly  found  in  the  metamorphic,  palaeozoic,  and  hypogene  rocks 
of  Durango,  Chihuahua,  and  the  south.  Apart  from  Sinaloa  and 
Sonora,  which  are  now  known  to  contain  vast  stores  of  the  precious 
metals,  nearly  all  the  historical  mines  lie  on  the  south  central  plateau  at 
elevations  of  from  5500  to  9500  feet.  A  line  drawn  from  the  capital  to 
Guanajuato,  and  thence  northwards  to  the  mining  town  of  Guadalupe 


y  Calvo  of  Chihuahua,  and  southwards  to  Oaxaca,  thus  cutting  the 
main  axis  of  upheaval  at  an  angle  of  45°,  will  intersect  probably  the 
richest  known  argentiferous  region  in  the  whole  world. 

Of  other  minerals  the  most  important  are  copper,  found  in  a  pure 
state  near  the  city  of  Guanajuato,  and  associated  with  gold  in  Chihua- 
hua, Sonora,  Guerrero,  Jalisco,  Michoacan,  and  elsewhere  ;  iron  in 
immense  masses  in  Michoacan  and  Jalisco,  and  in  Durango,  where  the 
Cerro  del  Mercado  is  a  solid  mountain  of  magnetic  iron  ore  ;  lead 
associated  with  silver,  chiefly  in  Oaxaca  ;  tin  in  Michoacan  and  Jalisco  ; 
sulphur  in  many  craters  ;  platinum,  recently  found  in  Hidalgo  ;  cin- 
nabar, also  recently  found  in  Morelos  and  Guerrero  ;  "  steppe  salt  "  in 
the  sandy  districts  of  the  north  ;  "  bitter  salt "  at  Tepeyac  and  many 
other  places  ;  coal  at  various  points  ;  bismuth  in  many  parts  ;  marble, 
alabaster,  gypsum,  and  rock-salt  in  great  abundance  throughout  the 
plateaus  and  the  sierras. 

MINING. 

Mexico  is,  perhaps,  the  richest  mining  country  in  the  world,  and 
the  production  of  silver — notwithstanding  the  imperfect  methods 
and  other  drawbacks  with  which  it  has  contended — represents  over 
one-third  of  the  product  of  the  world,  according  to  official  statis- 
tics. Almost  all  the  mountains  of  Mexico  are  of  the  metalliferous 
character,  but  those  which  seem  richest  in  mining  deposits  are  the 
western  cordillera,  extending  from  the  State  of  Oaxaca  to  Sonora,  a 
distance  of  about  1600  miles  from  northwest  to  southeast. 

Humboldt  gave  as  his  opinion  that  Mexico  would  be  "  the  treasure 
house  of  the  world."  Subsequent  history  has,  in  a  great  measure,  con- 
firmed the  opinion  of  the  great  savant  of  his  time.  Still  a  more  con- 
servative authority  has  quite  lately  asserted  that  only  one-tenth  of 
the  mining  resources  of  Mexico  is  known.  This  last  estimate,  I  am 
sure,  is  inside  rather  than  outside  of  the  facts.  Mexico  has  always 
been  considered  the  great  silver  producer,  and,  considering  her  area, 
and  taking  the  century  as  a  measure,  she  is  the  greatest  silver  producer 
of  the  world. 

Silver. — The  central  group  of  mines  in  the  three  mining  districts  of 
Guanajuato,  Zacatecas,  and  Catorce,  in  the  States  of  Guanajuato,  Zaca- 
tecas  and  San  Luis  Potosi,  which  have  yielded  more  than  half  of  all 
the  silver  heretofore  found  in  Mexico,  lies  between  21°  and  24°  30'  N., 
within  an  area  of  about  13,000  square  miles.  Here  the  Veta  Madre 
lode  of  Guanajuato  alone  produced  $252,000,000  between  1556  and 
1803. 

In  the  beginning  of  this  century  Humboldt  found  two  Guanajuato 
mines — the  famous  "  Conde  de  Valenciana  "  and  the  "  Marques  de 
Rayas  " — producing  annually  550,000  marks,  4,400,00c  ounces,  of  silver. 


14  GeoGrapbical  IRotes  on  /iDejico. 

one-seventh  or  one-eighth  of  the  entire  American  output.  From  Janu- 
ary I,  1787,  to  June  II,  1 791,  the  Valenciana  yielded  13,896,416  ounces 
of  silver,  its  ore  averaging  a  little  over  100  ounces  to  the  ton.  Though 
flooded,  this  fine  old  mine  is  still  far  from  exhausted. 

Gold  occurs  chiefly,  not  on  the  plateau  in  association  with  silver, 
but  on  the  slopes  facing  the  Pacific,  and  apparently  in  greatest  abun- 
dance in  Sonora,  near  the  auriferous  region  of  Lower  California.  The 
production  would  have  been  larger  if  an  improved  process  of  reducing 
the  metals  had  been  used,  but  during  the  whole  colonial  period  and  up 
to  the  present  time,  we  have  used  the  patio  system,  which  consists  in 
grinding  the  ore,  stirring  it  until  it  is  reduced  to  a  fine  dust  and  mixing 
it  then  with  salt  and  copper  amalgam  ;  after  the  paste  dries  somewhat, 
salt  is  added  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  silver  supposed  to  be  in  the 
ore  ;  the  material  is  then  mixed  with  shovels  and  trodden  by  mules,  and, 
after  a  day  or  two,  another  mixture  of  copper,  vitriol,  and  salt  is  added  ; 
after  that  it  is  mixed  and  trodden  again  ;  then  quicksilver  is  finally 
added,  and  then  more  mixing  and  treading.  This  process  is  repeated 
from  five  to  fifteen  times  until  the  silver  and  quicksilver  unite  to  form 
an  amalgam,  which  is  gathered  into  bags,  and  that  requires  about  forty 
days.  Most  of  the  quicksilver  is  squeezed  out  and  the  rest  is  evapo- 
rated and  run  off  into  tubs.  This  method  saves  50  or  60  per  cent,  of 
rich  ore  and,  besides  being  very  long,  is  rather  imperfect,  as  it  leaves  a 
great  deal  of  silver  in  the  ore,  and  only  rich  ores  could  be  treated  by  it  ; 
but  it  was  on  the  whole  the  easiest  and  cheapest. 

Some  of  the  old  mines  were  worked  until  finally  they  became  so  deep 
that,  with  the  methods  then  used,  as  buckets  were  employed  instead  of 
pumps,  and  steam  had  not  been  employed  as  power,  it  was  impossible 
to  drain  them.  Naturally  in  a  deep  mine  the  water  flows  in  from 
springs,  and  the  deeper  a  mine  becomes  the  more  water  it  has.  These 
mines  were  worked  until  it  was  seen  that  it  was  impossible  to  drain 
them,  and  then  they  were  abandoned,  even  though  they  were  rich  in 
metals.  During  our  war  of  independence  almost  all  the  mines  were 
abandoned  for  the  want  of  guarantee  to  life  and  property,  and  the 
mining  industry,  therefore,  declined  considerably  ;  but  recently  the  old 
mines  have  been  worked  again  and  the  production  of  silver  has  in- 
creased very  considerably.' 

'  Mr.  J.  A.  R.  Waters  of  the  firm  of  Waters  Bros.,  Mining  Engineers  of  the  City 
of  Mexico,  said  of  his  visit  to  the  Jesus  Maria  District  of  the  State  of  Chihuahu,  where 
he  went  to  examine  the  mine  worked  by  the  Pinos  Altos  Co.,  as  follows  : 

"  The  district  is  very  thoroughly  mineralized  and  is  pierced  by  veins  more  frequently 
than  any  district  I  ever  saw.  The  general  formation  is  very  similar  to  that  of  Cripple 
Creek,  with  the  exception  that  it  is  not  traversed  by  the  great  porphyry  dikes  that  occur 
there  and  in  other  parts  of  Colorado.  The  country  formation  is  largely  braccia.  The 
ore  is  generally  free  milling,  and  is  treated  with  stamps  and  pan  amalgamation,  the 
finer  ores  being  treated  with  Huntington  mills.     There  is  little  waste  of  values." 


/IDining*  15 

Real  del  Mofite  Company. — It  would  be  interesting  to  refer  briefly  to 
the  ups  and  downs  of  one  of  the  mining  enterprises  of  Mexico — the 
Real  del  Monte — as  a  typical  case  which  exemplifies  what  has  happened 
with  many  other  of  our  mines,  namely,  that  sometimes  they  yield  large 
profits,  and  soon  afterwards  they  cause  tremendous  losses.  The  Real 
del  Monte  is  located  about  three  miles  from  Pachuca,  a  large  mining 
centre  and  the  capital  of  the  State  of  Hidalgo,  distant  about  sixty  miles 
southeast  of  the  City  of  Mexico. 

In  1739,  a  Biscayan,  by  the  name  of  Don  Pedro  Jose  Romero  de  Ter- 
reros,  came  from  Santander  and  settled  in  Queretaro.  He  acquired 
a  fortune  of  $60,000  in  a  small  store  in  1749,  closed  up  his  affairs,  and 
started  to  return  to  his  native  land.  On  reaching  Pachuca  he  met  an 
old  mining  friend,  Don  Jose  Alejandro  Bustamante,  who  called  his 
attention  to  the  Real  del  Monte.  In  company  with  Bustamante  he 
staked  out  the  Biscaina,  Santa  Brigida,  and  Guadalupe  mines  and  began 
to  get  the  water  out,  but  they  soon  exhausted  their  united  funds.  How- 
ever, they  succeeded  in  raising  money  in  the  City  of  Mexico  on  hard 
terms  and  drained  their  properties  by  a  tunnel,  which  started  at  Moran, 
on  the  northern  slope  of  the  mountains,  and,  running  9000  feet  through 
hard  porphyry  rock,  struck  the  vein  at  a  depth  of  600  feet.  This  was 
accomplished  a  few  years  later  in  1759.  Bustamante  by  this  time  had 
died,  but  Terreros  continued  the  work.  On  striking  the  vein  he  drained 
it,  and  in  1760  began  the  erection  of  the  Hacienda  de  Regla,  to  work 
the  rich  ore  he  was  taking  out.  He  took  out  $15,000,000  at  a  small 
cost,  repaid  his  advances,  built  and  presented  to  the  King  of  Spain 
a  man-of-war  and  4700  bars  of  silver,  for  which  he  was  created  Conde 
de  Regla.  He  lived  in  grand  style  in  the  City  of  Mexico,  and  built  a 
palatial  residence  on  Cadena  Street. 

He  died  in  1781,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  the  second  Conde, 
who  from  1774  to  1783  struggled  with  the  water,  which,  as  depth  was 
attained,  was  very  severe  ;  according  to  Ward,  twenty-eight  horse-whims 
were  employed  in  the  drainage  at  great  expense  and  unsuccessfully. 
However,  they  had  gotten  down  to  324  feet  below  the  Moran  adit  on 
the  Biscaina  vein  in  the  Guadalupe  and  Santa  Teresa  shafts.  The 
production  was  $400,000  per  year,  drainage  costing  $250,000  per 
year,  and  sinking  was  abandoned,  and  the  work  was  confined  to 
drifting  above  water  level. 

From  iSoi  to  1809,  $300,000  per  year  was  taken  out,  but  the  cost 
of  extraction  was  severe.  Humboldt  visited  the  property,  and  in  iSio 
the  war  of  independence  broke  out,  and  all  operations  were  suspended. 
Meanwhile  the  water  rose  and  the  Moran  tunnel  caved  in,  and  so 
allowed  the  water  to  rise  to  an  enormous  height,  and  the  district  went 
to  rack  and  ruin. 

In  1822  the  Conde's  administrator,  Don  Ignacio  Castelazo,  made  a. 


i6  Geoorapbical  Botes  on  /IDcjico. 

report,  and  by  his  Italian  mining  friend,  Rivafinoli,  sent  it  to  the 
Conde,  who  was  living  in  England. 

That  country  was  only  too  anxious  to  reap  for  themselves  some  of 
the  spoils  that  Spain  had  gleaned  from  Mexican  mines.  Here  was 
their  opportunity,  many  became  interested,  and  the  celebrated  mining 
expert  of  that  day,  Mr.  John  Taylor,  the  founder  of  the  present  Lon- 
don firm  now  so  heavily  interested  in  South  Africa,  Taylor  Bros.,  was 
sent  to  make  an  examination,  and  in  1824  the  English  Real  del  Monte 
Company  was  formed  on  the  following  terms  : — The  company  leased 
the  mines  and  haciendas  for  twenty-one  years  :  ist.  The  capital  in- 
vested was  to  be  returned  from  the  products  of  the  mines  with  interest ; 
2d.  The  Conde  was  then  to  have  one-half  of  the  remaining  proceeds 
yearly  ;  3d.  Meanwhile  he  was  to  receive  $16,000  per  year  as  an  ad- 
vance against  his  portion  or  anticipated  profits.  In  case  of  failure  of 
this  third  clause  the  lease  would  be  cancelled  and  everything  revert  to 
the  Conde.  As  the  outlay  amounted  to  over  $5,000,000  and  no  profit 
ensued,  it  amounted  to  a  rent  of  $16,000  per  year. 

In  1824  Captain  Vetch,  of  the  Royal  Engineers,  was  sent  out  as 
manager.  He  brought  three  ships  filled  with  one  thousand  tons  of 
machinery,  pumps,  etc.,  and  after  untold  trials  in  transportation  and 
erection,  finally  got  them  to  their  destination.  All  this  was  done  by 
English  engineers,  machinists,  miners,  and  workmen,  nearly  all  Cor- 
nishmen,  under  the  direction  of  Colonel  Colquhoun,  a  Peninsular 
veteran,  who  finally  died  of  yellow  fever  with  over  fifty  of  his  men. 
After  unheard-of  troubles  they  got  everything  by  1826  safely  landed 
in  the  Real  del  Monte.  The  magnitude  of  the  task  may  be  understood 
when  the  almost  roadless  condition  of  the  country  is  considered,  and 
the  bringing  up  of  the  machinery  from  the  coast  was  a  splendid  exam- 
ple of  British  tenacity  and  pluck. 

Captain  Vetch  had  now  cleaned  out  the  Moran  adit  and  the  Dolores 
shaft,  and  the  machinery  was  at  once  erected.  The  stock  now  rose 
from  $500  to  $8000  per  share.  The  Conde  had,  in  the  meanwhile, 
borrowed  money  from  the  company  and  made  the  twenty-one-year 
lease  perpetual,  the  annual  rent  of  $16,000  remaining  in  force. 

By  1829  Captain  Vetch  had  grappled  with  the  water  question,  and 
with  an  annual  cost  of  $30,000  had  accomplished  what  the  first  Count 
had  paid  $250,000  for,and  extracted  metal  324  feet  below  the  Moran  adit. 

Captain  Tindall,  R.  E.,  succeeded  Captain  Vetch,  and  a  new  shaft 
(1830)  was  commenced  on  the  Santa  Teresa  and  called  the  Terreros 
shaft.  It  was  1140  feet  to  the  vein  and  was  started  at  four  points,  and 
was  connected  in  1S34  by  drifts  run  from  several  levels,  and  then 
raised  and  sunk  on.  The  work  came  out  as  true  as  if  it  had  been 
done  from  the  surface,  thanks  to  the  correctness  of  the  plans  of  the 
English  mine  surveyors. 


/IDining.  17 

A  54-inch  engine  was  erected,  and  with  it  they  sank  to  720  feet 
below  the  Moran  adit.  At  this  point  water  overpowered  them.  This 
was  in  1838,  and  Captain  John  Rule,  who  had  succeeded  Captain  Tin- 
dall,  put  in  a  75-inch  engine  at  Dolores,  and  removed  the  54-inch  one 
to  Acosta.  Captain  Rule  enjoyed  a  salary  of  ^10,000  per  year,  and 
all  other  payments  were  in  proportion.  He  struck  two  bunches  of 
rich  ore,  one  on  the  Santa  Brigida,  near  Acosta,  and  the  other  on  La 
Biscains,  near  Dolores.  From  these  two  and  one  at  Torreros  they 
had  produced  $10,481,475  at  a  cost  of  $15,381,633  or  nearly  $5,000,000 
loss  in  twenty-three  years.  By  1846  the  stock  had  fallen  to  $12.50 
from  $8000  a  share. 

In  1848,  Mr,  J.  H.  Buchan  arrived,  representing  the  English  stock- 
holders. He  found  water  in  the  mines  and  increasing  ;  a  heavy  debt 
of  $5,000,000,  bearing  a  tremendous  interest ;  no  money  on  hand  and 
no  ore.  So  in  October,  1848,  by  order  of  the  bondholders  he  turned 
over  the  business  to  a  Mexican  company — the  present  one — composed 
of  Manuel  Escandon,  Antonio  and  Nicanor  Beistegui,  Mr.  Mackintosh, 
and  others  for  the  paltry  sum  of  $130,000.  The  haciendas,  stock,  and 
ores  on  hand  were  worth  millions,  but  the  English  company  could  not 
dispose  of  them. 

This  was  the  end  of  the  famous  English  Real  del  Monte  Company. 
Their  Mexican  successors  reduced  expenses,  completed  the  adit  from 
Omotitlan  commenced  by  the  first  Conde,  which,  running  13,500  feet, 
cut  the  mines  mo  deeper  and  struck  immediately  the  bonanza  in  the 
Rosario,  which  tradition  says  had  previously  been  discovered  and 
covered  up  by  Captain  Rule. 

Neiv  Mines,  Topia. — We  have  now  a  great  many  districts  that  were 
not  known  by  the  Spaniards  and  have  recently  been  discovered.  No- 
table among  them  is  the  Sierra  Mojada  district  in  the  State  of  Coahuila. 
The  State  of  Durango  has,  on  the  west  slope  of  the  Sierra  Madre 
mountains,  the  mining  camps  of  Toi)ia,  Sianori,  Birimoa,  Gusanillas, 
Canelas,  Ventanos,  El  Pando,  Rodeo,  and  San  Fernando  ;  and  with 
the  exception  of  San  Fernando  they  are  close  together,  a  square,  one  of 
wliose  sides  is  forty  miles,  would  almost  cover  them  all.  This  section 
has  all  the  elements  to  form  the  basis  of  a  great  mining  and  smelting 
centre,  as  is  evident  by  the  great  deposits  of  galena  in  the  Topia  dis- 
trict ;  in  fact,  this  is  the  only  place  on  the  coast  where  lead  ore  is 
found  in  abundance  ;  and  smelting,  if  done  at  all,  must  rely  on  Topia 
for  its  supply  of  lead  ores.  In  no  otiier  part  of  Mexico  are  lead  ores 
so  cheap,  because  of  the  fact  that  to  realize  on  them  at  all  they  must 
be  transported  on  mule-back  to  Culiacan  in  the  State  of  Sinaloa.  a  dis- 
tance of  106  miles,  at  a  rate  of  $26.40  silver  per  ton,  and  from  there 
by  rail  to  Altata,  a  distance  of  thirty-nine  miles  ;  and  from  Altata  by 
steamer  to  San  Francisco,  or  to  Guaymas,  and  thence  by  rail  to  the 


VOL.    I. — 2 


i8  (3eoGrapbical  TFlotes  on  /IDejico. 

smelters  in  the  United  States,  very  much  at  the  same  cost.  La 
Liona  mine  of  this  district  is  a  very  rich  mine,  its  vein  being  almost 
vertical,  and  is  tapped  from  both  sides  of  the  mountain,  with  tunnels 
at  right  angles  to  the  vein.  Where  the  tunnels  intersect  the  vein,  the 
vein  is  driven  on  in  both  directions  from  the  tunnels  ;  stopes  are 
opened,  and  chutes  for  ore  are  put  in  every  seventy-five  feet.  The 
vertical  distance  between  the  tunnels  is  125  metres.  This  mine  can 
easily  produce  one  thousand  tons  per  month  of  clean  galena,  and 
would  produce  that  much  metal  if  there  was  a  market  for  it. 

There  are  other  mines  as  large  and  perhaps  better  than  La  Liona,  as, 
for  instance,  La  Madrugada  mine,  formerly  owned  by  Santa  Fe  Railroad 
employees,  but  now  controlled  by  Mr.  Charles  Miller,  of  Franklin,  Pa., 
connected  with  the  Standard  Oil  Company.  Topia  is  a  great  dry-ore 
camp  as  well.  One  thousand  tons  of  dry  ores  can  easily  be  mined 
there  per  month,  were  there  a  market  for  them,  such  as  a  commercial 
smelter  located  centrally  to  treat  the  ores  of  this  and  adjoining  districts. 
Such  smelter  would  have  the  advantage  of  an  inexhaustible  supply  of 
good  water  the  year  round,  fine  iron  ore,  and  limestone  for  fluxes. 

At  Topia  there  are  four  mills  for  the  treatment  of  zincy  ores,  and 
dry  ores  assaying  below  one  hundred  ounces  silver  per  ton.  The 
lixiviation  process  by  hyposulphite  of  soda  is  employed  in  the  four 
mills  or  haciendas,  two  of  them  employ  occasionally  the  patio  process 
as  well.  Two  of  the  mills  and  two  mines  are  lighted  by  electricity  ; 
the  dynamo  that  furnishes  light  for  one  of  the  mills  and  both  of  the 
mines  is  driven  by  water  power.  Below  the  mills  operated  by  water 
power,  there  is  sufficient  fall  and  sufficient  water  to  furnish  the  power 
to  operate  compressed-air  drills  in  all  the  large  mines. 

The  other  mining  camps  of  this  district,  although  not  so  well  devel- 
oped as  Topia,  are  also  in  process  of  development  and  in  a  very  good 
condition.  Velardeiia  is  also  in  the  State  of  Durango,  but  on  the  otlier 
or  eastern  side  of  the  mountains,  and  is  located  in  a  comparatively  new 
district,  where  the  previous  owners  had  failed.  Mr.  James  F.  Mathews 
purchased  the  Velardena  property,  erected  a  smelter  after  the  Interna- 
tional Railroad  Company  had  extended  their  main  line  from  Torreon 
to  the  city  of  Durango,  passing  near  the  mine,  and  from  the  beginning 
has  run  five  of  the  six  furnaces  almost  continuously.  During  1896  the 
Velardena  smelter  smelted  on  an  average  175  tons  of  ore  per  day. 

Zi  Hu7ig  Chang  and  the  Afexican  Silver  Mines. — When  Li  Hung 
Chang,  the  Chinese  Viceroy,  was  in  Washington,  in  August,  1896,  he 
inquired  of  me  about  the  production  of  the  Mexican  mines,  and  I,  trying 
to  be  conservative,  informed  him  that  they  produced  about  $50,000,- 
000  a  year.  He  then  inquired  how  long  they  would  continue  yielding 
that  amount.  I  answered  that  it  was  uncertain,  but  that,  judging  from 
present  appearances,  it  could  safely  be  said  that  it  might  be  for  one 


/IDinino,  19 

hundred  years.  This  seemed  incredible  to  him,  and  he  said  that  I  had 
been  so  long  absent  from  Mexico — for  he  had  previously  asked  me  how 
long  I  had  been  in  this  country — I  could  not  know  the  real  wealth  and 
abundance  of  our  mines,  and  lie  was  very  positive  that  I  had  made  a 
mistake.  He  assured  me  that  the  silver  mines  in  China  yielded  occa- 
sionally something,  but  soon  were  exhausted,  and  it  was  impossible  to 
get  any  silver  out  of  them,  and  judging  the  Mexican  silver  mines  from 
those  he  had  seen  at  home,  he  was,  of  course,  incredulous  as  to  their 
yield. 

Some  years  ago,  and  when  the  Mexican  mines  only  yielded  about 
$20,000,000  a  year,  I  predicted  that  their  annual  yield  would  reach 
$100,000,000,  and  that  prediction  is  about  being  verified,  as  the  present 
product  exceeds  $60,000,000. 

Gold. — Gold  was  used  freely  in  Mexico  before  the  Spanish  con- 
quest, and  history  teaches  us  how  Cortez  induced  Montezuma  to 
deliver  to  him  his  gold  treasury. 

As  soon  as  Mexico  was  conquered,  Bernal  Diaz  del  Castillo,  one  of 
the  cotemporary  historians,  tells  us  that  Cortez  inquired  very  carefully 
about  the  place  where  the  Indians  obtained  their  gold,  whether  there 
were  placers,  mines,  or  washings,  and  his  agents  were  taken  to  some 
localities  in  the  State  of  Oaxaca,  where  they  were  told  was  the  gold 
supply,  but,  whether  the  Indians  concealed  the  real  location  of  the 
gold  deposits,  or  for  other  reasons,  the  Spaniards  did  not  obtain  much 
gold.  I  have  known  recently  of  unavailing  efforts  having  been  made 
of  persons  from  the  United  States  who  have  tried  to  ascertain  the 
localities  where  the  Indians  obtained  their  gold,  that  is — the  places 
which  were  shown  to  Cortez  in  Oaxaca  as  gold  deposits. 

There  is  a  river  in  the  State  of  Guerrero  which  flows  over  a  coun- 
try with  hills  abundant  in  gold  formation,  which  carries  nuggets  that 
the  natives  find  without  any  difficulty,  and  it  is  called  for  that  reason 
the  Gold  River.  That  river  passes  over  some  mountains  where  gold 
is  found,  and  then  comes  to  a  place  where  a  natural  dam  is  formed, 
and  the  gold  carried  by  the  washings  in  the  rainy  season  sinks  when 
reaching  that  place,  and  every  indication  shows  that  there  must  be  a 
very  large  deposit  of  gold  there.  A  military  engineer  suggested,  the 
last  time  I  was  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  in  Mexico,  that  the  bed  of 
the  river  be  changed  by  the  Mexican  Government,  a  work  which  did 
not  present  serious  obstacles,  and  thus  allow  excavations  to  be  made 
and  the  gold  deposits  found.  It  was  thought  advisable  to  make  some 
preliminary  examinations  in  the  way  of  boring,  and  for  that  purpose 
the  necessary  orders  were  issued  to  send  soldiers  there,  but  I  under- 
stand the  project  was  given  up  and  nothing  was  accomplished.  I  have 
no  doubt  that  at  some  future  time  that  matter  will  be  taken  up,  and  a 
great  deal  of  gold  will  be  found  there. 


20  Oeoorapbical  Botes  on  /IDejlco. 

Our  production  of  gold  has  so  far  been  comparatively  small,  be- 
cause the  mining  and  reduction  of  gold  are  more  difficult  and  expensive 
than  the  same  operations  in  silver,  and  our  gold  production  has  really 
been  the  amount  of  gold  vvhicli  has  been  found  in  our  silver.  For 
many  years,  when  the  amount  was  small,  it  was  not  separated,  and  for 
that  reason  old  Mexican  dollars  have  in  China  greater  value  than  newly 
coined  ones;  but  recent  improvements  have  made  it  easy  and  cheap  to 
make  the  separation  of  the  two  metals.  Now  that  gold  has  risen  so 
much  in  value,  its  mining  is  beginning  to  be  developed  in  Mexico  on  a 
comparatively  large  scale,  and  I  have  no  doubt  that  before  long 
Mexico  will  be  one  of  the  largest  gold  producers  of  the  world. 

Mexico  is  an  undeveloped  country,  in  fact  there  are  parts  of 
Mexico  as  unknown  as  was  Central  Africa  a  few  years  back.  From 
the  Sonora  gold  district,  south,  on  the  west  side  of  the  Sierra  Madre, 
to  the  State  of  Oaxaca,  there  is  a  gold  belt  as  rich  as  California,  Alaska, 
and  South  Africa  combined.  It  is  known  that  in  the  State  of  Sinaloa 
there  are  gold  placers  and  gold  washings,  and  that  they  are  also  found 
in  every  State  from  there  south  on  the  line  of  this  belt.' 

The  gold  output  of  Sonora,  now  beginning  to  attract  attention,  is 
only  the  first  contribution  of  Mexico  to  the  world's  stock  of  the  yellow 
metal.  The  west  side  of  the  Sierra  Madre  has  a  belt  rich  in  gold,  and 
when  the  Avorld  discovers  this  fact  capital  will  flock  to  Mexico  to  dig 
it  out,  and  Mexico  will  become  one  of  the  first  gold  producers  of  the 
world,  as  she  has  been  in  silver. 

Specimens  of  "  float  "  rich  in  gold  have  been  brought  from  the  State 
of  Guerrero.  These  indications  of  gold  have  not  been  followed  up, 
because  no  one  has  been  progressive  enough  to  advance  the  means 
necessary  to  pros])ect  this  belt.  To  i)rospect  in  a  country  where  often 
water  fit  to  drink  must  be  carried,  where  food  for  man  and  beast  must 
be  carried,  and  where  in  many  places  roads  must  be  cut  with  machete 
and  axe,  cannot  be  done  without  the  spending  of  money  in  outfit  and 
expenses. 

The  principal  gold-producing  States  will  be  Sonora,  Sinaloa,  Guer- 
rero, and  Oaxaca,  but  in  all  of  them  gold-mining  is  yet  in  its 
beginning. 

'  I  take  from  a  report  of  Mr.  Cramer,  a  mining  engineer  sent  to  Mexico  by  the 
Geological  Society  of  Washington,  D.  C,  as  Commissioner  to  explore  the  gold  fields  of 
that  Republic,  the  following,  which  refers  to  only  one  of  the  many  new  gold  fields  that 
are  being  found  there  : 

"  There  exists  an  extensive  '  gold  placer '  situated  about  thirty  miles  from  Durango 
in  the  mountain  devoid  of  vegetation  ;  the  rock  that  is  found  in  greater  quantities  is 
porphyry.     I  estimate  that  one  ton  of  ore  will  yield  at  least  $50  of  gold. 

"  Gold  is  found  all  over  the  mountain,  though  in  such  imperceptible  filaments 
that  it  is  hard  to  recognize  it  with  the  naked  eye  ;  however,  every  piece  of  stone  con- 
tains the  same  proportion  of  gold." 


/IDininG. 


21 


Coinage  of  the  Precious  Metals. — Mexico  has  produced  about  one- 
half  of  the  silver  supply  of  the  world.  In  the  statistical  portion  of  this 
paper  I  shall  give  full  details  of  the  production  of  gold  and  silver  in 
Mexico,  coinage,  etc.,  and  here  I  will  only  append  the  total  coinage  of 
gold,  silver,  copper,  and  nickel  according  to  official  statistics  of  the 
Mexican  Government,  which  is  the  following  : 

COINAGE    OF    MEXICO    FROM     THE     ESTABLISHMENT     OF    THE    MINTS    IN 
1537    TO    THE    END    OF    THE    FISCAL    YEAR    OF    1896. 


COLONIAL   EPOCH. 

Unmilled    coin    from     1537 

to  1731 

Pillar  coin  1732  to  1771 

Bust  coin  1772  to  1821 


INDEPENDENCE. 

Iturbide's  Imperial  Bust 
from  1822  to  1823....... 

Republic  from  1824  to 
June  30,  1896 


$  8,497,950  00 
19,889,014  00 
40,391-447  00 


$  68,778,411  00 


%       557,392  00 
55,748,559  50 


%  56,305,951  50 


Total    coinage    from    1537 
to   June  30,  i8g6 


$125,084,362  50 


$  752,067,456  54 
441,629,211  45 
888,563,989  45 


$2,082,260,657  44  $  542,893  37 


$  200,000  oo[ :$  760,765,406  54 

1   461,518,225  45 


342,893  37 


$      18,575,569  69 
1,247,289,651  59 


$1,265,865,221  28 


$3,348,125,878  72 


$6,511,350  36 


$6,511,350  36 


$7,054,243  73 


929,298,329    hi 

$2,151,581,961  St 


$   19,132,961  69 
$4,000,0001  1,313,549,501  45 


$4,000,000  $1,332,682,533  14 


$4,000,000  $3,484,264,484  95 


SUMMARY. 

Colonial  Epoch 1537  to  1S21 12,151,581,961.81 

Independence 1821  to  1896 1,332,682,523, 14 

Total $3,484,264,484  95 

Iron. — Iron,  the  most  useful  of  all  the  metals,  is  found  in  such  vast 
abundance  in  Mexico  that,  could  it  be  even  partially  utilized,  that  Re- 
public would  become  one  of  the  wealthiest  of  modern  communities. 
One  of  the  largest  mines  was  discovered  by  Gines  Vazquez  del  Mer- 
cado,  in  Durango,  in  1562,  and  its  appellation  of  "  Cerro  del  Mercado" 
still  preserves  his  name.  The  hill,  which  is  4800  feet  long  by  1100  feet 
in  width  and  640  feet  in  height,  is  almost  a  solid  mass  of  mineral,  aver- 
aging about  seventy  per  cent,  of  metal  and  from  which  could  be  ex- 
tracted more  than  300,000,000  tons  of  solid  ore  ;  this  only  to  the  level  of 
the  plain,  beneath  which  it  probably  extends  to  an  unknown  depth. 

The  iron  is  also  magnetic  to  a  high  degree  and  its  power  is  greater 
when  the  grain  is  fine.  This  may  delay  fusion,  but  the  result  is  an  ex- 
cellent wrought  iron,  with  none  of  the  inconveniences  caused  by  earthy 
substances  mixed  with  the  iron.  I  have  no  doubt  that  when  tlie  coal 
mines  are  developed  the  iron  industry  will  make  great  strides  and 
that  we  will  be  able  to  manufacture  most  of  at  least  the  low  grades  of 
the  iron  goods  required  for  our  comsuinjjtion.  In  several  other  places 
besides  our  Iron  Mountain  we  have  iron  with  very  little  phosphorus, 
which  makes  first-class  steel  and  is  as  good  as  the  best  produced  in 
Cuba  or  Sjjain. 


22  (Beoorapbical  Botes  on  /IDejico. 

The  deposits  of  iron  in  Mexico  are  sufficient  to  supply  the  universe 
for  centuries  to  come.  There  is  but  one  thing  lacking,  and  that  thing 
is — cheap  fuel.  Nature  never  works  by  halves  ;  those  immense  de- 
posits of  iron  never  were  put  where  they  are  without  the  means  near 
at  hand  for  their  utilization.  Coal  exists,  but  it  has  not  been  mined  yet 
on  a  large  scale,  as  it  will  be  hereafter. 

But  even  at  the  present  time  the  principal  supply  of  pig-iron  comes 
from  native  ore,  the  output  being  consumed  by  the  producers  in  the 
manufacture  of  iron  goods.  The  main  iron  mines  now  being  worked 
are  located  at  Durango,  Zimapan,  Zacualtipan,  Tulancingo,  and  Leon. 
For  the  most  part  these  mines  are  found  in  the  midst  of  great  forests, 
in  consequence  of  which  cheap  fuel  is  found  in  the  form  of  charcoal, 
the  iron  made  from  which  being  of  very  superior  quality,  free  from 
phosphorous,  and,  price  and  other  things  being  equal,  is  always  pre- 
ferred to  the  imported  pig.  It  is  manufactured  in  charcoal  furnaces 
exclusively. 

There  is,  however,  quite  a  considerable  amount  of  pig  imported, 
principally  from  Alabama,  and  Scotch  pig  from  England.  The  great 
drawback  to  importations  heretofore  has  been  the  immense  quantity  of 
scrap  iron,  which,  during  the  lapse  of  centuries,  had  accumulated,  un- 
used, throughout  the  Republic.  This,  however,  is  becoming  well-nigh 
exhausted  ;  and  for  that  reason  the  demand  for  imported  pig  is  increas- 
ing, the  native  output  not  keeping  pace  with  the  need  for  it.  Much 
scrap  iron  also  has  come  from  railroads,  another  source  of  supply 
which  is  not  increasing  with  the  demand. 

Imported  pig  ranges  in  price  in  the  City  of  Mexico  from  ^c,o  to  $60 
silver  per  ton,  the  native  producers  aiming  to  keep  their  price  just 
about  the  same. 

Iron  Foundries. — There  are  in  the  City  of  Mexico,  in  addition  to 
several  small  ones,  seven  large  foundries,  as  follows  :  the  Mexican 
Central  Railroad  foundry,  the  Mexican  National  Railroad  foundry, 
the  Artistic,  the  Delicias,  Charreton  Bros.,  V.  Elcoro  &  Co.,  and 
Hipolito  David.  There  are  also  large  foundries  at  Pachuca,  Puebla, 
Chihuahua,  Durango,  and  Monterey,  as  well  as  smaller  ones  at  Irapuato, 
Guanajuato,  Zacatecas,  Veracruz,  Guadalajara,  Mazatlan,  Oaxaca,  and 
Morelia. 

Copper. — Copper  is  now  quite  an  important  product  of  Mexico,  and 
is  used  to  a  certain  extent  in  the  country,  but  as  the  supply  far  exceeds 
the  home  demand,  it  is  exported  to  tlie  United  States  and  Europe. 
That  which  finds  its  way  to  this  country  enters  chiefly  in  the  form  of 
matte,  and  is  refined  into  casting  or  electrolytic  copper.  What  goes  to 
Europe  is  blister  copper,  or  approximately  so,  from  the  Boleo  mine  in 
Lower  California,  where  a  French  company  is  working  a  large  group 
of  copper  mines.     The  point  of  most  activity  is  Santa  Rosalia,  on  the 


/IDiuing,  23 

Gulf  of  California,  where  the  company  treats  the  ore  in  its  own  smelt- 
ing plant  adjoining.  The  matte,  or  black  copper,  is  sent  to  Europe  in 
the  same  vessels  that  bring  out  coke.  The  company  gives  employ- 
ment to  thousands  of  hands  directly  and  indirectly,  owns  its  own 
steamers,  and  solicits  workmen  all  along  the  coast.  But  this  enter- 
prise, large  as  it  is,  shows  the  progress  that  has  been  made  and  the 
difficulties  overcome  by  individuals.  The  country  itself  is  arid  and 
sterile,  and  there  is  little  encouragement  for  others  to  prospect,  or 
even  develop,  when  found,  apparently  good  prospects,  owing  to  the 
natural  difficulties  to  be  overcome  and  the  vast  capital  necessary  to 
successfully  carry  on  mining  operations  ;  as  success  is  hardly  to  be 
obtained  except  by  treating  the  ores  on  the  ground,  as  the  Boleo  Com- 
pany has  done. 

At  the  same  time  the  enterprising  firm  of  Guggenheim  has  estab- 
lished its  works  at  Aguas  Calientes,  adding  very  considerably  to  the 
copper  product,  and  the  increase  of  matte  shipments  from  San  Luis 
Potosi  and  Monterey  makes  a  large  difference  from  former  returns. 
To  judge  from  the  official  figures,  the  amount  of  copper  produced  in 
1896  was  not  less  than  22,000  metric  tons,  the  greater  production  being 
from  the  Boleo  mines. 

Quicksilver. — The  production  of  quicksilver  can  only  be  approxi- 
mated from  imports,  as  the  native  production  is  far  short  of  the  re- 
quirements of  the  country.  In  1895  the  amount  imported  was  818,704 
kilos,  with  a  value  of  $541,664,  while  during  the  past  year  the  amount 
imported  was  854,526  kilos,  with  a  value  of  $574,153.  The  only  infer- 
ence to  be  drawn  from  these  figures  is  that  the  production  in  Mexico 
in  the  past  year  as  compared  with  1895  has  not  increased,  and  the 
figures  of  production  given  in  the  Engineeri^ig  and  Mining  Jourfial  of 
1895  may  be  accepted  as  correct  for  1896. 

Coal. — Fuel  is  perhaps  the  greatest  and  most  pressing  need  of 
Mexico.  For  centuries  the  population  of  the  whole  country  has  used 
wood  for  fuel,  until  the  most  thickly  inhabited  portions  of  the  country 
are  completely  destitute  of  trees.  This  condition  of  things  is  a  very 
serious  objection  to  the  increase  of  manufacturing,  as  it  is  impossible 
to  manufacture  cheaply  when  fuel  commands  a  very  high  figure.  Coal, 
which  has  to  be  transported  sometimes  for  thousands  of  miles  before  it 
reaches  the  centre  of  the  country,  becomes  very  expensive.  At  present 
rates  the  cost  of  wood  in  the  City  of  Mexico  is  equal  to  $14  a  cord, 
while  coal  ranges  from  $16  to  $22  per  ton  according  to  grade,  and  one 
source  of  supply  is  the  artificial  fuel  of  compressed  coal  dust  brought 
from  England,  and  in  use  not  alone  on  the  Veracruz  Railway,  but  in 
various  local  industries,  while  coal  also  comes  from  West  Virginia, 
Alabama,  etc.  The  distances  of  the  sources  of  coal  supply  and  its 
consequent  cost  led  to  the  attempt  of  utilizing  the  peat  deposits  which 


24  (BeoQrapbical  Botes  on  /IDcjico. 

are  of  great  extent  and  practically  inexhaustible  within  ten  miles  of 
the  City  of  Mexico. 

In  the  Tlahualilo  district  of  the  State  of  Coahuila,  for  instance, 
owing  to  the  distance  from  the  nearest  coal  mines,  the  question  of  fuel 
is  very  important,  as  there  are  at  present  more  than  three  hundred 
horse-power  in  constant  use,  and  the  amount  is  steadily  increasing. 
The  main  supply  is  from  the  mesquite  brush,  which  is  cleared  from  the 
new  lands  as  the  work  of  ditching  and  preparation  advances.  The 
hulls  of  the  cotton  seed  also  make  a  hot  but  quick  fuel  for  some  of 
the  larger  stationary  engines.  The  wheat,  straw  and  cotton  bushes  are 
utilized  for  brick-burning  and  for  the  domestic  purposes  of  the  labor- 
ing population. 

Those  acquainted  with  industrial  conditions  in  Mexico  and  making 
investigations  with  a  view  to  the  establishment  of  new  industries  in 
that  Republic,  are  consequently  impressed  with  the  fact  that,  in  spite 
of  the  cheap  labor,  favorable  climatic  conditions,  and  good  home 
markets,  the  lack  of  cheap  fuel  is  exceedingly  detrimental  to  a  large 
proportion  of  the  industries  of  this  country  ;  but  fortunately  large  de- 
posits of  coal  are  now  being  discovered  in  the  Republic.  At  Salinas, 
in  the  State  of  Coahuila,  a  large  bed  of  coal  is  being  worked  by  the 
International  Railroad  Company,  which  furnishes  fuel  for  that  road 
and  even  for  a  portion  of  the  Southern  Pacific  Railroad  and  for  some 
of  the  manufactories  in  Monterey.  In  the  district  of  Tlaxiaco,  in  the 
State  of  Oaxaca,  a  very  rich  coal-field  has  been  discovered,  but  for  the 
present  it  is  inaccessible  and  before  a  railroad  can  be  built  to  tap  it 
it  cannot  be  used,  as  the  expense  of  transportation  would  be  exceed- 
ingly high.  Sonora  contains  a  carboniferous  area,  several  miles  in  ex- 
tent, with  innumerable  veins  from  five  to  sixteen  feet  in  thickness,  of 
hard,  clean,  anthracite  coal,  carrying  as  high  a  percentage  in  fixed  car- 
bon as  the  best  coal  mined  in  Wales.  The  ledge  is  thirty  miles  in 
length  and  averages  sixteen  feet  in  width,  showing  a  quantity  sufficient 
to  supply  the  entire  Pacific  coast  with  anthracite  coal  of  the  first  quality 
for  years  to  come.  The  configuration  of  that  State  and  the  proximity 
of  the  sea  make  it  comparatively  easy  to  work  it. 

At  Jiquilpan,  State  of  Michoacan,  almost  immediately  south  from 
Negrete  station  on  the  Guadalajara  branch  of  the  Mexican  Central 
Railroad,  a  large  coal-field  has  been  discovered.  While  it  is  not  prob- 
able that  either  anthracite  or  first-class  bituminous  coal  will  be  found 
in  these  fields,  still  the  great  value  of  even  an  ordinary  class  of  coal 
will  be  appreciated  by  those  acquainted  with  industrial  conditions  in 
Mexico.  The  coal  measures  of  the  Chapala  district  probably  belong 
to  the  tertiary  period,  and  lie  in  stratified  rock  overlaid  by  an  outflow 
of  basalt  or  lava,  at  an  elevation  of  250  or  300  feet  above  Lake  Cha- 
pala.    The  general  series  of  rocks  has  been  examined  and  pronounced 


as  coal-bearing  by  an  eminent  geologist.  The  measures  are  quite  ex- 
tensive, being  easily  traced  from  Yiirecuaro  to  near  Ameca  with  oc- 
casional interruptions  through  volcanic  intrusion.  The  developments 
already  made,  show  that  the  coal  or  lignite  veins  extend  over  perhaps 
thirty  square  miles.  How  much  beyond  these  limits,  it  would  be  im- 
possible to  state.  It  exists  in  considerable  quantities.  There  are  a 
number  of  veins  overlying  each  other,  and  varying  from  two  inches  to 
fifty  inches  in  width  ;  but,  as  the  explorations  have  not  yet  found  the 
veins  in  place,  it  is  impossible  to  say  exactly  what  their  condition  will 
be.  A  feature  which  adds  considerably  to  the  value  of  these  deposits 
is  an  extensive  deposit  of  bog  iron  in  the  immediate  vicinity.  If 
further  exploration  discovers  considerable  quantities  of  commercially 
valuable  coal,  it  is  easy  to  estimate  the  results  to  the  industries.  Other 
beds  of  coal  have  been  discovered  but  of  less  consequence,  and  in 
several  of  the  northern  states  of  Mexico  there  are  known  to  exist  large 
deposits. 

Mexican  industries  will  be  completely  revolutionized  when  they  can 
use  cheap  coal  instead  of  wood  for  all  purposes,  thus  cheapening  the 
cost  of  manufacturing  by  using  cheaper  fuel,  which  is  so  important  an 
item  of  expense  in  manufacturing. 

Mexican  Miners. — While  the  laborers  employed  in  Mexico  will  not 
compare  in  efficiency  with  the  labor  of  the  miner  in  the  United  States,  it 
must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  American  miner  works  eight  hours  and 
receives  $3  per  day,  or  $6  in  Mexican  money,  and  $6  in  Mexican 
money  will  employ  from  eight  to  twelve  Mexicans,  wages  varying  from 
50c.  to  75c.  per  day.  As  for  the  climatic  conditions,  it  is  only  necessary 
to  say  that  in  all  the  mining  districts  of  Mexico  a  miner  can  work  365 
days  in  the  year.  There  is  never  any  snow  or  cold  weather  in  winter, 
and  the  heat  in  the  summer  is  not  so  extreme  as  in  St.  Louis,  Chicago, 
or  New  York,  and  never  enervating.  A  pair  of  blankets  at  night  are 
indispensable  every  night  in  the  year. 

Mining  Laws.  —  The  mining  laws  of  Mexico  issued  during  the 
Spanish  rule,  which  were  kept  in  force  until  1884,  were  both  liberal  and 
wise,  and  were  intended  to  encourage  mining.  The  domain  of  the 
mines  remained  in  the  Government  and  it  gave  temporary  titles  to  any- 
body who  discovered  one,  and  who  was  willing  to  work  it,  but  only  as 
long  as  work  was  done  in  the  mine.  When  the  discoverer  or  owner 
could  not  for  any  reason  continue  to  work  it,  and  allowed  a  certain 
time  to  elapse  without  doing  any  work,  the  mine  reverted  to  the 
Government  and  anybody  else  willing  to  work  it  could  obtain  a  tem- 
porary title  over  it.  This  system  was  changed,  by  our  Mining  Code  of 
1884,  to  the  effect  of  giving  the  mines  in  fee  simple  to  the  discoverers  of 
the  same,  whether  they  were  worked  or  not  by  those  who  denounced 
them,  and  the  only  cause  for  forfeiting  the  title  is  the  failure  to  pay  a 


126  Gcograpbical  Botes  on  /IDejico. 

tax  of  $io  per  pertenencia,  a  "  pertenencia  "  being  our  unit  of  a  mining 
property  and  consisting  of  a  hectare  or  a  square  lOo  metres  on  each 
side,  equivalent  to  2.47  acres.  The  rights  of  the  owner  of  the  land 
are  not  interfered  with,  and  in  case  anybody  discovers  a  mine  upon 
another  man's  property,  the  landlord  continues  to  own  the  surface,  and 
all  the  discoverer  is  entitled  to  is  the  mineral  underground  and  so 
much  of  the  surface  as  is  necessary  to'  work  it,  for  buildings  and 
other  mining  requirements,  and  for  that  the  owner  of  the  ground  is 
compensated  by  agreement,  or,  if  no  amicable  agreement  can  be 
reached,  by  arbitration. 

Mining  litigation  is  quite  rare  in  Mexico,  and  it  does  not  take  long 
to  get  a  final  decision,  as  mining  cases  are  tried  before  a  single  judge, 
and  appeals  lie  to  the  Supreme  Courts  of  the  different  states,  and  to 
the  Federal  Supreme  Court  in  Mexico.  To  the  honor  of  the  courts  in 
Mexico  be  it  said,  as  may  also  be  said  of  the  judiciary  in  the  States  and 
the  United  States  Federal  Courts,  they  are  above  reproach. 

A  concise  statement  of  the  provisions  of  the  present  mining  laws 
of  Mexico  will  not  be  out  of  place  here. 

The  law  grants  to  all  inhabitants  of  the  country  the  right  to  acquire 
and  work  mines.  He  has  to  denounce  a  new  mine.  A  denouncement 
means  making  a  location.  When  the  location  of  a  claim  has  been 
determined  upon,  all  possible  data  are  obtained  concerning  it  before  the 
denouncement  is  made.  It  may  be  a  rich  old  mine,  and  yet  if  the  law 
has  not  been  complied  with  it  is  subject  to  relocation.  The  law  grants 
to  any  inhabitant  of  the  Republic  the  right  to  explore  for  mineral. 
All  districts  have  their  mining  agents  and  all  the  prospector  has  to  do 
is  to  have  the  regular  form  of  petition  used  in  making  out  a  denounce- 
ment, as  it  is  called,  made  out  and  submitted  to  the  mining  agent  of 
the  district.  If  there  does  not  happen  to  be  a  mining  agent  in  the 
district,  the  petition  is  presented  to  the  local  postmaster.  The  expense 
of  registering  the  petition  is  $1.  After  registering  the  petition,  the 
mining  agent  has  thirty  days  in  which  to  appoint  an  expert  to  examine 
the  property,  who  has  eight  days  in  which  to  reply  to  the  summons, 
and  if  he  accepts  the  service,  the  mining  agent  issues  in  duplicate  a 
document  stating  that  the  claim  has  been  denounced  and  directing 
objecting  parties  to  make  known  their  prior  claims  within  a  period  of 
four  months  from  the  date  of  the  denouncement,  or  forfeit  any  right  to 
the  property. 

The  charge  of  the  expert  for  making  a  report  upon  the  claim,  to- 
gether with  the  plans,  is  about  $15  per  claim  and  travelling  expenses. 
The  expert  has  sixty  days  in  which  to  send  in  his  plans  and  report. 
The  notification  that  the  property  has  been  denounced  is  published  in 
the  official  journal  of  the  district,  the  cost  of  which  varies  in  the 
different  states,  from  $2  to  $4  being  the  usual  fee. 


/IDining,  27 

The  cost  of  making  up  a  mining  title  is  from  $io  to  $12.  Titles, 
when  once  granted,  unless  fraud  is  shown,  are  irrevocable  so  long  as  the 
taxes  are  paid,  which  are  ten  dollars  per  year  on  each  "  pertenencia," 
and  no  work  or  manual  labor  is  necessary  to  hold  the  same.  The  taxes 
may  be  paid  quarterly  or  annually,  at  the  discretion  of  the  holder,  to 
the  mining  agent  of  the  district  in  which  the  property  is  denounced, 
or  by  special  arrangement  they  may  be  paid  at  the  ofifice  of  the  Fed- 
eral Treasury  in  the  City  of  Mexico.  After  the  title  is  granted,  it 
must  be  registered  in  the  district  where  the  denouncement  is  made, 
and  also  entered  upon  the  books  of  the  stamp  office,  for  which  no  fees 
are  charged. 

MINTS    AND    DUTIES    ON    SILVER. 

Under  the  Spanish  laws  all  silver  paid  a  duty  ;  and  as  most  of  it 
was  coined,  that  duty  was  levied  on  coinage,  and  the  exportation  of 
bullion  was  prohibited  ;  but  of  course  a  great  deal  was  smuggled,  both 
during  the  Spanish  rule  and  still  more  when  Mexico  was  opened  to 
foreign  trade  after  our  Independence.  When  I  occupied  for  the  first 
time  the  Treasury  Department  of  Mexico  in  1868,  it  seemed  to  me  an 
outrage  against  the  mining  industry  of  the  country  to  require  the 
miners — especially  those  who  were  far  removed  from  the  mints — to 
take  their  bullion  from  the  mints,  at  a  heavy  expense  and  risk,  coin  it 
there  and  take  it  back  to  the  mines,  and  from  there  to  the  ports  to  be 
exported  to  London,  where  it  was  often  again  turned  into  bullion  ;  and 
as  the  contracts  made  with  the  lessees  of  the  mints  did  not  allow  the 
free  exportation  of  bullion,  I  proposed  and  succeeded  in  having  en- 
acted a  law  for  the  purpose  of  allowing  bullion  to  be  exported,  pro- 
vided that  it  paid  the  coinage  duty  at  the  respective  custom-houses  for 
the  benefit  of  the  mint's  lessees  ;  and  this  condition  of  things,  extra- 
ordinary as  it  may  seem,  was  a  great  relief  to  the  silver  producers,  and 
continued  until  the  Mexican  Government  could  recover  all  the  mints 
and  be  free  to  legislate  on  the  subject,  which  it  was  able  to  do  par- 
tially during  my  last  incumbency  of  the  Treasury  Department  ;  they 
all  since  having  been  recovered. 

We  had  thirteen  mints  in  the  country  to  coin  the  silver  extracted 
from  our  mines,  which,  in  the  precarious  condition  of  the  Mexican 
Treasury,  were  sometimes  rented  to  private  parties  who  advanced  a 
sum  that  seemed  large  at  that  time,  although  it  was  a  trifle  in  compari- 
son to  their  profits,  as  they  collected  a  duty  of  nearly  4^  per  cent, 
upon  the  amount  of  bullion  coined,  and  they  credited  to  the  Govern- 
ment only  i-^  per  cent,  of  the  same,  the  laws  requiring  that  only  coined 
silver  could  be  exported.  But  now  that  silver  can  be  transported  easily 
from  the  mine  to  the  mint,  since  a  railway  system  has  been  built,  the 
mints  have  been  reduced  to  four, — one  in  the  City  of  Mexico,  which 


2  8  Oeo(}rapbical  Botes  on  /iDcjico. 

is  the  principal  one  ;  one  at  each  of  the  cities  of  Guanajuato,  Zacatecas, 
and  Culiacan,  the  last  being  the  capital  of  Sinaloa. 

Besides  the  mint  or  coinage  duties,  silver  was  taxed  in  Mexico  with 
an  export  duty  which  sometimes  was  as  high  as  twelve  per  cent,  on  the 
value  of  the  silver,  which,  together  with  tlie  mint  duty,  amounted  to 
seventeen  per  cent.,  not  taking  into  account  other  taxes  and  local  duties. 
Only  the  rich  character  of  the  Mexican  mines  could  stand  that  burden. 

The  duties  on  silver  have  been  readjusted  and  reduced  consider- 
ably, until  now  they  only  amount,  as  established  by  the  law  of  March 
27,  1897,  to  a  coinage  duty  of  two  per  cent,  and  a  stamp  duty  of  three 
per  cent.,  which  are  paid  at  the  Assay  Oiifice  of  the  Mint  when  coined, 
or  at  the  custom-house  when  exported  in  bullion,  ores,  or  other  com- 
pounds. When  exported  in  ores  in  their  crude  condition,  the  duty  has 
a  rebate  of  ten  per  cent.  A  small  duty  representing  the  cost  of  the 
operation  is  also  charged  for  assaying,  refining,  smelting,  and  separat- 
ing the  metals. 

SMELTING    PLANTS. 

The  Tariff  Act  of  October  i,  1890,  having  levied  a  duty  upon  lead 
ore,  which  prevented  that  Mexican  product  from  coming  into  the 
United  States  in  the  shape  it  had  come  before,  the  American  com- 
panies, who  had  been  developing  the  lead  ore  in  Mexico,  established 
smelting  plants  in  the  country  for  the  purpose  of  treating  there  the 
lead  ore,  and  sending  it  as  pig-lead  to  the  United  States. 

The  smelting  plants  that  have  been  established  in  Mexico,  and 
their  capacity  and  output,  taken  from  official  data  received  from  the 
Mexican  Government,  up  to  December  31,  1896,  are  the  following  : 

Mexican  Metallurgical  Company. — This  company,  of  wliich  Mr, 
Robert  S.  Towne  is  president,  obtained  a  charter  from  the  Mexican 
Government  on  March  20,  1890,  to  establish  five  smelting  ]:»lants  in 
Mexico,  two  with  tlie  minimum  capacity  of  200  tons  a  day,  two  of  150 
tons,  and  one  of  100  tons.  The  first  one  is  located  at  Morales,  five 
kilometres  west  of  the  city  of  San  Luis  Potosi.  During  the  fiscal  year 
1S95  to  1896,  this  plant  received  62,370  and  020/1000  metric  tons  of 
ore  from  the  States  of  Chihuahua,  Coahuila,  Durango,  Guanajuato, 
Jalisco,  Mexico,  Michoacan,  Nuevo  Leon,  Queretaro,  San  Luis  Potosi, 
and  Zacatecas.  This  plant  yielded  during  the  same  year  16,019  ^"^ 
070/1000  metric  tons  of  base  lead  bullion,  with  3,198,924.14  troy 
ounces  of  silver,  valued  at  $4,882,177.50  ;  and  8268  and  37/100  troy 
ounces  of  gold,  valued  at  $161,338.63. 

National  Mcxica?2  Smelter  at  Monterey. — This  company,  whose 
president  is  Mr.  Daniel  Guggenheim,  obtained  a  charter  from  the 
Mexican  Government  on  October  9,  1890,  to  establish  three  smelting 
plants  in  Mexico,  two  with  a  minimum  capacity  of  300  tons  per  day, 


®rograpb\?.  29 

and  one  with  loo  tons.  The  first  plant  is  located  in  the  outskirts  of 
the  city  of  Monterey,  has  ten  furnaces  of  the  water-jacket  s)stem,  and 
seven  smelting  furnaces  for  lead  ore.  From  July,  1892,  to  June,  1896, 
this  plant  has  smelted  521,809  and  769/1000  metric  tons  of  ore,  yield- 
ing 78,067  and  141/1000  tons  of  lead,  with  515,382  kilograms  of  silver, 
with  a  value  of  $21,824,597.93,  having  used  foreign  coke  to  the  value 
of  $1,474,385.81,  and  Mexican  coke  to  the  value  of  $73,268.08. 

Central  Mexican  Smelter. — The  second  smelter  of  the  Guggenheim 
Company  is  located  at  Aguascalientes.  It  has  a  department  for  con- 
centrating copper  ores,  one  for  smelting  the  same  ores,  consisting  of 
three  furnaces,  and  another  with  four  furnaces  for  smelting  lead  ores. 
This  plant  smelted  from  the  26th  of  December,  1895,  606  and  190/rooo 
tons  of  lead,  containing  6502  kilograms  of  silver  and  28  and  71/100 
kilograms  of  gold,  with  a  value  of  $341,091. 

Velardefia  Mining  Company. — This  company,  wliose  president  is  Mr. 
Edward  W.  Nash,  obtained  a  charter  from  the  Mexican  Government 
on  May  15,  1893,  for  the  construction  of  two  smelting  plants  in  Mexico, 
with  a  capacity  of  200  tons  a  day  each.  From  November  30,  1893,  to. 
June  30,  1896,  this  plant  smelted  110,000  tons  of  ore,  yielding  9069 
and  680/1000  tons  of  lead  containing  1,850,685  troy  ounces  of  silver 
and  6192  ounces  of  gold. 

The  Chihuahua  Mining  Cojnpany. — This  company,  whose  president 
is  Mr.  John  B.  Shaw,  obtained  a  charter  from  the  Mexican  Govern- 
ment May  26,  1893,  and  is  located  near  the  city  of  Chihuahua.  Up  to 
July  28,  1896,  it  had  smelted  28,555  tons  of  lead  ore,  yielding  3761 
tons  of  lead  and  529,450  troy  ounces  of  silver. 

The  Mazapil  Copper  Company,  Limited. — This  company  established 
a  plant  at  Concepcion  del  Oro,  Zacatecas,  and  has  smelted  5000  tons 
of  lead  ore  containing  silver. 

Sabinal  Mining  and  Smelting  Company.,  Chihuahua. — This  company 
owns  the  mines  of  Santa  Juliana  and  Santa  Inez,  which  yield  30  per 
cent,  of  lead,  with  a  mixture  of  silver,  and  smelts  their  ore,  notwith- 
standing that  the  cost  of  a  ton  of  coke  amounts  to  $37.50. 

La  Preciosa. — A  smelter  under  that  name  has  been  established  at 
Tepeyahualco,  State  of  Puebla,  but  I  do  not  have  any  data  about  the 
company  owning  it,  and  the  date  of  its  contract  with  the  Mexican 
Government,  nor  the  amount  of  ore  smelted  there. 

The  Boleo  Smelter. — I  have  already  spoken  of  this  plant,  which 
smelts  copper  ores  at  Santa  Rosalia,  Lower  California. 

OROGRAPHY. 

Mexico  is  traversed  by  two  cordilleras  or  Iiigh  ranges  of  mountains 
running  almost  parallel  to  the  coast,  one  along  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
and  the  other  along  the  Pacific  Ocean.     The  former  runs  from  ten  to 


30  Gcocjrapbical  Botes  on  /IDcjico. 

one  hundred  miles  from  the  coast,  leaving  an  im])erceptibly  inclined. 
plane  from  the  sea  to  the  foot  of  the  mountains  ;  while  the  cordillera 
on  the  Pacitic  side  runs,  on  the  whole,  very  near  the  coast,  leaving  a 
very  narrow  strip  of  land  between  the  same  and  the  sea,  and  from  this 
run  several  branches  in  different  directions.  The  most  continuous 
range  is  the  Sierra  Madre  of  the  Pacific,  which  may  be  traced,  at  a 
mean  elevation  of  over  10,000  feet,  from  Oaxaca  to  Arizona.  Parallel 
to  this  is  the  Lower  Californian  range  (Sierra  de  la  Giganta)  3000 
feet,  which,  however,  falls  abruptly  eastwards,  like  the  Atlantic  escarp- 
ments. The  California  peninsula  seems  to  have  been  detached  from 
the  mainland  when  the  general  upheaval  took  place  which  produced 
the  vast  chasm  now  flooded  by  the  Gulf  of  California.  Corresponding 
with  the  Sierra  Madre  on  the  west  are  the  more  interrupted  eastern 
scarps  of  the  central  plateau,  which  sweep  around  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
as  the  Sierra  Madres  of  Nuevo  Leon  and  Tamaulipas  at  an  elevation 
of  about  6000  feet.  These  are  crossed  by  the  routes  from  Tula  to 
Tampico,  the  highest  pass  being  4820  feet ;  from  Saltillo  to  Monterey 
3400,  and  at  several  other  places. 

Of  the  central  cross  ridges  the  most  important  orographically  and 
historically  is  the  Cordillera  de  Anahuac,  which  surrounds  the  Mexi- 
can (Tenochtitlan)  and  Puebla  valleys,  and  which  is  supposed  to  cul- 
minate with  Popocatepetl  and  Ixtacihuatl.  P>ut  these  giants  belong  to 
a  different  or  rather  more  recent  system  of  igneous  u])heaval,  running 
from  sea  to  sea  between  18°  59'  and  19°  12'  N.  in  almost  a  straight  line 
east  and  west,  consequently  nearly  at  right  angles  to  the  main  axis  of 
the  central  plateau.  The  line  is  clearly  marked  by  several  extinct 
cones  and  by  five  active  or  quiescent  volcanoes,  of  which  the  highest 
is  Popocatepetl,  lying  south  of  the  capital,  nearly  midway  between 
the  Pacific  and  the  Atlantic.  East  of  the  central  point  of  the  system 
are  Citlaltepetl,  better  known  as  the  peak  of  Orizaba,  on  the  coast 
south  of  Veracruz,  to  which  correspond  on  the  west  the  recently 
upheaved  Jorullo  in  Michoacan,  Colima  (12,800)  near  the  coast  in 
Jalisco,  and  the  volcanic  Revillagigedo  group  in  the  Pacific.  South 
of  this  line  and  nearly  parallel,  are  the  sierras  of  Guerrero,  and  south- 
east of  the  Tehuantepec  Isthmus  those  of  Oaxaca  and  Chiapas  towards 
the  Guatemala  frontier.  In  the  same  direction  run  the  islands  of  Cuba 
and  Hayti,  which  probably  belong  to  the  same  Central  American  system. 

In  the  course  of  centuries  these  high  mountains  have  become  dis- 
integrated by  the  rains  and  other  natural  elements,  and  a  great  many 
spaces  between  them  filled  up,  forming  a  series  of  valleys  and  other 
spots  quite  delightful  in  climate  and  very  rich  in  agricultural  resources. 
This  series  of  valleys,  which  we  call  the  central  plateau,  runs  from 
about  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles  east  of  the  City  of  Mexico,  travers- 
ing all  of  Mexico  in  a  northwesterly  direction.     So  level  is  the  plateau 


©roarapbK?. 


3» 


that  even  when  there  were  no  wagon  roads  in  Mexico  one  could  travel 
in  a  carriage  from  the  City  of  Mexico  to  Santa  Fe.  Baron  Humboldt 
and  other  geologists  considered  the  cordilleras  of  Mexico  as  a  portion 
of  the  Andes  of  South  America,  which  originate  in  Patagonia,  extend- 
ing over  the  whole  of  that  continent  ;  but  researches  were  made  spe- 
cially by  a  corps  of  engineers,  who  surveyed  Mexico  during  the  French 
Intervention,  arrived  at  a  different  conclusion,  and  consider  that  the 
Andes  proper  end  in  Panama,  and  that  the  Mexican  cordilleras  are 
entirely  independent  from  that  lofty  chain  of  mountains. 

In  contrast  with  the  ])lains  and  at  times  barren  districts  of  the 
central  plateau,  it  is  occasionally  broken  by  dei)ressions  of  the  soil, 
known  as  barrancas,  descending  sometimes  one  thousand  feet  and 
measuring  several  miles  across,  which  are  covered  with  a  luxuriant 
vegetation  of  trees  and  shrubs,  and  watered  by  small  streams  running 
through  the  middle  of  the  valley.  Among  the  most  remarkable  ones  are 
the  barranca  de  Beltran  descending  the  western  slope  from  Guadalajara 
to  Colima,  and  the  barranca  de  Mochitilte  from  Guadalajara  to  Tepic. 

One  of  the  pre-eminently  interesting  features  of  Mexico  is  the 
mountain  of  Jerullo,  in  this  section,  which  has  been  born  within  recent 
times.  The  natives  described  to  Alexander  von  Humboldt  the  con- 
vulsions of  the  earth  during  its  birth,  and  the  frightful  spectacle  of  the 
huge  mass  thrusting  its  giant  shoulders  among  its  neighbors,  making 
room  for  itself  in  their  ranks. 

The  best  way  to  illustrate  the  broken  surface  of  Mexico  is  to  give 
the  altitudes  of  some  of  the  principal  localities,  both  from  the  coast  to 
the  interior  and  from  the  interior  back  to  the  coast,  taken  from  the 
measurements  made  by  the  railroad  companies  and  by  the  engineers  of 
the  Mexican  Government  in  the  national  wagon  roads  where  railroads 
are  not  yet  running.  I  append  to  this  paper  a  list  of  such  altitudes, 
with  their  distances,  whenever  I  have  been  able  to  find  them,  which 
I  consider  the  best  illustration  that  could  be  presented  on  this  subject. 


MOUNTAINS. 


Popocatepetl. 
Orizaba 


Toluca 

Ixtacihuatl 

Colima 

Zapotlan 

San  Martin  or  Tuxtla. 

Tancitaro 

Jorullo 

Tacana  or  Soconusco  . 

Guarda 

Ajusco    

Cofre  de  Perote 

Zem]waltepec 

Pico  de  Quinceo 

Veta  Grande 


STATES. 

Mexico 

Veracruz  and  Puebla 

Mexico 

Mexico  and  Puebla... 

Jalisco 

Jalisco 

Veracruz . 

Michoacan 

Michoacan 

Chiapas 

Federal  District 

Federal  District 

Veracruz 

Oaxaca 

Michoacan 

Zacatecas 


ELEVATION 
IN   FEET. 


362 

076 
363 
743 
921 
467 
265 
436 
731 
628 

415 
141 
905 
140 


32  6eoGi*apbical  IRotes  on  /IDejico. 

The  above  are  the  principal  mountain  peaks  of  Mexico,  the  first 
ten  being  volcanoes,  with  their  heights  according  to  the  most  recent 
measurements  : 

HYDROGRAPHY, 

The  eastern  Mexican  coast,  washed  by  the  Caribbean  Sea  and 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  is  low,  flat,  and  sandy,  except  near  the  mouth  of 
the  Tabasco  River,  where  at  some  distance  from  the  coast  appear  the 
heights  of  San  Gabriel,  extending  northeast  and  southwest  for  sev- 
eral miles  ;  but  the  majestic  mountains  of  Veracruz,  especially  the 
volcano  of  Orizaba,  visible  for  many  leagues  to  seaward,  form  a  pictur- 
esque background  which  relieves  the  monotony  of  the  shore  region  of 
that  State.  On  the  Pacific  side  the  coast,  although  generally  low,  is 
here  and  there  roughened  by  spurs  extending  from  the  cordillera  to 
the  ocean. 

The  principal  gulfs  are  those  of  Mexico,  California,  and  Tehuante- 
pec,  the  first  of  which  ranks  among  the  largest  in  the  world. 

We  are  not  blessed  with  good  harbors  on  the  Gulf  coast.  Vera- 
cruz is  an  open  roadstead,  and  we  are  now  spending  large  sums  of 
money  in  trying  to  make  it  a  good  port.  Our  best  harbors  are  on  the 
Pacific  coast,  as  Acapulco,  which  is  a  large  one  ;  Manzanillo,  a  very 
fine  although  a  very  small  one  ;  and  La  Paz,  on  the  Gulf  of  California. 
By  artificial  means  we  expect  to  improve  our  harbors  considerably. 

The  development  of  the  harbor  of  Tampico  is  remarkable.  A 
short  time  ago  the  depth  of  the  bar  roadstead  was  only  eight  or  nine 
feet.  Now  steamships  drawing  twenty-four  feet  of  water  enter  the 
port.  The  deepening  of  the  entrance  to  the  harbor  has  been  accom- 
plished by  means  of  jetties,  just  as  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  was 
deepened  by  the  Eads  jetties.  A  very  large  part  of  the  imports  of 
Mexico  enter  now  by  the  port  of  Tampico. 

The  more  noteworthy  bays  are  those  of  Guaymas,  Santa  Barbara, 
Topolobampo  and  Navachiste,  in  the  Gulf  of  California  ;  Concepcion, 
La  Paz,  and  Muleje,  on  the  west  coast  of  the  same  gulf  ;  San  Quentin, 
Magdalena,  and  Amejas,  on  the  Pacific  coast  of  Lower  California  ;  and 
San  Bias  and  Valle  de  Banderas,  on  the  coast  of  Tepic. 

We  have  no  lakes  as  large  as  those  with  which  the  United  States 
is  favored,  and  the  Lake  of  Chapala,  a  beautiful  spot  where  country 
houses  are  now  being  built,  is  the  largest  lacustrine  basin  in  Mexican 
territory.  The  Valley  of  Mexico  has  six  lakes,  two  of  fresh  and  six  of 
salt  water.  The  other  lakes  in  Mexico  are  Catemaco,  in  the  State  of 
Veracruz  ;  Cairel  and  Carpintero,  in  the  State  of  Tamaulipas  ;  Encan- 
tada,  in  Tabasco  ;  Bacalar,  in  Yucatan  ;  Alcuzague,  in  Colima  ;  Cuit- 
zeo,  Tacascuaro,  and  Patzcuaro,  in  Michoacan  ;  Yuriria,  in  Guanaju- 
ato ;  and  Meztitlan,  in  Hidalgo. 


Ibv^rograpb^.  33 

Mexico  has  a  great  many  islands,  situated  near  the  coast,  although 
not  any  of  very  great  area,  the  greater  number  being  uninhabited, 
although  some  of  them  are  very  fertile,  and  could  be  the  seat  of  a 
large  population.  Among  the  most  important  are  :  El  Carmen, 
the  largest  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  ;  San  Juan  de  Ulua  and  Sacrificios, 
opposite  the  port  of  Veracruz  ;  Mujeres,  in  the  Caribbean  Sea  ;  Guada- 
lupe, about  seventy-five  miles  from  the  west  coast  of  Lower  California; 
the  Tres  Marias  group,  about  thirty  miles  from  the  same  coast  ;  the 
Revillagigedo  group,  not  far  from  the  coast  of  Colima  ;  and  adjoining 
the  coast  of  the  State  of  Michoacan,  the  Alcatraz  Island. 

As  I  have  already  stated,  Mexico  has  a  very  broken  surface,  with 
high  mountains,  causing  streams  to  run  down  a  very  inclined  plane, 
forming  torrents  with  rapid  cascades,  which  contribute  to  embellish 
the  natural  features  of  the  country.  These  conditions,  however,  pre- 
vent us  from  having  large  navigable  rivers,  and  furnishing  a  cheap 
way  of  transportation,  which  is  one  of  the  greatest  advantages  the 
United  States  enjoys,  and  which  so  largely  contributed  in  its  early 
days  to  the  development  of  the  country,  making  transportation  to  long 
distances  both  easy  and  cheap.  While  the  torrents  descending  from 
the  mountains  afford  an  immense  water-power — which,  in  the  course 
of  time,  may  be  used  as  a  motor  for  industrial  purposes — they  meet 
when  they  reach  a  valley  and  run  smoothly  there  through  a  ravine 
until  finally  they  reach  the  coast,  and  it  is  therefore  only  at  a  compara- 
tively small  distance  from  the  sea  that  they  can  be  made  navigable. 

Our  principal  rivers,  measuring  their  positions  from  north  to  south, 
are  the  Rio  Grande — which  from  El  Paso,  Texas,  to  the  sea,  is  the 
boundary  line  between  the  two  countries,  and  which  used  to  be  a  large 
river ;  but  as  it  rises  in  Colorado  and  passes  through  New  Mexico, 
and  the  inhabitants  of  both  have  taken  for  irrigation  purposes  most  of 
the  water  that  it  carries,  it  becomes  entirely  dry  during  the  dry  season 
after  the  freshets,  very  much  to  the  distress  of  the  inhabitants  of  its 
borders  from  El  Paso  to  Ojinaga,  especially  on  the  Mexican  side,  which 
has  been  inhabited  for  three  hundred  years,  the  people  using  the  water 
for  irrigation — on  the  other  side  there  being  hardly  any  population, — 
and  now  they  find  that  their  farms  are  entirely  worthless  for  want  of 
water.  After  passing  Presidio  del  Norte,  now  called  Ojinaga,  the  Con- 
chos  River  and  other  tributaries  of  the  Rio  Grande  River  supply  it  with 
water,  although  not  to  the  extent  it  had  before  the  water  was  taken  in 
Colorado  and  New  Mexico.  The  Mescala,  or  Balsas  River,  rises  in 
the  central  plateau  near  the  Valley  of  Mexico,  passes  by  the  State  of 
Puebla  to  the  southwest,  by  Mixteca  of  Oaxaca,  and  finally  empties 
into  the  Pacific  at  Zacatula.  As  indicated  by  its  name,  it  is,  to  a  lim- 
ited extent,  navigable  along  its  lower  reaches  ;  above  the  bar  it  is 
accessible  to  small  craft,  which,  higher  up,  are  arrested  by  rapids, 

VOL.  I — 3 


34  (3eo(jrapf3ical  IRotes  on  flDejico. 

whirlpools,  and  a  high  cascade.  The  Panuco  River  rises  north  of  the 
Valley  of  Mexico.  Under  the  names  of  Tula  and  Montezuma  it  de- 
scribes a  vast  semicircular  bend  towards  the  west  across  the  Hidalgo 
uplands  and  collects  the  waters  of  the  Huasteca  of  Veracruz  and  Ta- 
maulipas,  beyond  which  it  is  joined  by  the  various  streams  flowing 
from  Queretaro,  and  finally  empties  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  at  the 
port  of  Tampico.  The  Tampico  bar,  improved  by  jetties,  is  now  the 
best  harbor  on.  our  Gulf  coast.  The  Rio  Lerma  or  Santiago,  the 
Tololotlan  of  the  Indians,  is  also  a  considerable  stream.  By  the 
riverain  populations  it  is,  in  fact,  known  as  the  Rio  Grande,  while 
the  inhabitants  of  Michoacan  call  it  also  Cuitzeo,  from  the  large 
lake  situated  in  their  State.  It  rises  in  the  State  of  Mexico  in 
the  very  centre  of  the  Anahuac  j)lateau,  and  its  farthest  sources, 
issuing  from  underground  galleries,  descend  from  the  Nevado  de 
Toluca  down  to  the  twin  lake  of  Lerma,  the  remains  of  an  inland 
sea  which  formerly  filled  the  Upper  Toluca  valley  north  of  the  Ne- 
vado volcano.  At  its  issue  from  the  lake,  or  rather  marshy  lagoon, 
the  Lerma  stands  at  the  great  altitude  of  8600  feet,  and  during  its 
winding  northwesterly  course  across  the  plateau,  the  incline  is  very 
slight.  In  this  upland  region  it  is  swollen  by  several  affluents,  some  of 
which,  like  the  niain  stream  itself,  flow  from  lakes  dotted  over  the 
table-land.  After  completing  half  of  its  course  at  La  Barca,  the  Ler- 
ma is  still  5600  feet  above  sea-level.  Here,  some  280  miles  from  its 
source,  it  enters  the  large  Lake  Chapala,  near  its  eastern  extremity  ; 
but  about  twelve  miles  below  the  entrance  it  again  emerges  through 
a  fissure  on  the  north  side  of  the  lake,  and  still  continues  to  flow 
throughout  its  lower  course  in  the  same  northwesterly  direction. 

The  Grijalva  and  Usumacinta  rivers,  rising  in  the  State  of  Chiapas, 
after  being  joined  by  many  others,  some  of  them  coming  from  Guate- 
mala, empty  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  by  one  of  its  mouths  at  the  city 
of  Frontera  in  the  State  of  Tabasco.  The  Papaloapam  River  rises  in 
the  State  of  Oaxaca,  passes  through  the  State  of  Veracruz,  and  emp- 
ties into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  at  the  town  of  Alvarado,  a  few  miles  south 
of  Veracruz. 

The  rains  increase  considerably  the  amount  of  water  in  the  rivers, 
but  as  their  duration  is  not  very  long  this  soon  subsides.  When  the 
streams  rise  near  the  sea,  as  is  the  case  on  the  coast  of  Chiapas  on  the 
Pacific,  they  become  so  swollen  immediately  after  the  rains  that  it  is 
impossible  to  ford  them,  and  as  there  are  no  bridges,  it  is  necessary  to 
wait  until  early  the  next  day  v.'hen  the  freshet  has  subsided. 

Springs  are  rare,  and  some  of  the  rivers  run  in  deep  mountain  beds, 
without  receiving  smaller  tributaries,  while  the  rapid  evaporation  on  a 
light  soil,  covering  porous  rocks,  leaves  the  surface  dry  and  hot  and 
unable  to  support  much  vegetation  beyond  the  cactus  and  low  grasses. 


\ 


I 


Climate.  35 

We  are  blessed  with  quite  a  number  of  mineral  springs,  although 
very  few  of  them  are  used,  most  of  them  being  at  places  not  easily  ac- 
cessible ;  but  in  this  regard  I  do  not  think  we  have  any  cause  to  envy 
any  other  country. 

CLIMATE. 

By  looking  at  the  map  it  will  be  perceived  that  Mexico,  being  inter- 
sected by  the  Tropic  of  Cancer  and  stretching  across  eighteen  parallels 
of  latitude,  must,  from  its  position  alone,  necessarily  enjoy  a  great 
diversity  of  climate.  But  from  its  peculiar  configuration  this  feature 
is  affected  far  more  by  the  altitude  of  the  land  than  by  its  distance 
from  the  pole  or  the  equator.  This  is  especially  true  of  the  more 
fertile  and  populous  section  lying  within  the  torrid  zone,  where  three 
distinct  climatic  regions  are  distinguished,  not  according  to  their  hori- 
zontal, but  according  to  their  vertical  position.  The  warm  climate 
has  the  heat  of  the  torrid  zone  and  prevails  on  the  sea-coast  in  the 
sandy  and  marshy  tracts  fringing  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  in  other  low  places  below  3000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea, 
and  in  some  of  the  valleys  higher  than  that,  but  protected  entirely  from 
the  winds.  But  the  night  breezes  refresh  the  temperature  in  the  even- 
ing and  make  it  bearable  during  the  day,  the  heat  never  being  so 
oppressive  as  it  is  in  summer  in  the  more  northern  latitudes.  This 
region  is  also  much  refreshed  in  summer  by  the  rains,  which  are 
abundant  and  fall  regularly  during  that  season.  The  heat  of  the  sun 
increases  considerably  the  evaporation  from  the  sea,  and  when  the 
evaporation  reaches  the  cool  atmosphere  of  the  sky,  it  is  naturally  con- 
densed into  water  and  falls  in  this  region.  The  rains  begin  generally 
in  June,  increase  considerably  in  July,  and  end  in  November,  although 
this  varies  in  different  regions,  the  rains  lasting  longer  in  those  near 
the  sea  than  in  the  inland  districts.  They  are  so  abundant  that  they 
form  the  main  reliance  of  the  agricultural  industry,  and  there  are  few 
regions  which  use  water  for  irrigation,  depending  entirely  upon  the 
rainfall ;  therefore,  when  in  a  year  by  some  atmospheric  phenomena, 
the  rains  are  late  or  very  scarce,  we  had  a  famine  in  Mexico,  which 
can  now  be  averted  by  importing  cereals  through  our  railroads,  as  was 
the  case  in  1893.  The  rains  fall  regularly  and  at  fixed  intervals,  that 
is,  about  from  one  to  three  hours  every  day,  and  after  the  rain  is  over, 
the  atmosphere  is  clear  and  pleasant,  and  in  well  drained  i)laces  the 
ground  becomes  dry,  so  that  it  causes  no  inconvenience  to  the  in- 
habitants. 

The  rains  have  such  a  decided  effect  on  the  atmosphere  that  in 
most  of  the  country  the  seasons  are  divided  into  the  rainy  and  dry 
season,  and  very  few  realize  what  spring  and  fall  mean.  As  our  climate 
is  so  even,  the  trees  do  not  lose  their  leaves  at  any  given  time,  bui  one 


36  (Beoorapbical  Botes  on  /IDejico. 

by  one  as  they  grow  old  and  die  ;  and  as  the  leaves  die  they  are  re- 
placed gradually  and  imperceptibly  by  new  ones,  so  that  the  phenome- 
non familiar  to  northern  latitudes,  of  trees  losing  all  their  leaves  in  the 
autumn  and  regaining  them  in  the  spring,  is  quite  new  to  anybody 
going  to  a  temperature  that  has  both  extremes. 

The  differences  of  climate  depending  upon  the  different  degrees  of 
altitude  are  so  great  in  Mexico  that  the  vegetable  products  of  this  vast 
country  include  almost  all  that  are  to  be  found  between  the  equator 
and  the  polar  circle. 

The  mean  temperature  in  the  hot  region  varies  from  77  to  82  de- 
grees, Fahrenheit,  seldom  falling  below  60,  but  often  rising  to  100 
degrees,  and  in  the  sultry  districts  of  Veracruz  and  Acapulco  occa- 
sionally to  104  degrees,  although  the  heat  is  not  oppressive  as  is  the 
summer  heat  of  the  eastern  portions  of  the  United  States.  The  vege- 
tation is,  of  course,  in  consequence  entirely  tropical.  In  the  southern 
region  the  climate  on  both  seaboards  may  be  described  as  humid,  hot, 
and  rather  unhealthy,  and  in  places  where  stagnant  water  and  marshes 
exist — which  are  often  found  on  the  coast  on  account  of  the  sea  water 
flowing  in  and  remaining  there — intermittent  and  remittent  fevers  pre- 
vail, and  in  some  localities  during  the  summer  yellow  fever  and  black 
vomit  are  endemic.  These  conditions  could  easily  be  remedied  by 
proper  drainage  of  the  swamps  and  marshy  districts. 

The  heat  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  when  the  atmosphere  begins  to  cool 
in  the  polar  regions  causes  a  depression  in  the  barometer,  and  conse- 
quently very  strong  north  winds,  which  sweep  over  the  coast  with  ter- 
rible force,  causing  great  havoc.  They  generally  begin  in  September 
and  last  until  the  winter  season  sets  in  about  December.  As  the 
country  is  narrow,  the  effect  of  the  north  wind  is  felt  all  over  it  and 
that  is  the  prevailing  wind.  In  the  City  of  Mexico,  for  instance,  not- 
withstanding its  altitude  and  that  it  is  protected  by  high  mountains 
from  the  northern  winds,  the  temperature  falls  when  the  northerns 
prevail  on  the  Gulf  coast,  and  it  becomes  cloudy  and  drizzly,  and  the 
same  effect  is  felt,  more  or  less,  in  other  portions  of  the  country.  As 
the  country  narrows  towards  the  southeast,  especially  at  Tehuantepec, 
the  northern  wind  blows  with  but  small  obstacles,  and  its  force  and 
effects  are  felt  all  over  it.  The  districts  in  the  mountains  bordering 
the  Pacific  are  affected  in  the  same  way  as  the  City  of  Mexico. 

From  3000  to  5000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea  is  located  our 
temperate  zone,  which  succeeds  the  hot  zone  in  a  verticle  position, 
and  embraces  all  the  higher  terraces,  and  portions  of  the  central 
plateaus  themselves.  The  mean  temperature  is  from  62  to  70  degrees, 
Fahrenheit,  varying  not  more  than  4  to  5  degrees  during  the  season, 
thus  making  one  of  the  very  finest  climates  on  the  face  of  the  earth. 
In  this  privileged  region  both  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  are  unknown, 


Climate.  37 

and  it  has  several  cities — Jalapa  and  Huatusco  in  the  State  of  Vera- 
cruz, Chilpancingo  in  Guerrero,  Ameca  in  Jalisco,  and  many  others  too 
numerous  to  mention  here.  As  these  places  are  generally  located  on 
the  slopes  of  mountains  and  not  far  removed  from  the  ocean,  the 
evaporations  from  the  sea  form  clouds  which  are  detained  in  their 
course  by  the  high  peaks  and  are  preci])itated  into  rain.  In  this 
region  the  semi-tropical  productions  are  abundant,  and  with  them  are 
often  combined  the  products  of  tropical  and  cold  regions.  I  have 
seen  in  my  own  native  place,  the  city  of  Oaxaca,  located  in  the 
temperate  region,  a  farm  where  wheat  and  sugar-cane  were  growing  on 
the  same  piece  of  ground. 

The  cold  region  is  located  from  7000  feet  above  the  sea-level  up- 
wards, and  has  a  mean  temperature  of  from  59  to  6^  degrees, 
Fahrenheit.  Most  of  the  grand  central  plateau  is  located  in  this  region, 
except  in  such  places  as  are  in  a  great  depression  of  ground  and  in 
deep  ravines,  where  a  warm  temperature  and  tropical  products  are 
found.  The  rainfall  is  about  five  times  less  than  in  the  temperate  zone. 
This  region,  of  course,  produces  all  the  growths  of  the  cold  latitudes, 
as  wheat,  oats,  apples,  etc.,  etc. 

The  portion  of  the  country  that  is  most  thickly  inhabited  lies  in 
the  central  plateau,  and  is  quite  high  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and 
so  sheltered  from  the  winds  and  storms  by  the  mountains  as  to  make 
the  climate  even,  temperate,  and  delightful.  The  imjjression  pre- 
vails in  the  United  States  that  Mexico,  lying  to  the  south  and  run- 
ning towards  the  equator,  must  be  much  warmer  than  this  country  ; 
but  this  is  not  so.  Even  in  warm  places,  like  the  lowlands  on  the 
coast,  we  do  not  have  the  extreme  hot  weather  that  is  experienced 
in  summer  in  the  United  States.  The  sea  breezes  refresh  the  atmos- 
phere at  night  and  cool  it  considerably,  making,  therefore,  a  very 
great  contrast  with  the  summer  heat  in  this  country.  The  medium 
climate  of  the  Valley  of  Mexico,  for  instance,  which  is  the  one  that 
has  been  best  observed  and  understood,  varies  comparatively  little 
between  summer  and  winter,  its  greatest  variations  being  between  day 
and  night  on  the  same  day. 

The  climatic  conditions  of  Mexico  are  undergoing  great  changes  on 
account  of  the  destruction  of  the  forests.  The  country  had  formerly 
a  great  deal  of  rain  and  much  humidity  in  the  atmosphere,  being 
covered  with  thick  forests  ;  but  with  the  difficulty  of  transporting  the 
coal  already  found,  the  poj)ulation  has  had  to  depend  entirely  for  their 
supply  of  fuel  upon  charcoal,  and  this  has  in  the  course  of  time 
denuded  the  mountains,  changing  very  materially  the  climatic  con- 
ditions of  some  regions  in  the  country.  But  in  the  lowlands,  being 
thinly  inhabited,  the  case  is  different,  and  the  country  is  still  so  thickly 
wooded  that   it  is  impossible  to  pass  through  it,  unless  an  open  path 


38 


Oeograpbical  Botes  on  /IDejico. 


is  made  with  a  great  deal  of  difficult)-,  by  felling  very  high  trees  and 
low  brush  and  weeds.  In  this  region  abound  forests  of  mahogany, 
cedar,  rosewood,  etc.  I  will  later  state  more  in  detail  the  conditions 
of  the  fuel  question  in  Mexico. 

As  a  whole,  the  Mexican  climate,  if  not  of  the  most  invigorating 
nature,  is  certainly  one  of  the  most  delightful  in  the  world.  The  zone 
of  temperate  lands,  oceanic  slopes,  enjoy  an  everlasting  spring, 
being  exposed  neither  to  severe  winter,  nor  to  intolerable  summer 
heats  ;  in  every  glen  flows  a  rippling  stream  ;  every  human  abode  is 
embowered  in  leafy  vegetation  ;  and  here  the  native  plants  are  inter- 
mingled with  those  of  Europe  and  Africa.  Each  traveller  in  his  turn 
describes  the  valley  in  which  he  has  tarried  longest  as  the  loveliest 
in  the  world  ;  nowhere  else  do  the  snowy  crests  or  smoking  volcanic 
cones  rise  in  more  imposing  grandeur  above  the  surrounding  sea  of 
verdure,  all  carpeted  with  the  brightest  flowers.  In  these  enchanting 
regions  there  is  still  room  for  millions  and  millions  of  human  beings. 

The  following  table  prepared  by  the  Meteorological  Observatory  of 
the  City  of  Mexico  shows  the  meteorological  conditions  of  the 
principal  Mexican  cities  during  several  years,  their  elevation  upon  the 
sea-level  being  marked  in  metres  and  the  temperature  under  the 
Centigrade  scale. 

SUMMARY     OF    THE    METEOROLOGICAL    OBSERVATIONS  TAKEN    IN    SEVERAL 
CITIES    OF    MEXICO    DURING    SEVERAL    YEARS. 


LOCALITIES. 


Monterey,  N.  L 

Saltillo,    Coah 

Ciiliacan,  Sin 

Mazatlan,   Sin 

Zacatecas,   Zac 

San  Luis  Potosi,  S.  L.  P. 

Pabellon,   Ag 

Aguascalientes,  Ag 

Huejutla,  Hid 

Leon,  Gto 

Guanajuato,    Gto 

Tuxpam,  Ver 

Guadalajara,    Jal 

Queretaro,    Que 

Pachuca,  Kid 

San  Juan  del  Rio,  Que.. 

Patzcuaro,  Mich 

Mexico,  D.  F 

Tacubaya,  D.  F 

Puebla,  Pue 

Tlacotalpam,  Ver 

Oaxaca,  Oax 


25  40  j  495- 
25  25  1633. 
24  48   34. 


24  II 
22  46 
22  9 
22  4 

21  53 
21  41 


20  sg 
20  41 

23  35 
20  7 
19  49 
'9  31 
19  26 
19  12 
19  03 
18  36 
17  04 


4- 

2496. 


376. 
179S. 
2060. 


1567- 
1850. 
2460. 
1976. 
2138. 
2282. 
2322. 
2172. 
3- 
1541- 


(U  J) 

6S 


mm. 
709.1 
632.1 
754-9 
759-3 
573-4 
613-4 
607.8 

605 . 1 
765. ij 
617.41 
601.3 
763.0 

636 . 2 
613.8 
574 -Si 


TEMPERATURES 
IN    THE    SHADE. 


33-2 

34-0 
35-9 
34-1 
21.8 
33-9 
24.0 

29-5 
34 -o 
35-6 
3°-7 


35-5 
33-1 
27.2 


586.41  31.6 
583.61  28.6 
593-2'   31-9 

760.4 

636. 6 I  32.9 


II. 7 

—2.8 

12-5 

10.3 

6.1 

—1.8 

12.2 

2.8 

10. o 

— 1 .1 

1-3 


—4-5 

"o.'e 


-1-7 
0.8 
-I.I 

'6!2' 


21.0 

16.8 
25.6 
25.2 
13.2 

17.4 
18.2 
18.6 

23.0 

18.9 

17.6 

24.5 
19.7 
18. 1 
13-7 

18.3 
16. 1 
15-4 

'5-5 
15-7 
25-3 
20.6 


>  5 


4.4 


N. 


3.41  N.W. 
3.2     S.E. 
4.4       W. 
4.0  S.S.E. 


S.W. 


N.W. 


::2 

S.W. 

3-5 

E. 

4-3 

E. 

5.0 

s.wr. 

4-7 

E.N.E. 

4.8       N. 

•i  ° 


S.E. 

N. 


N.W. 

S.E. 

E. 

W.S.W. 

N. 


N.N.W. 


W. 


E. 
N.E. 
N.E. 

W. 
N.W. 
N.W. 
N.E. 
N.E. 

W. 


mm. 

3413-5 

527-3 

.  ■ .  - !  125.2 
1.7:  519.2 
2.6  819. I 
1-3!  389-0 
i-2[   537'° 

,...i  542.2 
2019.3 


0.6 


729.8 
964.5 
1654.3 
861.9 

602.  2 
2.4I     436.8 

.  ...j  567.1 
.  .  .  .  IIIO.4 

0.8  614. s 

,...;  668.1 
1.9  926.0 
, . . .  2264.0 
, ...  649.3 


Climate. 


39 


\o 

y, 

0\ 

w 

00 

u. 

< 

r4 

H 

<1 

> 

o 

w 

H 

ffi 

< 

H 

> 

p; 

O 

w 

'^ 

UJ 

1— t 

(M 

e<5 

o 

1:3 

< 

a.  O 

E 
E 

4-00 

r  ooo  0 

•  vo    t^vo 

OVO 

vd  6- 

6> 

r 

3 

•^ 

0 

d 

E 

E 

•    «      ^KO    0    N    fOO> 

•  mom 

^00     OM 

m 

^  11  r«  ♦  r^ 

:  r  0  M 

H 

C/) 

;•<»•;'«•  Tt-  IT)  «   m 

.  «  «  « 

•  ^oo 

m 

.     ■♦  M     N     M 

-  •  ■♦« 

•puooas  jad  Xji 

E^. 

■^  : 

■    lO 

•   OVO 

-One 

•  m  r^  o  o  o 

.    «    tx  0    t^ 

:  :  «  0 

-00J3A  lunuiixBj^ 

3     • 

'.  2 

•  «3    lO 

-    N  vo    "> 

:S^8<i2g 

.   «   "   0  VO 

•    •  t^oo 

a 
z 

p.  ■■3 

:       ^' 

•puooas  jad  Xu 

e-:i 

3      .COOOmM      .      .(^CiN 

..rMr,m.n.«-.-«-mr^N 

•   OVVO 

-oopA  aSEJ3Ay 

'       •    0    M     »    «       .       .    M     M    « 

:  ;  M  M  m  o'  "'   :  «  «  o'  ci 

.  «  « 

1  = 
S.2 

:w  . 

^ 

0 

*-^ 

=  :^  . 

•,!5f^ 

.  .w 

^  .w'w'^ 

•    •    .WWW 

•  .w 

0 

o  is 
fl-3 

zw  . 

Iz" 

■  •^^-  •  • 

•w  • 

u 

c/ 

MW 

:z; 

.•   ^zz 

:    ^ 

•UtBI    JO 

V-       f 

«      -OOONOO-CIOM 

O  vo  »n  moo  t-s  M     *  rs.vo  tovo 

•    «  vo 

-UB    UE3J^ 

lO  I 

o   .  ■«•  -i-vo  m  •*   :  fo  •*  lo 

«^m*rom*    .  m*m* 

.   lO  10 

1          . 

E 

E 

•  0   r^cjo  CO   M   o  ONOO  o 

H 

•♦vo  vo  ♦OO  o  0  »n  «  moo    *  0  vo       i 

.S    S2 

.  inod  00  lA  rn  o  <r,  m  6 

.  (N  ■♦CO  c*  fn  0  CO  vo  en 

HI 

r^  r^'o  0  M*t-^mo  move 

*       U.Q^ 

2  ■* 

"• 

^ 

m*mio«  ♦c>-«-m-«-»^   .  me» 

i-i 

c 

o 

030,335703330.   .o3 

z" 

K  j; 

n  •  «  ■<^  lo  iA\o  >H  00  M  CO 

00 

♦  10  c^  M  00  vo  vo  moo  m  M    •  t^  o> 

•VO    t 

-.    '    0    <rr)  rt-OO    ^  O    O  0    0 

•   0O«^^^Nln.0'^'+0■^wlnln      1 

w 

S  -S 

E"-1 

,  r^  o   ooo  w  »-t  cxa  ON  0 

vo    "    N    OVVO    ■«- 

o  m  M  00  -«-  FN 

vo    «■  vo'    •«•  P 
M    •♦00  vo  CC 

m  ~  « 

.5    o 

"     .-    ^    .-              ^ 

^ 

^ 

Pi  -^ 

^4. 

It 

•333   "3  3"3   3  U 

t^  ^  <•>■  *i  i*  "■ 

3   3   4)   4J   3   1> 
1— >^>C/1  C/:  1— iM 

i;  1)   3   3  4)   3l2   3 
0  M  —,1-^  <-^  I-, 

o-  c 

•  OO     tN    ■sj-  M     0 

«  r^  0 

o-O   o^iN  inmfvO   Coo  moo  oc 

-    ♦vo 

IBIOX 

i"^ 

^   •  t^  ■*  c>  in  '^^ 
^   •  o  o   t^  o  I-I 
■v    •  m  IT)  r^  m  m 

•o  o  ■«■ 

■^00  o  g  ^  t^  CMO  moo  r^oo  t^  o  m  o 
•-f  vo  vo   t^  «  vc  «  -^  r-^vo   mvo  \o  m  -^^ 

JO  sAeq 

0    t 

.  :SS^Sg^!^ 

^=2? 

«    ^  OOO    t^  O^OO    (N  vo  vo    O-VO 

•     N     M 

^ 

.     H     H.      <N     M     M 

H                             M             « 

vo    «     • 

•Xjipiuinjj 

Kv^ 

J-     •    (N  00      •  CO    t^ 

h*  t^  in 

o  Q  fn  0  moo  -^   •  o 
m^o  vo  vo  t-^  lo  lo   .  \c 

a 

'?,  :°S: 

W   M 

B 

00     T 

t*   •  «  ovo  ^o  >t*  M  t^  M  m 

OminHwooOMC) 

0  00 

Ov  «   0 

11 

E 

•    d  c 
1 

'iP'^r''"^"" 

"r""°-°rr^r 

irj  invd 

■*■  6 

•  M  M  in  0  t^  0  m  u-ioo 

Ooo  mo  t^mmmcn«  '«^^^ 

«    0    Ov 

S 

"■«•(■ 

^   .vo  '^roTh-^j-o  mo  M 

m  0 

ro-^mmromfOM  mw  m<N 

m  m  m 

c 

•  cc 

CO  a-  -^  "-1  -*■  «  0  -^00  00 

ro  oco  M  M  m  -^i-  w  m  N  moo 

0    l-c    lA 

H  2 

B 

<•           .     T 

h  in  o-co  CO  CO  o^  (N  in  m-o 

vo  w  vo  w  -<j-  rxoo   moo  mom 

0 

E  ^• 

:  M  M 

o- « 

m*in 

m-^w  m-   OVO   0   M  omo* 

♦  OVO 

O  Q 
h  O'    0 

E 

>S-o 

COO 
-«■  -TOO 
C^  t^  m 

CO  o  o  mvo  CO  o^  ?  ^  m  ?  m 
m  t^vo  vo  m  mvo  mvo  mv5  m 

vo  vo  m 
t^  tnvo 

X 

!  t^  m 

vo  00 

ov  a«  cTv 

mt^mw  oo  'd-mmmo^m 

M     Tf   ♦ 

11 

E 

:  ^0  O 

VO  >o 

vo  vo    0> 

t^  t^  in 

Mco  mcjoo'oo*'-'  (N\o  0*  M  d 
O'o  M   -Tft^oN  m  mvo  <N  \o 
m  t*Hvo  vo  m  mvo  mvo  mvo  m 

B 

E  : 

")   '   t*^vo    rn  m  M 

00   >o  « 

«  o^oo  omo  OVO  m»H  «vo 

m  ovoo 

n  M 

s 

00 

;  i;::;  2  '^^ 

o^o  vo 

•o  -^oo  vo'  m  ■^vo  00  w  "O  vo  vo 

«N    cl  vo 

•»   ;  vo  vo  "O  vo  vo 

invo  »ovo  m 
«  10  mo  0 

t^  lOVO 

vo  0  0 

0  ^ 

-»   •  oo  00  o  mvo  o  m  m  in 

vo  o  M  o  r%  c 

EScS 

s,   -OQ   o  Nooooe-.mt^ 

•oovomMOvo        citN. 

f-ino-^a^t^-m           w 

3Aoqc  apnjpiY 

Omt^NVO    ulf^-J-o-Tj-ct 

»   ^vg 

•'«!  'N 

?:: 

ro  <N        rn  ►-  m  « 

""o_~'« "« "K~iN  vb  00  Vi'o'vb  Vi) 

"m  vb  vb 

1  -  ♦  m 

vnovc^O    O^O    0    m«    O    O'C 

0  (N  0 

'"■'o 

t/i 

^C/3 

0 

M 

.  o 

o_. 

U 

il 

n  c 

o     . 

0 

"o 

dJ 

0 

(J 
o 
•J 

c 
"n 
rt 

s 

< 

s 

V 

u 

:2 

0 

c 

C 

o. 

g 

V- 

c 

a 

a 

4J 

1 

B 
ti 

a 

ij  rt  rt 
cos 

O   O   3 

I)  Ur" 
S3 

t 

c 

O 

_2 
c 

0 

= 

0 

si 
^0 

c 
0 

■3 

~ 
4) 

_c 
Vi 

c 

': 

c 
« 

d 

; 
"o 

«. 
r. 

.0 

H 

c 

0 

N 

40  Gcocjrapbical  iHotes  on  /IDejico. 

The  table  on  page  39  shows  the  results  of  the  meteorological  ob- 
servations taken  in  the  principal  cities  of  Mexico  during  the  year  1896, 

Professor  Mariano  Barcena,  director  of  our  National  Meteorological 
Observatory  or  Weather  Bureau,  furnished  me  the  following  data  about 
the  maximum  and  minimum  of  temperature  and  greatest  oscillation 
both  in  summer  and  winter  of  several  cities  in  Mexico,  located  both  at 
the  sea-level  like  Merida  and  Mazatlan,  at  different  altitudes  like  Jalapa, 
San  Luis  Potosi,  Oaxaca,  and  at  the  highest  level  like  the  cities  of 
Mexico,  Pachuca,  and  Zacatecas,  showing  the  mildness  of  the  Mexi- 
can climate. 

CITY    OF    MEXICO, 

Maximum  temperature  in  the  shade  in  summer 84.9,  May  5th. 

Maximum  temperature  in  winter 72.0,  December. 

Minimum  temperature  in  winter 32.9,  January  and  February. 

Greatest  oscillation  in  one  day  in  winter 13.7 

Greatest  oscillation  in  one  day  in  summer 32.9 

PUEBLA  (state  OF  PUEBLA). 

Maximum  temperature  in  the  shade  in  summer 83. S,  April. 

Maximum  temperature  in  winter 74.7,  February. 

Minimum  temperature  in  winter 32.9,  January. 

Greatest  oscillation  in  one  day  in  winter 36.3 

Greatest  oscillation  in  one  day  in  summer 34.4 

OAXACA  (STATE  OF  OAXACA). 

Maximum  temperature  in  the  shade  in  summer 93-7,  May. 

Maximum  temperature  in  winter 83.1,  February. 

Minimum  temperature  in  winter 39-2,  January  and  December. 

Greatest  oscillation  in  one  day  in  winter 39. 1 

Greatest  oscillation  in  one  day  in  summer 37.8 

JALAPA  (state  of  VERACRUZ). 

Maximum  temperature  in  shade  in  summer 89.6,  April. 

Maximum  temperature  in  winter 87.1,  December. 

Minimum  temperature  in  winter 33-8,  February. 

Greatest  oscillation  in  one  day  in  winter 35.3 

Greatest  oscillation  in  one  day  in  summer 32.0 

QUERETARO  (STATE  OF  QUERETARO). 

Maximum  temperature  in  the  shade  in  summer 90.  i,  April  and  June. 

Maximum  temperature  in  winter  80.4,  December. 

Minimum  temperature  in  winter 32.9,  January. 

Greatest  oscillation  in  one  day  in  winter 39.4 

Greatest  oscillation  in  one  day  in  summer 34.7 


Climate.  41 

GUANAJUATO  (STATE  OF  GUANAJUATO). 

Maximum  temperature  in  the  shade  in  summer 9i-9»  April. 

Maximum  temperature  in  winter 82.0,  FeV)ruary. 

Minimum  temperature  in  winter 36.0,  January. 

Greatest  oscillation  in  one  day  in  winter 36.7 

Greatest  oscillation  in  one  day  in  summer 36.7 

LEON  (state  of  GUANAJUATO). 

Maximum  temperature  in  the  shade  in  summer 91-6,  May  and  June. 

Maximum  temperature  in  winter 77>o,  February. 

PACHUCA  (state  OF  HIDALGO). 

Maximum  temperature  in  the  shade  in  summer S0.2,  May, 

Maximum  temperature  in  winter 77. o,  December. 

Minimum  temperature  in  winter 32.4,  December. 

Greatest  oscillation  in  one  day  in  winter 33-3 

Greatest  oscillation  in  one  day  in  summer 28.6 

REAL  DEL  MONTE  (STATE  OF  HIDALGO). 

Maximum  temperature  in  the  shade  in  summer 80.2,  March. 

Maximum  temperature  in  winter 74- 1,  January. 

Minimum  temperature  in  winter 3i-6,  January. 

SALTILLO  (state  OF  COAHUILA). 

Maximum  temperature  in  the  shade  in  summer 89.6,  April. 

Maximum  temperature  in  winter 75-7,  January. 

Minimum  temperature  in  winter 12.2,  February. 

Greatest  oscillation  in  one  day  in  winter 32.8 

Greatest  oscillation  in  one  day  in  summer 25.6 

MERIDA  (state  OF  YUCATAN). 

Maximum  temperature  in  the  shade  in  summer 103.6,  April  and  June. 

Maximum  temperature  in  winter 92.8,  January. 

Minimum  temperature  in  winter 47.8,  February. 

Greatest  oscillation  in  one  day  in  winter 37.1 

Greatest  oscillation  in  one  day  in  summer 38.7 

MAZATLAN  (STATE  OF  SINALOA). 

Maximum  temperature  in  the  shade  in  summer 91.0,  September. 

Maximum  temperature  in  winter 84.0,  December. 

Minimum  temperature  in  winter. 15.8,  February. 

Greatest  oscillation  in  one  day  in  winter 16.9 

Greatest  oscillation  in  one  day  in  summer 17.5 

MEXICO    AS    A    SANITARIUM. 

Although  the  City  of  Mexico,  on  account  of  its  present  unsatisfac- 
tory sanitary  conditions,  of  which  I  will  treat  in  speaking  of  that  city 
and  which  I  am  sure  will  be  remedied  before  long,  cannot  be  consid- 
ered now  as  the  best  place  for  invalids,  there  are  many  other  localities 
in  the  country  presenting  great  advantages  as  sanitariums. 


42  (Beoorapbical  IWotes  on  /IDejico. 

The  mild  nature  and  evenness  of  most  of  our  climate  is  very  favor- 
able to  certain  diseases — especially  pulmonary  ones — and  when  that 
advantage  becomes  well  known  the  central  plateau  of  Mexico  will  be 
the  best  sanitarium  for  lung  diseases,  and  especially  for  tuberculosis. 
Other  lung  diseases  requiring  a  warmer  climate  could  find  desirable 
places  in  certain  valleys  in  the  temperate  zone  like  Cuantla,  Cuerna- 
vaca,  Tasco,  Iguala,  and  others.  These  very  conditions,  namely,  the 
even  and  mild  climate  both  in  summer  and  winter,  will  make  it  a  coun- 
try visited  by  thousands  of  pleasure  or  health  seekers  who  wish  to 
escape  both  extremes  of  the  northern  climate.  Even  now  we  would 
have  a  much  larger  travel  from  this  country  if  we  had  convenient  ac- 
commodations for  travellers,  but  our  hotels  are  not  yet  as  comfortable 
as  those  in  the  United  States. 

FLORA. 

The  short  and  imperfect  description  of  the  climate  of  Mexico, 
made  above,  will  show  that  we  can  raise  all  the  products  of  the 
three  different  zones  into  which  the  earth  is  divided,  and  the  most  re- 
markable thing  is  that  we  can  raise  them  almost  on  the  same  ground. 
By  going  only  a  few  miles,  for  instance,  travelling  on  horseback  four 
or  five  hours  from  a  low  to  a  higher  locality,  we  change  from  the  torrid 
to  the  temperate  zone,  and  therefore  we  can  have  the  products  of  both 
with  comparatively  little  trouble  ;  and  by  going  four  or  five  hours 
higher  still,  we  change  from  the  temperate  to  the  frigid  zone,  and  these 
are  advantages  of  our  geographical  position  which  can  be  appreciated 
only  by  those  who  have  experienced  them.' 

'  Mr.  Charles  Dudley  Warner,  editor  of  Harper  s  Monthly  Magazine^  in  a 
brilliant  article  published  in  the  July,  1897,  number  of  that  periodical,  gives  the  follow- 
ing description  of  the  rapid  descent  from  the  cold  to  the  temperate  and  hot  regions  of 
Mexico,  which  may  be  considered  as  a  specimen  of  the  scenery  in  many  other 
localities  of  that  country.  In  many  other  places,  where  there  are  no  wagon-roads, 
but  only  a  footpath,  the  descent  is  a  great  deal  more  rapid,  often  5000  feet  in 
four  or  five  miles,  and  then  the  contrast  is  still  greater.  At  Maltrata  for  instance,  an 
Indian  town  about  5000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  the  natives  offer  their  tropical 
fruits  to  the  passengers  of  the  Mexican  Railway  going  from  Veracruz  to  the  City  of 
Mexico,  and  they  leave  with  what  they  have  left  after  the  train  starts  to  climb  the 
mountains  to  the  Central  Plateau  to  an  altitude  of  about  9000  feet,  and  they  reach 
Esperanza,  the  first  station  on  the  Central  Plateau  far  ahead  of  the  train,  which  has  to 
describe  a  long,  zigzag  course  before  getting  there.  I  have  selected  the  following  ex- 
tract from  Mr.  Warners  article  because  it  relates  to  one  of  the  historical  places  of 
Mexico  : 

"  Cuernavaca  is  distinguished  as  the  actual  meeting-place  of  the  pine  and  the 
palm.  It  lies  only  a  little  more  than  fifty  miles  south  of  the  City  of  Mexico  ;  but  in 
order  to  reach  it  there  is  a  mountain  to  be  crossed  which  is  at  an  elevation  of  over  ten 
thousand  feet.  A  railway  climbs  up  this  mountain,  over  the  summit,  to  a  wind-swept 
plain,  in  the  midst  of  pine  forests,  called  Tres  Marias — marked  by  the  sightly  peaks 
of  the  Three  Marj's.     By  long  loops  and  zigzags  it  is  crawling  down  the  mountain  on 


jflora,  43 

The  Mexican  Southern  Railway,  from  Puebla  to  Oaxaca,  descends 
in  a  few  hours,  by  a  series  of  fertile  terraces,  from  an  elevation  of  seven 
thousand  feet  to  one  of  about  seventeen  hundred  and  fifty  feet,  when 
ths  wonderful  Caflon  de  los  Cues  is  reached,  a  region  of  cocoa-nuts  and 
bananas.  But  all  the  valleys  and  terraces  in  March  are  green  or  yellow 
with  wheat  and  corn  and  sugar-cane.  It  confuses  one's  ideas  to  pass  a 
field  of  wheat,  the  green  blades  just  springing  from  the  ground,  and 
then  a  field  ripe  for  harvest,  and  then  a  threshing-floor  where  the  grain 
is  being  trodden  out  by  mules.  This  means  that  you  can  plant  and 
reap  every  day  in  the  year,  if  you  can  obtain  water  in  the  dry  season, 
and  do  not  wait  for  the  regular  and  copious  summer  rains. 

The  magnificent  arboreal  vegetation  embraces  one  hundred  and 
fourteen  different  species  of  building  timber  and  cabinet  woods,  includ- 
ing oaks,  pines,  firs,  cedars,  mahogany,  and  rosewood  ;  twelve  species 
of  dyewoods  ;  eight  of  gum  trees  :  the  cacao  and  india-rubber,  copal, 
liquid-ambar,  camphor,  turpentine,  pine,  mezquite  yielding  a  substance 

the  other  side  to  Cuernavaca.  Mexico  City  has  an  elevation  of  seven  thousand  five 
hundred  feet,  Tres  Marias  of  about  ten  thousand,  and  Cuernavaca  of  five  thousand. 
The  descent  by  the  wagon-road  is  in  length  only  twelve  miles,  but  the  drop  in  that 
distance  is  five  thousand  feet,  so  that  the  traveller  passes  very  quickly  from  temperate 
to  tropical  conditions. 

"  From  the  heights  Cuernavaca  seems  to  lie  in  a  plain,  but  it  is  really  on  a  pro- 
montory between  two  barrancas,  and  the  whole  country  beyond  is  broken,  till  the 
terraces  fall  off  into  more  tropical  places,  where  the  view  is  bordered  by  purple 
mountains.  Indeed,  the  little  city  in  the  midst  of  this  tumultuous  plain  is  surrounded 
by  lofty  mountains.  The  country  around,  and  especially  below  to  the  south,  is  irri- 
gated, and  presents  a  dozen  contrasts  of  color  in  the  evergreen  foliage,  the  ripening 
yellow  crops  of  sugar-cane  and  grain,  the  clusters  of  big  trees  here  and  there  about  a 
village  or  a  hacienda,  and  the  frequent  church-towers.  All  this  is  loveliness,  a  mixture 
of  temperate  and  tropical  grace,  but  there  is  grandeur  besides.  Looking  to  the  east, 
say  from  the  Palace  of  Cortez,  over  the  fields  of  purple  and  green  and  yellow  and 
brown,  where  the  graceful  palms  place  themselves  just  as  an  artist  would  have  them 
in  the  foreground  of  his  picture,  the  view  is  certainly  one  of  the  finest  in  the  world. 
There  is  in  the  left  the  long  mountain  range  with  the  peaks  of  Tres  Marias,  and  along 
the  foot  of  it  haciendas  and  towers,  cones  of  extinct  volcanoes  and  noble  rocky 
promontories.  To  form  the  middle-distance  mountains  come  into  the  picture,  sloping 
together  to  lead  the  eye  along  from  one  "  value"  to  another,  violet,  purple,  dark  or 
shining  as  the  sun  strikes  them,  while  on  the  left  is  a  noble  range  of  naked  precipices 
of  red  rock,  always  startling  in  color.  It  is  some  two  thousand  feet  up  the  side  of 
one  of  these  red  cliffs  that  there  is  the  remains  of  an  ancient  city  of  Cliff-dwellers — 
almost  inaccessible  now,  but  once  the  home  of  a  race  that  understood  architecture  and 
knew  how  to  carve.  The  lines  of  this  natural  picture,  the  fields,  the  intervening 
ledges,  the  lofty  mountains,  all  converge  to  the  spot  ihe  artist  would  choose  for  the 
eye  to  rest,  and  there,  up  in  the  heavens,  are  the  snow-clad  peaks  of  Popocatepetl 
and  Iztaccihuatl,  about  seventeen  thousand  five  hundred  feet  above  the  sea,  volcanic 
creators  of  the  region,  and  now  undisputed  lords  of  the  landscape.  In  the  evening  these 
peaks  are  rosy  in  the  sun  ;  in  the  morning  their  white  immobility  is  defined  against 
the  rosy  sunshine." 


44  6coornpbical  1Rote£5  on  /IDejico. 

similar  to  gum-arabic,  dragon  trees,  and  the  almacigo  or  Callitris 
quadvalvis,  from  which  sandarac  is  extracted.  Among  the  oil-bearing 
trees  and  plants,  of  which  there  are  seventeen  varieties,  are  the  olive, 
cocoa  palm,  almond,  sesame,  flax,  the  tree  yielding  the  balsam  of  Peru, 
and  others.  There  are  fifty-nine  classified  species  of  medicinal  plants, 
and  many  more  are  mentioned  by  botanists  as  still  unclassified  by 
science. 

Of  the  many  delicious  fruits  which  grow  in  the  tropical  regions, 
only  a  few — the  pineapple,  the  banana,  and  the  cocoa-nut — are  known 
in  this  country,  the  orange  being  rather  a  semi-tropical  fruit.  The 
others  require,  as  all  fruits  do,  cultivated  taste,  and,  therefore,  if  im- 
ported here  would  not  find  a  market.  Even  those  which  do  come  here 
are  of  very  inferior  flavor,  owing  to  the  fact  that  they  are  cut  green  so 
as  to  prevent  their  decay  during  transportation,  and  they,  of  course, 
have  a  less  agreeable  taste  than  in  the  place  where  they  grow.  Of  the 
banana,  for  instance,  we  have  about  twenty  varieties,  some  of  which — 
the  richest  in  my  opinion — grow  to  a  size  from  twelve  to  fifteen  inches 
in  length  and  from  two  to  three  inches  in  diameter. 

We  can  raise  in  Mexico  all  the  products  of  the  world  because  we 
have  all  climates,  from  the  perpetual  snow  to  the  burning  sun  of  the 
equator  ;  but  it  would  take  a  great  deal  more  space  than  I  can  dispose 
of  in  this  paper,  to  mention  all  the  agricultural  products  we  can  raise, 
and  I  will,  therefore,  confine  myself  to  only  such  as  I  think  are  now  of 
more  importance. 

Coffee. — Mexico  has  many  localities  well  suited  for  the  raising  of 
coffee,  and  the  production  of  that  berry  can  in  the  future  be  very 
largely  increased.  In  the  proper  locality,  namely,  zone,  ground,  and 
climate,  coffee  can  be  raised  on  a  large  scale  at  comparatively  small 
cost,  affording  always  a  large  profit,  whatever  may  be  in  the  future  its 
price  in  foreign  markets. 

I  have  had  personal  experience  in  coffee-raising,  having  made  a 
coffee  plantation  in  the  district  of  Soconusco,  in  the  State  of  Chiapas  ; 
and  I  took  especial  interest  in  visiting  other  plantations,  both  in  Mexico 
and  Guatemala,  where  coffee  had  attained  a  large  development.  My 
experience  has  shown  me  that  the  best  zone  for  coffee  is  located  between 
one  and  five  thousand  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  as  coffee  is  not  a 
product  of  the  hot  but  of  the  temperate  zone.  On  the  highlands,  as  a 
rule,  the  quality  of  the  coffee  is  better  and  the  yield  large,  while  the 
lowlands  give  an  earlier  but  smaller  yield.  There  are  coffee  planta- 
tions in  Mexico,  almost  down  to  the  level  of  the  sea,  which  are  yielding 
coffee,  and  from  that  to  the  elevation  of  six  thousand  feet,  producing 
also  a  very  good  quality  of  coffee.  For  further  information  on  this 
subject,  I  refer  the  reader  to  a  treatise  on  coffee-raising  on  the  south- 
ern coast  of  the  State  of  Chiapas,  which  T  published  in  the  City  of 


Iflora.  45 

Mexico  in  1874,  and  which  contains  detailed  information  on  the  sev- 
eral factors  affecting  that  industry. 

It  is  interesting  to  know  the  production  of  coffee  in  Mexico,  taken 
from  some  statistics  for  1896  : 

Cordoba  produces 10,000,000  lbs. 

Huatusco  and  Coatepec 10,000,000    " 

Oaxaca 6,000,000    " 

Tabasco 5,000,000    " 

Chiapas 3,000,000    " 

Other  districts 26,000,000    " 

60,000,000  lbs. 

Sugar-Cane. — Mexico  has  many  localities  where  sugar-cane  can  be 
raised  at  a  very  small  cost,  and  where  that  industry  can  be  made  very 
lucrative,  although  we  hardly  produce  enough  sugar  for  our  home  con- 
sumption. From  the  sea-level  to  the  frost  line,  which  ranges,  in  differ- 
ent localities,  from  three  to  five  thousand  feet  above  the  sea-level, 
sugar-cane  can  be  raised  in  Mexico  to  great  advantage.  I  have  seen 
the  cane  in  some  places,  especially  in  Soconusco,  attain  a  height  of 
twelve  feet  and  a  diameter  of  about  five  inches  ;  and  in  some  localities 
it  lasts  from  ten  to  eighteen  years  without  need  of  replanting,  and  can 
be  cut  for  grinding  twice  a  year.  When  it  is  considered  that  in  some 
places,  like  Louisiana,  sugar  has  to  be  planted,  as  I  believe,  every  two 
years,  and  that  it  is  liable  to  be  destroyed  by  frosts,  the  advantages  of 
Mexico  for  that  industry  are  apparent. 

The  favorable  conditions  of  Mexico  for  raising  sugar-cane  are  so 
great  that  I  have  seen  the  natives  in  the  Indian  town  of  Loxicha,  in 
the  State  of  Oaxaca,  plant  a  small  plot  of  sugar-cane,  grind  it  with 
primitive  wooden  mills  moved  by  hand  power,  using  very  primitive 
earthen  pans,  to  evaporate  the  juice  and  make  brown  sugar — losing  of 
course  a  great  part  of  the  saccharine  matter  in  the  cane, — transport  the 
sugar,  sometimes  a  distance  of  thirty  miles  on  mule-back,  and  sell  it  at 
one  cent  per  pound,  and  still  make  a  profit. 

For  sugar-cane  the  lowlands  are  the  best,  and  the  plant  is  essen- 
tially a  tropical  one.  It  will  grow,  however,  at  very  considerable  alti- 
tudes, but  when  planted  in  the  mountains  it  takes  a  longer  time  to 
ripen,  and  soon  ceases  to  give  remunerative  crops.  There  was  in 
southern  Veracruz  a  sugar-cane  only  six  months  old  which  had  a 
circumference  of  7^  inches.  Where  that  cane  grew  the  yield  of  cane 
per  acre  was  about  80  tons  when  twelve  months  old.  The  elevation 
was  something  like  1000  feet.  It  is  true,  however,  that  the  bulk  of 
the  cane  grown  in  Mexico  is  to  be  found  above  2000  feet,  but  I  am 
convinced  that  a  lower  altitude  would  produce  even  better  results. 

Tobacco. ^i\.xx\o\\Q^  the  tropical  products  of  superior  quality  that  we 


46  Gcograpbical  IRotes  on  /IDcjico. 

raise  in  the  hot  zone,  I  should  mention  tobacco,  the  Mexican  tobacco 
being,  in  General  Grant's  estimation,  superior  to  the  Havana  article. 
The  natural  conditions  of  soil  and  temperature  are  the  same  in  Cuba 
and  Mexico,  but  we  had  not  the  superior  experience  of  the  Cubans  in 
curing  the  leaf  until  the  late  insurrection  broke  out  in  Cuba,  in  1868, 
when  a  great  many  Cubans  went  to  Mexico  to  plant  tobacco.  As  the 
land  has  been  planted  in  Cuba  with  tobacco  for  nearly  four  hundred 
years,  and  as  tobacco  is  a  very  exhausting  crop,  it  has  become  indis- 
pensable to  manure  the  land  with  guano,  while  in  Mexico  we  have 
virgin  land,  and  tobacco  being  a  comparatively  new  industry,  no  guano 
needs  to  be  used.  General  Grant,  w-hom  I  consider  a  competent 
judge,  detected  the  taste  of  guano  in  the  Havana  cigars,  of  which  ours 
is  free,  and  he,  therefore,  preferred  to  smoke  the  Mexican  cigars. 

In  Cuba  the  exhausted  soil  cannot  produce  all  the  leaves  that  are 
required  for  the  world's  supply  of  Havana  cigars,  and  the  want  can 
only  be  filled  through  the  use  of  Mexico  leaf  tobacco,  the  weed 
produced  in  other  countries  having  similar  conditions.  The  Marquis 
de  Cabanas  sent  to  Sumatra  a  quantity  of  seed  when  it  became  obvi- 
ous that  the  soil  of  the  tobacco  region  of  Cuba  was  fast  being  worn  out. 
He  sent  seed  also  to  Java  and  to  the  United  States,  but  it  was  found 
that  it  was  impossible  to  raise  tobacco  of  the  quality  of  that  raised  in 
Havana  anywhere  but  in  Mexico.  That  raised  in  Java  from  Havana 
seed  was  very  coarse  and  rank,  replete  with  nicotine  and  meconic 
acid,  and  devoid  of  those  delicate  essential  oils  that  give  the  Havana 
and  -\Iexican  tobacco  their  fine  aroma. 

The  tobacco  plant  is  a  native  of  the  tropics,  and  thrives  best  in  the 
hot  lands.  It  is  a  hardy  plant,  however,  and  wall  grow  well  in  northern 
latitudes  in  the  summer  time.  It  often  happens  that  the  land  in  the 
tropics  is  actually  too  rich  for  the  successful  cultivation  of  tobacco. 

India- Rubber. — The  lowlands  of  Mexico,  especially  those  adjoining 
the  Pacific  Ocean  and  which  have  a  very  warm  and  moist  climate,  are 
very  well  adapted  for  the  india-rubber  tree,  which  attains  a  large  size 
and  yields  a  considerable  amount  of  india-rubber.  We  used  to  have 
whole  forests  of  them,  which  fact  shows  that  they  were  in  their  proper 
conditions  of  soil  and  climate,  as  they  could  outgrow  the  rank  vegeta- 
tion of  the  tropics,  and  prevent  the  growth  of  most  of  the  other  large 
trees  in  the  forests  ;  but  india-rubber  gatherers  have  destroyed  most  of 
them,  and  I  imagine  that  there  is  a  comparatively  small  number  left. 

I  have  always  thought  that  the  production  of  india-rubber  would 
before  long  cease  to  be  sufficient  to  supply  the  demand,  and  that, 
therefore,  the  value  of  that  article  would  increase  with  the  lapse  of 
time.  Now  it  is  to  be  expected  that  the  enormous  expansion  during 
the  last  few  years  of  the  cycle-tire,  electrical  motor-car,  cab,  and 
kindred  industries  will  lead  to  the  bestowal  of  increased  attention  on 


jflora,  47 

the  world's  rubber  supply,  which  is  so  intimately  associated  with  the 
existence  of  these  industries. 

Thinking  that  a  plantation  of  india-rubber  trees  would  be  very  re- 
munerative, I  devoted  considerable  attention  to  that  subject,  and  in 
1872  started  one  of  100,000  trees  in  a  place  admirably  located  for  the 
purpose,  bordering  on  the  Pacific  Ocean  and  between  two  large  rivers, 
in  the  same  district  of  Soconusco.  In  an  article  published  in  1872, 
under  the  title  "  India-Rubber  Culture  in  Mexico,"  I  compiled  all  the 
information  on  the  subject  that  I  could  obtain,  supplementing  it  with 
the  experience  that  I  had  acquired.  Unfortunately,  for  reasons  of  a 
political  nature,  I  had  to  abandon  that  plantation,  and  when  the  trees 
that  I  had  planted  grew  large  enough  to  yield  rubber,  they  were  tapped 
by  the  natives  and  entirely  destroyed,  but  my  work  gave  me  an  experi- 
ence which  I  considered  of  great  value.  For  further  information  on 
this  subject  I  refer  the  reader  to  the  above  mentioned  article. 

The  india-rubber  trees  that  grow  in  Mexico  are  not  the  Haevea 
guianensis  that  grows  in  Brazil,  but  the  Castilloa  elastica,  and  if  we 
have  any  of  the  Haevea  guianensis  I  have  not  seen  them. 

Enough  has  been  written  lately  on  rubber  cultivation  to  show  that 
the  profits,  in  Mexico  at  least,  would  be  very  great  ;  indeed,  300  ])er 
cent,  on  the  capital  invested  is  a  possible  return,  after  five  years,  from 
cultivating  Castilloa  elastica  in  that  Republic.  This  is  a  return  which 
provides  plenty  of  margin  for  contingencies.  Rubber-growing  is  no 
longer  in  the  experimental  stage,  as  witness  the  plantation  of  La  Esme- 
ralda, in  Oaxaca,  to  which  further  reference  is  made  below.  Culti- 
vated india-rubber  plantations  are  few,  for  the  reason  that,  in  some 
degree  like  the  coffee  plant,  the  india-rubber  tree  requires  a  long  period 
of  continuous  cultivation  before  making  any  return  to  the  cultivator. 
Mexico  affords  excellent  opportunities  for  the  development  of  this 
admittedly  profitable  industry.  On  this  point  the  authority  of  Sir 
Henry  Nevil  Bering,  the  British  Minister  to  Mexico,  who,  in  a  recent 
report  to  the  Foreign  Office  on  the  cultivation  of  india-rubber,  says  : 
"  The  regions  most  favorable  for  the  growth  of  this  important,  yet 
rarely  cultivated,  india-rubber  tree  are  the  plains  of  Pochutla, 
Oaxaca,  and  also  along  the  banks  of  the  Copalita  River  where  the 
tree  is  found  in  astonishing  numbers.  Few  are  the  plantations  of 
india-rubber  trees  existing  in  the  Republic  of  Mexico.  The  principal 
one  is  La  Esmeralda,  in  Juquila,  Oaxaca,  which  has  over  200,000 
trees,  eight  years  old."  According  to  the  same  report  the  total  ex- 
pense for  five  years'  cultivation  of  a  "rubber  plantation  of  100,000 
trees  will  not  exceed  $25,000  in  silver  and  the  yield  of  100,000  trees 
at  the  first  year's  harvest  will  bring  the  planter  $120,000,  besides  the 
product  obtained  from  the  corn,  vanilla  beans,  cacao,  and  bananas 
raised  from  side  planting.     The  net  profit  on  the  investment,  after  de- 


48  OeoQrapbical  IKlotes  on  /IDejico. 

ducting  the  entire  cost  of  the  land  and  all  expenses  up  to  the  first  year 
of  harvesting,  will  be  $95,000,  and  each  of  the  succeeding  harvests, 
for  twenty-five  or  thirty  years,  will  bring  a  steady  income  of  over 
$100,000."  This  is  400  per  cent,  per  annum  net  profit  on  the  invest- 
ment. These  calculations  are  based  upon  the  production  of  a  five- 
year-old  tree,  but  the  report  adds  that  "  this  product  will  be  gradually 
increased  every  year  for  the  next  four  or  five  years." 

Cotton. — We  have  many  regions  in  Mexico  very  favorably  located 
for  the  cultivation  of  cotton.  I  am  aware  that  the  cotton-growers  of 
the  United  States  hold  that  what  they  call  their  cotton  belt  has  pecul- 
iar conditions  for  the  production  of  their  staple,  which,  in  their  opinion, 
do  not  exist  in  any  other  portion  of  the  globe,  and  they  believe,  there- 
fore, that  nobody  can  compete  with  them  in  this  regard.  Without  any 
intention  of  depreciating  the  advantages  of  the  cotton  belt  of  this 
country,  I  am  of  the  opinion  that  there  are  in  Mexico  lands  as  well 
adapted  for  the  production  of  cotton  as  the  best  in  this  country,  and 
in  some  regions  perhaps  better  ;  yet,  notwithstanding  these  advantages, 
and  although  our  wages  are  low,  cotton  is  produced  cheaper  in  the 
United  States,  and  is  sold  with  profit  by  the  planters  for  one-half  the 
price  that  it  commands  in  Mexico.  So  great  is  the  difference  in  the 
price  of  this  staple  in  the  two  countries  that,  notwithstanding  an  import 
duty  on  cotton  of  eight  cents  per  kilogram,  or  almost  five  cents  per 
pound,  which  is  equivalent  to  fifty  cents  ad  valorem,  we  import  from 
this  country  a  very  large  portion  of  the  cotton  we  manufacture.  I  do 
not  overlook  the  fact  that  cotton  is  raised  here  by  negro  labor,  which 
is  considerably  cheaper  than  white  labor,  but,  even  assuming  that 
wages  in  this  case  be  the  same  in  both  countries,  the  difference  in  cost 
is  so  great  that  some  other  factor  besides  labor  must  enter  into  the  ex- 
pense of  production. 

As  our  cotton  manufactories  are  increasing,  more  especially  be- 
cause of  the  protection  afforded  to  home  products  by  the  depreciation 
of  silver,  we  now  produce  only  about  one  half  of  the  cotton  we  manu- 
facture, and  have  to  import  the  other  half  from  the  United  States  ;  but 
I  am  sure  that  before  long  we  shall  not  only  produce  enough  for  our 
own  consumption  but  also  for  export. 

Agave. — The  whole  central  plateau  abounds  in  many  species  of 
agave,  which  are  used  for  several  purposes.  In  the  eastern  portion  of 
the  plateau,  that  is,  from  the  City  of  Mexico  towards  Veracruz,  in  the 
region  called  the  Plains  of  Apam,  the  agave  yields  a  large  quantity  of  a 
white  juice,  similar  in  appearance  to  milk,  which  when  fermented  is 
used  as  a  tonic,  and  is  an  intoxicating  beverage.  The  amount  of  alco- 
hol it  contains  is  small — about  7  per  cent.,  I  believe — but  imbibed  in 
large  quantities  it  is  quite  intoxicating.  The  use  of  this  beverage, 
called  pulque,  has  become  very  extensive  in  Mexico,  and  it  must  have 


fflora.  49 

very  superior  qualities  both  as  a  tonic  and  nutritive,  when  many  live 
on  nothing  but  corn  and  pulque.  In  the  mining  districts,  where  a 
great  deal  of  nervous  force  is  expended  working  in  a  higli  temperature 
and  under  very  unhealthy  atmospheric  conditions,  this  drink  is  almost 
indispensable,  and  I  imagine  that  when  a  way  is  discovered  to  keep  it 
for  some  time,  and  its  medicinal  qualities  become  better  known,  it  will 
be  exported  in  considerable  quantities  and  used  by  foreign  countries. 
From  the  agave  of  other  districts  a  drink  is  made  called  mescal,  which 
has  some  remarkable  therapeutic  properties,  the  most  celebrated  being 
made  in  a  district  of  the  State  of  Jalisco  called  Tequila,  from  which 
it  takes  its  name  ;  and  in  the  very  dry  and  stony  regions  of  Yuca- 
tan another  species  of  agave  grows,  which  seems  to  derive  its  food 
wholly  from  the  atmosphere,  yielding  a  very  good  fibre,  much  like  ma- 
nilla,  which  we  now  export  in  large  quantities,  particularly  to  New 
York.  All  the  agave  yields  a  first-class  fibre  as  raw  material,  either  for 
paper  or  cordage — some  of  it  being  rather  coarse,  like  the  Yucatan 
henequen,  and  some  of  it  almost  as  fine  and  glossy  as  silk,  like  pita. 

Heneqiien. — By  far  the  most  important  of  our  fibre  industries  is  the 
cultivation  and  preparation  of  the  fibre  known  as  "  Sisal  hemp,"  so 
called  from  the  name  of  the  port  from  which  it  used  to  be  principally 
exported,  and  in  the  United  States  as  "  henequen  hemp."  The  plant 
which  produces  it  is  a  species  of  agave  which  flourishes  to  best  ad- 
vantage in  stony  and  arid  land  at  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  present 
prosperity  of  the  state  of  Yucatan,  a  large  proportion  of  which  is  too 
sterile  to  yield  any  other  crop,  is  due  almost  entirely  to  the  develop- 
ment of  this  industry.  The  plant  requires  very  little  cultivation,  and 
the  separation  and  cleaning  of  the  fibre  is  effected  very  cheaply.  The 
yield  of  fibre  is  estimated  at  the  rate  of  looo  to  1200  pounds  per  acre. 

Pulque. — The  pulque  plant  is  indigenous  to  Mexico,  often  growing 
wild  on  the  uplands,  where  for  months  and  years  at  a  time  no  rain 
falls  ;  and  it  is  also  largely  cultivated  on  the  Plains  of  Apam,  a  large 
tract  of  land  lying  in  the  States  of  Mexico,  Puebla,  and  Hidalgo, 
about  sixty  miles  east  of  the  City  of  Mexico.  The  plants  are  trans- 
planted when  two  or  three  years  old  with  much  care,  then  cultivated 
in  fields  especially  prepared  for  the  purpose,  each  acre  containing  from 
360  to  680  plants. 

Nature  requires  the  plant  to  be  milked,  when  the  liquor  is  ready  to 
flow,  for  the  use  of  man,  else  the  superfluity  of  juices  will  cause  the 
growth  of  a  thick  stem  from  the  centre  of  the  plant,  which  shoots  up 
some  ten  or  fifteen  feet,  putting  out  branches  at  the  top,  with  clus- 
ters of  yellowish  flowers.  These  branches  are  symmetrical,  and  the 
effect  is  like  a  lofty,  branched  candlestick. 

When  the  pulque  is  first  extracted,  before  the  process  of  fermenta- 
tion sets  in,  it  is  sweet  and  scentless,  and  in  this  state  is  preferred  by 

VOL.  I — 4  , 


50  (3eograpbical  Botes  on  fK>e£ico. 

those  unaccustomed  to  the  drink.  The  fermentation  takes  place  in 
tubs  constructed  for  the  purpose,  and  to  aid  or  expedite  the  process  a 
little  "  madre  ]iulque,"  or  pulque  mother,  is  added,  which  hastens  the 
chemical  change.  At  times  fermentation  is  retarded  by  a  cold  spell  at 
the  vats.  When  the  laborer  draws  the  sweet  sap  with  his  rude  siphon, 
made  either  of  a  gourd  or  a  calabash  and  a  hollow  horn  tip,  he  dis- 
charges the  contents  into  a  pig-  or  goat-skin  swinging  at  his  back.  The 
"  agua  miel  "  in  this  stage  is  like  a  green  water  in  appearance  and  taste. 
Soon  carbonic  acid  is  formed,  and  it  becomes  milky,  and  resembles  in 
taste  very  good  cider.  The  amount  of  carbonic  acid  contained  is  so 
great,  and  the  decomposition  so  incredibly  rapid,  that  in  a  few  hours 
it  would  become  vinegar  if  not  closely  watched.  To  prevent  this  the 
pulque  dulce,  or  sweet  pulque,  is  poured  into  a  tinacal — an  oxhide 
strapped  to  a  square  wooden  frame,  and  capable  of  holding  a  consid- 
erable amount  of  the  liquid.  These  tinacals  are  of  various  sizes,  to 
meet  the  emergencies  of  the  situation. 

To  the  sweet  pulque  is  added  an  equal  proportion  of  milk,  and 
then  a  slight  dose  of  infusion  of  rennet.  This  is  not  enough  to  coagu- 
late it,  but  sufficient  to  induce  a  slight  amount  of  putrescence,  as  in 
cheese.  The  putrid  odor  and  flavor  of  pulque  as  sold  in  the  pulque 
shops  is  due  to  the  rennet  alone,  for  the  belief  that  this  is  caused  by 
the  flavor  of  the  pigskin,  in  which  it  is  brought  to  market,  is  without 
foundation. 

From  the  tinacal  it  is  poured  into  a  hogshead  by  means  of  pigskins, 
and  it  is  transferred  to  the  barrels  of  venders  from  the  hogsheads  of 
the  "  haciendado  "  by  means  of  the  same  skins. 

The  plants  are  wholly  independent  of  rain  and  storm,  and  are  of  a 
beautiful  deep-green  color.  The  pulque  is  carried  every  day  to  the 
City  of  Mexico,  by  special  trains,  in  "  barricas,"  or  large  tierces,  and 
by  "  cueros  de  pulque,"  or  pigskins  filled  with  the  liquid. 

The  plant  does  not  arrive  at  maturity  or  yield  its  sap  before  its 
eighth  year.  During  the  growth  of  the  plant  a  central  bulb  is  formed 
for  its  coming  juices.  This  is  scooped  out,  leaving  a  cavity  or  hole 
large  enough  to  hold  a  few  quarts.  This  cavity  is  made  in  the  bottom 
and  middle  of  the  plant.  The  juice  exudes  into  this  cavity  and  is 
taken  out  daily  by  being  sucked  into  a  long-necked  gourd  on  the 
siphon  principle,  by  the  Indian  laborers,  and  then  poured  into  the  tubs 
taken  to  the  fields  and  then  removed  to  the  vats. 

The  outlay  on  each  plant  up  to  maturity  is  calculated  generally  at 
about  $2,  and  the  return  is  from  $7  to  $10,  according  to  the  size  of  the 
plant.  Its  period  of  production  is  about  five  months,  and  each  plant 
supposed  to  yield  from  125  to  160  gallons  of  liquid  during  that  time. 

The  principal  regions  for  the  cultivation  of  the  maguey  are  the  arid 
limestone  chains  of  hills,  and  here,  in  many  places,  the  hole  for  the 


iflora.  51 

reception  of  the  young  plant  is  made  with  a  sort  of  crowbar  with  a 
sharp  point,  used  principally  in  the  quarrying  of  tepatate,  the  chief 
building  material  of  the  Mexican  capital.  It  is  usual  to  aid  the  young 
plant  by  putting  some  good  soil  into  the  hole.  These  young  plants  are 
suckers  which  the  mature  maguey  throws  out  on  all  sides,  and  which 
have  to  be  removed  before  the  heart  is  tapped  for  the  sweet  sap,  which 
is  the  "  agua  miel,"  or  honey  water,  of  the  pulque. 

The  leaves  of  the  pulque  plant  are  long  and  pointed,  with  prickles 
along  the  edges.  Sometimes  these  leaves  are  very  large,  and  the 
bunches  of  them  springing  from  the  common  stalk  are  enormous.  The 
bruised  leaves  are  made  into  a  kind  of  paper — a  rather  tough,  stiff,  and 
hard  paper — and  they  are  also  used  in  their  natural  state  as  a  thatch 
for  the  roofs  of  the  common  huts  or  houses  occupied  by  the  peons. 
A  kind  of  thread  is  also  made  from  the  fibrous  texture  of  the  leaves, 
A  rough  needle  and  pin  are  made  from  the  thorn,  and  from  the  root  a 
cheap  and  palatable  food  is  made. 

Cactus. — Mexico  is  often  called  "  the  land  of  the  cactus,"  and  the 
multitudinous  development  of  cactus  forms  in  that  country  cannot  be 
appreciated  by  any  one  who  has  not  seen  them  in  their  home  in  the 
hot  land.  There  is  a  species  known  as  the  giant  or  candelabra  cactus, 
which  has  a  single  stem,  from  which  spring  innumerable  branches,  the 
whole  plant  resembling  an  immense  candelabrum.  I  have  seen  in 
Oaxaca,  some  candelabra  cacti  about  twenty  feet  in  height  by  thirty 
in  diameter.  Some  cacti  shoot  in  single,  column-like  stems,  others  run 
like  leafless  vines,  and  others  resemble  needle  cushions  stuck  full  of 
needles. 

Cocoa. — Cocoa  is  produced  in  several  localities.  That  of  So- 
conusco,  in  the  State  of  Chiapas,  is  of  so  excellent  a  quality  that  when 
Mexico  was  a  colony  of  Spain  it  was  the  only  kind  used  by  the 
Spanish  royal  family.  On  account  of  the  expense  and  difficulty  of 
transportation,  and  the  cultivation  of  cheaper  quality  in  other  locali- 
ties, the  production  has  dwindled  down  to  an  insignificant  amount, 
and  now  hardly  enough  is  grown  to  supply  the  demand  in  that  dis- 
trict ;  but  it  is  universally  acknowledged  that  the  Soconusco  cocoa 
is  the  best  in  the  world. 

The  best  elevation  for  cocoa  is  from  300  to  1000  feet,  and  the  tree 
seldom  thrives  well  at  an  altitude  exceeding  3000  feet.  Warmth  and 
moisture  are  necessary  for  the  successful  cultivation  of  this  plant. 

The  State  of  Tabasco  produces  a  very  good  quality  of  cocoa, 
although  it  cannot  be  compared  with  that  of  Soconusco.  In  other 
places  it  grows  very  well  also,  but  for  various  reasons  the  production, 
instead  of  being  developed,  has  dwindled  down  until  it  is  not  enough 
for  home  consumption,  and  we  have  to  import  some,  especially  from 
Venezuela  and  Ecuador.     One  disadvantage  of  the  cocoa  industry  is 


52  Oeoorapbical  IRotci*  on  /iDcjico. 

that  the  tree  requires  several  years  to  reach  maturity  and  to  bear  fruit, 
and  few  investors  can  afford  to  wait  the  necessary  time. 

Vanilla. — The  vanilla  bean  grows  very  luxuriantly  on  the  Gulf  coast 
of  Mexico,  and  it  has  been  for  some  time  a  very  profitable  production, 
especially  in  the  counties  of  Papamtla  and  Misantla,  in  the  State  of 
Veracruz,  on  account  of  the  excellent  quality  of  the  bean  and  the 
high  price  which  it  brings.  It  grows  in  a  region  which  is  subject  to 
intermittent  and  remittent  fevers,  and  sometimes  yellow  fever,  and 
where  labor  is  very  scarce  ;  for  these  reasons  it  has  not  attained  a 
greater  development.  I  hardly  think  there  is  any  locality  where  the 
vanilla  vine  grows  better  than  in  Mexico. 

Vanilla  requires  a  hot,  moist  climate,  and,  therefore,  the  lowlands 
are  best  suited  for  its  culture.  Very  little  of  the  vanilla  produced  in 
Mexico  is  at  present  grown  at  an  elevation  exceeding  looo  feet.  At 
the  same  time  it  is  claimed  that  in  some  places  it  thrives  up  to  3000 
feet. 

The  vines  will  usually  i)roduce  considerable  vanilla  in  the  tliird 
year,  and  they  will  yield  considerably  more  during  the  fourth,  fifth, 
sixth,  and  seventh  years,  and  the  production  then  begins  to  decrease. 
But  before  this  time  new  rootlets  have  been  dropped  from  the  old 
plants,  which  form  new  vines  that  take  the  place  of  the  old  ones  ;  thus 
the  plantation  is  kept  in  a  state  of  continued  production.  The  central 
portion  of  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec  is  one  of  the  most  suitable  re- 
gions for  its  cultivation,  as  much  wild  vanilla  is  found  growing  in  the 
forests  there. 

The  Mexican  vanilla  dealers  have  established  five  grades,  namely  : 
First,  vanilla  "  fina,"  or  legal,  the  beans  and  pods  of  six  and  a  half 
inches  long,  or  upwards,  short  in  the  neck,  sound  and  black,  and  the 
beans  which  become  S])lit  or  open,  provided  they  have  the  foregoing 
qualities  and  the  split  does  not  extend  more  than  a  third  of  the  pod. 
This  class  is  again  divided  into  "terciada,"  which  is  composed  of  the 
shortest  pods  ;  "  primera  chica,"  "  primera  grande,"  "  marca  menor," 
and  "  marca  mayor,"  the  largest  of  all.  Second,  "  vanilla  chica," 
those  pods  which  differ  from  the  "  terciada  "  only  in  being  shorter,  two 
of  them  counting  as  one  of  the  first  class.  Third,  vanilla  "  zacate," 
the  pods  of  all  sizes,  which  are  off  color  through  being  gathered  before 
becoming  properly  ripe,  or  being  over-cured  ;  "  pescozuda,"  "  vana," 
"  cueruda,"  and  "  aposcoyonada,"  names  for  pods  in  a  more  or  less 
damaged  condition.  Fourth,  vanilla  "  cimarrona,"  the  wild  vanilla  in 
good  or  fair  condition,  three  pods  counting  as  one  of  the  first  class. 
Fifth,  the  "  rezacate,"  composed  of  the  very  short  pods  ;  of  those 
split  all  the  way  up  to  the  stalk,  of  the  badly  damaged,  of  the  very 
immature,  and  of  the  greatly  over-cured  ;  of  this,  six  pods  count  as 
one  of  the  first  class. 


jflora.  53 

After  the  sizing  and  classification  are  finished,  the  pods  are  tied  up 
rn  bunches  of  100-150,  so  as  to  weigh  one  pound,  antl  wrapped  in 
filtering  paper  and  tin  foil. 

Silk  Culture. — The  mulberry-tree  and  silkworm  industries  have  a 
very  great  future  in  Mexico,  and  are  destined  to  produce  a  veritable 
revolution  in  the  industries  of  the  central  plateau  of  that  country. 
The  mulberry  tree  can  be  grown  in  Mexico  almost  to  an  unlimited  ex- 
tent, especially  in  the  central  plateau,  and,  as  wages  are  low,  the  raw 
silk  can  be  manufactured  at  a  great  profit.  Several  exi)erinients  have 
been  made  on  a  small  scale,  more  particularly  in  the  Valley  of  Mexico, 
by  Mr.  Hipolito  Chabon,  a  gentleman  of  French  descent,  and  he  has 
obtained  most  satisfactory  results.  I  have  no  doubt  that  the  time  is 
not  far  distant  when  the  silk  industry  will  assume  great  proportions  in 
Mexico,  and  we  will  be  able  to  stand  among  the  foremost  silk-producing 
countries  of  the  world. 

Cochineal. — The  cochineal  is  a  bug  which  feeds  on  the  cactus  ;  and 
which,  when  fully  developed,  is  brushed  off  the  cactus  leaves  and 
roasted  to  prevent  decomposition,  being  then  ready  for  market.  It  is 
raised  to  great  advantage  in  Mexico,  and  especially  in  the  valleys  of 
the  State  of  Oaxaca.  When  it  was  the  only  article  used  to  dye  red  it 
was  very  valuable,  commanding  sometimes  between  four  and  five  dol- 
lars per  pound,  and  it  made  the  wealth  of  that  State.  But  recent  dis- 
coveries in  chemistry  have  supplied  other  substances  for  dyeing  which 
are  very  cheap,  especially  aniline,  and  the  price  of  cochineal  has  fallen 
considerably,  so  that  now  it  is  hardly  raised  at  all.  When  it  had  a 
high  price,  it  was  raised  in  Guatemala,  and  it  was  the  beginning  of  the 
wealth  of  that  State.  It  is  now  raised,  I  understand,  in  several  other 
countries. 

Rice. — Rice  grows  very  well  in  Mexico,  and  I  have  not  seen  any 
district  where  it  is  necessary  to  inundate  the  fields  to  favor  its  produc- 
tion, although  I  understand  it  is  also  raised  in  that  way  in  some  locali- 
ties. It  is  generally  planted  just  as  wheat  and  barley  are  in  the  United 
States,  needing  no  irrigation  and  depending  entirely  on  the  rainfall. 
I  imagine  that  raising  rice  by  inundation  would  be  more  expensive, 
and  also  be  dangerous,  because  it  could  not  fail  to  affect  the  salubrity 
of  the  country. 

Chicle,  or  Chewing-Gum. — This  article,  like  many  others,  grows  wild 
in  Mexico,  where  the  demand  that  has  arisen  for  it  in  the  United 
States  has  begun  to  develop  its  production.  For  some  time  past  the 
shipments  from  Mexico  have  been  on  an  increasing  scale,  owing,  no 
doubt,  to  the  comparatively  high  prices  which  ruled  early  in  1896. 

Every  year  a  larger  extent  of  forests  is  worked  for  chicle,  result- 
ing in  a  steady  growth  of  the  production  since  the  gum  first  became 
an  im])ortant  commercial  article,  about  ten  years  ago.     Prior  to  that 


54  (Beoorapbical  IRotes  on  /IDcjico. 

time  7  or  8  cents  a  pound  was  considered  a  good  price,  and  in  1896 
it  was  sold  at  36  cents.  The  importation  into  the  United  States  con- 
stitutes ahnost  the  entire  production,  and  the  amounts  and  vakies  are 
thus  officially  reported  by  the  Statistical  Bureau  of  the  United  States 
for  the  fiscal  years  ending  June  30  : 

i8g4.  1895-96. 

Chicle 1.903,655  lbs.  3,618,483  lbs. 

Value $490,438  $1,167,101 

Average 25I  cents  per  lbs.      32  cents  per  lbs. 

The  following  statement  has  been  compiled  from  official  data  col- 
lected by  the  Mexican  Government,  the  value  of  the  chewing-gum 
being  in  silver  : 

Year.  Pounds.  Value, 

1885-86 929,959  $    156,402 

1886-S7 1,254,853  353.641 

1887-88 1,542,794  371,673 

1888-89 2,037,783  592,810 

1889-90 1,827,131  714,242 

1890-91 2,457,653  1,284,682 

1891-92 2,494,177  703,572 

1892-93 1,757,813  705,167 

1893-94 2,645,722  803,019 

1894-95 1,668,636  679,367 

1895-96 3,297,371  1,527,838 

Total 21,913,932  $7,892,413 

Yuca. — Yuca,  or  starch-plant,  called  manioc  in  South  America,  is 
a  bush  from  four  to  six  feet  high,  having  tubers,  like  horse-radish,  six 
to  ten  to  every  plant,  and  weighing  from  one  to  twelve  pounds  each. 
It  is  an  important  product  of  Chiapas  and  may  be  sown  at  any  time, 
but  it  is  better  to  do  so  from  the  stems  when  the  rains  begin,  say  in  the 
month  of  I\Iay,  by  opening  ditches  five  feet  apart,  and  planting  the 
cuttings,  eight  inches  long,  in  them  consecutively,  leaving  one  foot  be- 
tween. Vegetable  and  sandy  soil  is  best  adapted  for  it,  although  it 
can  be  planted  and  will  thrive  in  any  kind  of  land.  In  arid  and  hard 
soil  it  needs  plowing.  If  the  land  has  been  thoroughly  cleared  before 
planting  it  requires  but  little  weeding  during  cultivation.  A  year  after 
being  sown,  if  the  soil  is  rich,  it  will  begin  to  yield  tubers  which  must 
be  dug  up  at  the  time  the  tree  begins  to  flower.  In  replanting  after 
digging  the  tubers,  a  slip  is  left  standing  and  this  will  bear  in  twelve 
months.  Besides  extracting  the  starch  from  the  tubers,  the  leaves  are 
used  as  fodder  for  stock. 

Sir  Henry  Bering,  the  British  Minister  to  Mexico,  sent  recently  to 
the  Foreign  Office  some  practical  notes  on  the  cultivation  in  Mexico  of 
the  "Yuca"  or  cassava  plant,  pineapple,  ginger,  "  chicle  "  or  chewing- 


fiova.  55 

gum,  sarsaparilla,  jalap,  licorice,  canaigre,  and  ramie,  and  I  shall  quote 
here  from  his  notes  on  some  of  those  products. 

The  yuca  is  to  the  peon,  in  the  tropical  section  of  the  Republic, 
what  potatoes  are  to  the  poor  and  working  people  of  Ireland.  Yuca  is 
a  native  of  the  country,  and  its  rise  dates  back  before  the  conquest  of 
Hernan  Cortez,  and  it  has  always  formed  a  portion  of  the  food  of  the 
ancient  and  present  Mexicans,  especially  those  living  in  Veracruz, 
Oaxaca,  Chiapas,  Tabasco,  and  Yucatan.  It  has  been  estimated  that 
the  returns  of  yuca  cultivation  are  immense  ;  the  yield  of  an  acre 
contains  more  nutritive  matter  than  six  times  the  same  area  of  wheat. 

Ginger. — Ginger  is  found  growing  wild  in  various  parts  of  Mexico. 
The  returns  from  an  acre  of  land  vary  considerably,  but  when  culti- 
vated under  favorable  conditions,  the  crops  ought  to  be  4000  pounds 
and  upward.  A  ten-acre  patch  would  yield  annually  from  $5000  to 
^7000. 

Canaigre. — Though  for  years  canaigre  has  been  used  in  Mexico, 
both  for  medicinal  and  tanning  purposes,  it  has  but  recently  attracted 
the  attention  of  the  outside  commercial  world  as  a  valuable  source  of 
tannic  acid.  The  result  of  investigations  has  been  to  create  a  great 
demand  for  canaigre  in  the  tanning  business  of  European  countries, 
and  more  recently  in  the  leather-making  centres  of  the  United  States. 
The  only  supply  now  to  be  obtained  of  this  plant  is  from  the  wild 
growth  along  the  rivers  and  valleys  of  Western  Texas,  New  Mexico, 
and  Mexico,  and  a  fear  has  been  felt  for  some  time  that  with  the  con- 
stantly increasing  demand  the  present  sources  of  supply  must  become 
-exhausted. 

Peppermint. — Water  mint  {fnent/ia  vulgaris)  thrives  very  well  on 
the  central  plateau  of  Mexico  and  in  some  sections  of  the  warm  zone, 
especially  along  the  rivulets  and  small  lakes.  There  is  no  reason 
why  the  peppermint  {mentha  piperita),  as  well  as  spearmint  and  tansy, 
should  not  grow  in  abundance  in  Mexico,  as  they  belong  to  the  same 
family  and  require  the  same  climatic  conditions.  As  the  oil  of  pep- 
permint is  very  extensively  employed  in  medicines  and  the  arts,  the 
cultivation  of  this  plant  will  be  profitable  to  Mexico. 

Cabinet  and  Dye  Woods. — In  the  low,  hot  countries  we  have  all  the 
cabinet  woods  growing  wild  and  a  great  many  dye  woods,  some  of 
which  are  indigenous  to  Mexico,  like  the  Campechy  wood,  not  being 
found  in  other  countries.  It  would  take  too  long  to  enumerate  the 
different  kinds  of  cabinet  woods  we  have,  and  I  will  only  say  that  it 
happens  with  them  as  with  our  fruits,  that  only  such  of  them  as  have 
been  introduced  here,  like  mahogany,  cedar,  rosewood,  ebony,  and  a 
few  others,  are  known  in  this  country  and  in  Europe,  while  hundreds 
of  other  kinds  as  hard  as  those  and  of  as  fine,  if  not  a  finer  grain,  are 
found  in  the  wild  woods  of  Mexico. 


56  6eoc;rapbical  IRotes  on  /iDejico. 

Grasses. — In  the  lower  regions  of  Mexico,  especially  at  the  sea-level, 
we  have  various  grasses  which  can  be  grown  at  very  little  expense  and 
which  make  very  good  food  for  cattle,  fattening  them  very  much,  and 
in  comparatively  short  time.  While  I  lived  in  Soconusco,  I  used  to 
buy  lean  cattle,  three  years  old,  at  $io  per  head  ;  and  letting  them  pas- 
ture on  the  grass,  the  expense  being  little  more  than  that  of  a  few  men 
to  take  care  of  the  cattle,  without  providing  them  with  any  shelter, 
pens,  or  anything  of  that  kind,  only  giving  them  about  once  a  month 
some  salt,  at  the  end  of  four  or  five  months  they  became  very  fat  and 
could  be  sold  on  the  spot  at  $25  a  head.  The  fattening  grasses  can  be 
very  easily  cultivated,  because  they  are  of  such  rank  growth  that  they 
do  not  allow  any  other  vegetation  to  spring  up  on  the  same  spot,  and 
so  save  the  expense  of  cleaning  the  ground  of  weeds  ;  which,  in  the 
hot  regions  is  very  great,  as  vegetation  is  there  very  rank. 

Alfalfa. — The  alfalfa  grows  very  luxuriantly  in  almost  every  place 
in  Mexico,  and  it  is  so  abundant  there,  that  it  has  very  little  com- 
mercial value.  It  is  nowhere  dried  and  kept  for  fodder,  but  of  course 
such  use  can  be  made  of  it.  Land  good  for  alfalfa  has  a  very  low 
price,  and  we  are  greatly  surprised  when  we  hear  that  in  California  the 
alfalfa  land  is  worth  $100  an  acre. 

Cattle  Eaising. — Mexico  has  special  advantages  for  the  raising  of 
cattle,  not  only  because  of  its  mild  climate,  which  renders  unnecessary 
the  many  expenses  required  in  the  northern  section  of  this  continent, 
but  also  on  account  of  the  grasses  that  grow  in  several  localities  and 
that  constitute  very  good  food  for  cattle,  as  I  have  just  stated. 

Mexico  will  be,  before  long,  a  very  large  producer  of  cattle  and  other 
animals,  and  they  will  form  a  large  share  of  her  exports.  Mexico  has 
sent  within  two  years  about  400,000  small  undeveloped  cattle  to  the 
United  States  at  about  $15,  Mexican  silver,  per  head,  and  has  also  sent 
nearly  her  entire  output  of  cotton-seed  meal  to  the  United  States  and 
Europe  at  about  $16,  silver,  per  ton.  The  meal  sent  to  the  United  States 
is  fed  to  cattle.  The  Mexican  cattle  sent  there  take  the  place  of  the 
better  stock  which  is  sent  to  Europe,  causing  virtually  a  five-thousand- 
kilometre  railway  haul  against  the  short  haul  in  Mexico  to  reach  the 
coast.  In  addition  we  have  to  pay  import  duties  in  the  United  States. 
This  is  a  sufficient  evidence  that  a  large  profit  could  be  made  by  fat- 
tening cattle  with  the  cotton-seed  meal  in  Mexico,  and  shipping  the 
fattened  cattle  direct  to  Europe,  even  using  the  best  cattle  of  the 
country.  But  rapid  improvement  should  be  made  in  the  class  of  cattle 
for  beef  purposes.  Cotton-seed  meal  is  the  feed  to  be  relied  on  chiefly. 
The  quantity  of  it  produced  already  is  sufficient  to  fatten  a  large  num- 
ber of  stock.  The  cattle  should  also  be  fed  with  a  small  amount  of 
corn  along  with  the  meal  during  the  last  month  of  feeding  to  harden 
and  whiten  the  meat,  as  feeding  only  with  cotton-seed  meal  makes  the 


Jflora.  57 

meat  dark,  and  militates  against  its  selling  value  to  some  extent,  and 
the  corn  can  be  easily  and  profitably  supplied.  The  total  cost  of  fat- 
tening a  steer  should  not  reach  $15  silver.  There  is  an  unlimited  de- 
mand in  Europe  for  choice  meats  at  about  12c.,  gold,  per  pound,  and  no 
import  duties  have  to  be  paid.  Poor  classes  of  meat  are  a  drug  in  all 
markets  of  the  world.  With  these  great  advantages  placed  within  easy 
reach,  the  producers  in  Mexico  of  grain  and  stock  have  a  guarantee  of 
ready  sale  at  good  prices  for  all  they  can  produce. 

Inquiry  was  made  in  Liverpool  about  the  possibilities  of  the  Mexi- 
can live-animal  trade  with  England,  and  it  was  found  that  the  initial 
difificulty  is  the  small  size  of  the  Mexican  cattle,  as  cattle  weighing 
1 200  pounds  are  considered  small  by  the  trade  there,  and  from  900  to 
1000  pounds  is  therefore  extremely  small.  The  smallest  Texan  cattle 
ever  imported  in  Liverpool  averaged  1226  pounds. 

The  best  Mexican  steers  can  be  made  to  weigh  1200  pounds  if  well 
fattened.  The  difference  in  cost  of  transportation  on  account  of 
lighter  weight  is  but  small  in  proportion  to  the  cheapness  of  Mexican 
cattle.  Cattle  breeders  in  Mexico,  on  the  whole,  have  not  advanced 
much  in  developing  good  breeds  of  cattle.  They  do  not  appreciate 
their  value,  nor  would  they  pay  one-half  their  actual  cost,  though  they 
can  be  had  from  the  United  States  at  half  of  what  they  would  cost 
from  Europe.  Herefords  are  the  best  breed.  I  am  sure  that  the  rail- 
roads will  do  all  they  can  to  encourage  that  industry  by  charging  as 
low  rates  as  possible,  as  they  would  thus  develoyi  an  industry  which  in 
the  course  of  time  would  become  very  profitable  to  them. 

A  great  need  of  Mexico  is  a  reliable  supply  of  good  and  healthy 
water  through  artificial  means,  well  distributed  over  the  stock  ranges 
to  prevent  the  great  loss  by  death  through  lack  of  water,  as  well 
as  the  heavy  shrinkage  of  meat  and  tallow,  by  so  much  unnecessary 
travelling  of  stock  to  water.  They  cannot  grow  fairly,  much  less  fat- 
ten, and  over  one-half  the  annual  increase  die  of  exhaustion,  while  the 
value  of  the  stock  lost  in  one  year  would  supply  permanent  water  at 
convenient  distances  and  prevent  three-fourths  of  the  loss  and  shrink- 
age now  sustained.  It  has  been  amply  ])roved  that  stock  water  can  be 
secured  under  the  most  unfavorable  conditions. 

It  would  be  to  the  advantage  of  the  breeder  to  import  some  Eng- 
lish short-horn  bulls,  with  the  object  of  breeding  larger  cattle,  so  as  to 
make  profitable  the  export  of  cattle  to  England,  as  animals  should 
weigh  from  1200  to  1300  pounds.  This  has  been  done  in  Texas  and 
in  the  Argentine  with  beneficial  results,  and  the  improvement  in  the 
cattle  from  the  latter  place  has  been  most  marked  during  the  last  five 
years.  With  the  proper  attention,  the  same  good  results  could  be 
achieved  in  Mexico. 

The  English  steamers  that  bring  a  large  quantity  of  merchandise 


s8  (Beoorapbtcal  Botes  on  ^ejico. 

to  Mexican  ports  have  trouble  in  even  securing  ballast  to  get  out  of 
those  ports,  and  have  to  traverse  the  Gulf  and  United  States  coasts  to 
secure  loads  for  the  return  trip.  Their  owners  are  w^illing  and  ready 
to  supply  facilities  for  the  exportation  of  live  stock  and  frozen  meats  if 
assured  of  a  sufficient  traffic  to  justify  them  in  the  expense,  for  they  pre- 
fer reloading  direct  for  Europe  to  going  elsewhere  for  freight.  The 
time  required  to  return  direct  from  Mexican  ports  is  but  little  more 
than  from  New  York  and  Baltimore,  and  is  sufficiently  short  to  warrant 
good  service  in  transportation  of  live  stock,  and  the  cost  would  prac- 
tically be  the  same  as  from  United  States  ports.  The  United  States  is 
beginning  to  export  beef  and  stock  from  Galveston  to  Europe,  which 
is  practically  the  same  distance  as  from  the  Gulf  ports  of  Mexico. 

Mexico  could  export  annually  and  easily  after  the  next  ten  years 
400,000  of  fattened  cattle,  which  would  increase  considerably  the 
amount  of  our  exports,  and  this  trade  would  greatly  assist  the  develop- 
ment of  many  other  industries. 

The  desired  result  in  question  could  be  hastened  by  mixing  good 
foreign  labor  with  the  native  labor.  The  latter  would  be  better  fed, 
clothed,  and  educated,  as  well  as  encouraged,  taught,  and  compelled 
to  do  better  work,  and  thus  the  country's  physical  and  mental  welfare 
would  be  greatly  promoted. 

Sheep. — The  same  conditions  apply  to  the  sheep  and  wool  industry. 
It  is  a  great  mistake  for  the  Mexican  sheep-owners  to  raise  a  class  of 
sheep  that  yield  each  only  from  one  to  two  and  one-half  pounds  of 
very  coarse  and  inferior  wool,  annually,  while  they  themselves  wear 
goods  manufactured  from  foreign  wools,  and  the  domestic-cloth  manu- 
facturers are  also  under  the  necessity  of  importing  largely  of  fine  wools. 
Mexico  possesses  natural  resources  for  producing  all  the  wools  of  every 
grade  that  she  needs,  with  a  large  quantity  over  for  export,  not  to  speak 
of  choice  grain-fed  mutton  for  domestic  and  foreign  consumption. 

The  custom  of  killing  so  much  poor  stock  is  a  terrible  waste  of  re- 
sources, as  one  well-fattened  animal  will  render  twice  as  much  as  a  thin 
or  poor  one. 

Products  of  Cold  and  Temperate  Regiofis. — I  will  not  speak  of  the 
products  of  the  cold  and  temperate  regions  of  Mexico,  such  as  Indian 
corn,  wheat,  oats,  barley,  and  others,  because  their  cultivation  is  well 
understood  in  the  United  States,  and  I  could  say  here  nothing  new  to 
the  American  reader,  but  will  only  state  that  they  all  grow  very  well  in 
the  proper  regions  of  Mexico. 

FRUITS. 

We  produce  in  Mexico  a  great  many  tropical  fruits  that  are  not 
sent  to  the  United  States  because  there  is  no  market  for  them  for 
the  reason  that  thev  are  not  known  here.     Some  of  them  are  delicious, 


jfruits.  59 

and  with  the  facilities  of  communication,  I  have  no  doubt  that  they 
will  become  known  and  a  taste  will  be  developed  for  them  in  this 
country.  I  will  speak  here  only  of  such  of  our  tropical  fruits  as  come 
to  the  United  States, 

The  advantage  of  tropical  fruits  growing  in  their  proper  zone  and 
climate  is  immense,  as  the  expense  of  planting  and  cultivating  them 
outside  of  their  proper  limits  is  very  great  and  there  is  always  danger 
of  their  destruction. 

Oranges. — Orange  trees,  like  any  other  fruit  trees,  depend  in  Mexico 
on  the  rain,  and,  except  in  a  private  garden  or  private  grounds,  are  not 
irrigated.  While  the  orange  tree  is  a  hardy  plant,  it  thrives  best  and 
yields  the  most  luscious  fruit  in  the  tropics.  Elevation  exceeding  2500 
feet  is  not,  as  a  rule,  desirable  for  orange  culture. 

The  advantages  of  irrigation  in  orange  culture  are  great  in  the  sub- 
tropical regions  of  Mexico.  The  fruit  of  the  irrigated  orange  tree  is 
of  a  very  superior  quality,  while  the  tree  itself  has  a  longer  lease  of  life 
and  is  less  subject  to  attacks  from  insects  and  diseases  of  a  fungoid 
nature.  One  of  the  conditions  primarily  requisite  to  the  growing  of  a 
marketable  orange  is  that  the  trees  be  watered  at  judiciously  regulated 
intervals  during  and  for  a  short  time  after  the  blossoming  season.  At- 
tacks from  insect  and  fungoidal  pests,  which  are  most  disastrous,  and 
to  which  the  trees  are  peculiarly  subject  during  the  blossoming  period, 
are  rendered  even  more  dangerous  by  the  prevalence  of  a  considerable 
amount  of  humidity  in  the  atmosphere  which  is  always  conducive  to 
the  development  of  parasitic  germs  or  fungoidal  spores.  An  abund- 
ance of  moisture  in  the  ground  but  a  comparatively  small  amount  in 
the  air  is  the  condition  most  to  be  desired  during  and  just  after  the 
blossoming  season.  This  is  to  be  had  by  irrigation,  but,  generally 
speaking,  not  without  it.  Under  irrigation,  the  soil  is  also  much  less 
subject  to  deterioration,  owing  to  the  superior  fertilizing  properties  of 
water  taken  from  wells  and  streams.  Rain  water,  aside  from  contain- 
ing a  small  percentage  of  ammonia,  which  it  receives  from  the  air,  only 
acts  as  a  medium  to  transmit  the  nutriment  from  the  soil  to  the  tree, 
while  water  taken  from  wells  or  streams  holds  in  solution  the  renewing 
materials  which  are  directly  communicated  to  the  plant  proper. 

In  the  more  elevated  orange  districts  of  Mexico,  the  trees  should  be 
watered  about  once  every  twenty  days  during  the  dry  season. 

In  some  places  our  oranges  are  as  sweet  as  if  they  had  been  preserved 
in  sugar,  and  this,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  no  attention  is  paid 
to  their  cultivation,  that  they  grow  almost  wild,  and  without  irrigation. 

I  think  that  the  distillation  of  orange  blossoms  would  prove  very 
profitable.  The  production  of  flowers  per  tree  is  given  at  from  22  to 
55  pounds  in  the  case  of  sweet  oranges,  and  from  60  to  100  pounds 
per  tree  from  the  bitter  variety. 


6o  (3eoarapbical  Motes  on  /IDejico. 

In  flavor  and  productiveness  the  Mexican  orange  is  unsurpassed. 
In  the  majority  of  the  districts  but  little  care  or  attention  is  given  to 
the  cultivation  of  the  trees.  Scientific  orange  culture  in  Mexico  is 
practically  unknown.  The  introduction  from  other  countries  of  dif- 
ferent varieties  of  the  plant  for  experimental  purposes  is  just  being 
commenced. 

The  price  of  oranges  in  Mexico  at  the  present  time,  in  districts 
reasonably  near  lines  of  transportation,  is  about  $ii  per  thousand, 
Mexican  money,  on  the  tree.  It  is  the  practice  of  the  producer  to  sell 
the  fruit  on  the  trees,  the  buyer  picking,  packing,  and  shipping  it  at  his 
own  expense. 

About  one  hundred  trees  are  usually  set  out  to  the  acre,  the  average 
yield  being  from  800  to  1000  oranges  to  the  tree.  I  know  of  trees  in 
Mexico  which  have  a  record  of  having  ])roduced  10,000  oranges.  This, 
however,  is  very  exceptional. 

A  properly  cultivated  and  prudently  man-^ged  grove  at  the  end  of 
five  years'  growth  should  prove  as  profitably  as  a  coffee  plantation  of 
the  same  size,  at  the  end  of  five  years. 

The  production  of  the  orange  trees  begins  in  the  third  or  fourth  year 
and  increases  up  to  the  twelfth,  and,  in  some  cases,  to  the  fifteenth  or 
sixteenth  year.  It  is  considered  best  to  cut  the  fruit  up  to  the  fifth 
year,  not  permitting  it  to  mature. 

A  book  prepared  by  Frederico  Atristain,  entitled  Cultivo  y  explota- 
cion  de  Naranja,  and  published  by  the  Department  of  Fomento  of  the 
Mexican  Government,  contains  a  great  deal  of  reliable  information  on 
the  subject  of  orange  culture  in  Mexico. 

After  an  orange  tree  has  been  yielding  sweet  oranges  for  many  years, 
it  very  likely  exhausts  the  substances  of  the  earth  which  give  the  sweet 
taste  to  the  fruit,  and  it  begins  to  lose  its  sweetness,  until  finally,  if  the 
land  is  not  manured,  as  is  almost  always  the  case  in  Mexico,  the  oranges 
become  bitter. 

A  recent  cyclone,  which  lowered  considerably  the  temperature  in 
Florida,  destroyed  in  one  day,  I  understand,  about  12,000,000  orange 
trees,  thus  causing  ruin  or  serious  loss  to  thousands  of  men  engaged 
in  that  large  industry,  while  the  orange  region  in  Mexico  is  entirely 
free  from  frosts  and  consec^uently  from  such  dangers. 

Lemons. — In  the  hot  and  temperate  regions  of  Mexico  lemons  grow 
very  well.  There  are  some  districts  of  the  country,  like  Soconusco, 
where  the  natives  plant  the  lemon  trees  very  close  together,  for  the 
purpose  of  making  a  hedge  or  fence,  and,  notwithstanding  that  the  trees 
have  not  the  necessary  conditions  of  sunlight  and  air  for  their  proper 
development,  they  grow  very  well.  I  do  not  know  of  any  place  in 
Mexico  where  lemons  have  been  cultivated  for  commercial  purposes  ; 
but  I  am  sure  they  could  be  made  a  very  lucrative  industry. 


fruits.  6 1 

Limes  and  Shaddocks. — Lime  trees  pros[)er  very  well  in  Mexico, 
bearing  large  amounts  of  delicious  fruit.  I  have  not  seen  in  the  United 
States  any  of  our  limes,  at  least  such  as  are  imported  here  are  not  like 
ours,  and  I  have  no  doubt  that  if  known  our  limes  would  find  a  good 
market  in  this  country.  The  lime  should  not  be  planted  at  an  altitude 
exceeding  looo  feet.  We  grow  also  a  very  large  kind  of  shaddock, 
which  we  call  "  toronja,"  and  which  is  not  imported  in  this  country, 
but  which  if  known  here  would  find  a  good  demand.  It  grows  very 
luxuriantly  and  attains  at  times  a  very  large  size,  even  eight  inches  in 
diameter,  having  a  very  thick  peel. 

Bananas. — The  banana  thrives  anywhere  from  the  sea-level  to  an 
elevation  of  5000  feet,  and  is  one  of  the  many  Mexican  fruits  which 
yield  to  the  planter  an  immense  profit.  The  whole  Mexican  coast 
produces  the  banana  spontaneously  and  in  very  great  abundance.  On 
the  lands  near  the  sea,  at  an  elevation  of  600  to  700  feet,  large  planta- 
tions of  bananas  can  be  started  at  a  cost  of  five  cents  per  plant,  in- 
cluding all  expenses.  At  the  end  of  the  first  year,  the  plants  begin  to 
bear,  and  1000  plants,  which  have  cost  $50,  will  produce  $1000  as  a 
minimum.  The  following  year  the  yield  is  double  that  amount,  and 
almost  without  expense.  At  the  end  of  one  year,  the  plant  produces 
one  bunch  which  is  worth  in  the  United  States  from  75  cents  to  %\ 
gold,  the  cost  to  the  farmer  being  not  more  than  25  cents  per  bunch 
in  Mexican  currency.  After  the  first  year,  the  sprouts  from  the  old 
plant  grow  up  and  give  double  the  fir.^t  year's  yield. 

There  is  perhaps  no  tropical  plant  easier  of  cultivation  than  the 
banana.  The  suckers  having  been  planted  out  at  the  commencement 
■oi  the  rainy  season,  they  will  grow  vigorously,  and  produce  fruit  in 
about  a  year.  The  land  must  be  kept  free  from  weeds,  and  an  oc- 
casional turning  up  of  the  soil  will  prove  beneficial.  Before  the  plant 
throws  out  its  flowering  stem,  suckers  will  make  their  appearance  above 
the  ground,  and  these  will  require  careful  attention.  While  the  plant 
is  young,  all  the  suckers  except  one  should  be  cut  away,  the  best  plan 
being  to  sever  them  with  a  sharp  spade.  Thus  all  the  vigor  of  the 
plant  is  thrown  into  the  fruiting  of  the  first  stem,  and  the  growth  of 
the  one  to  supi)lant  it,  and,  in  this  way,  fine  large  bunches  can  be 
reckoned  on.  The  second  stem  usually  produces  a  finer  bunch  of 
fruit  than  the  first,  but,  as  the  land  becomes  exhausted,  the  bunches  of 
■course  decrease  in  size,  and  this  shows  the  necessity  for  manure  in 
some  form  or  other. 

Bananas  are  used  extensively  as  shade  for  young  coffee  and  cocoa 
trees,  and  in  places  where  an  exjiort  banana  trade  has  been  established, 
the  formation  of  a  cocoa  plantation  is  a  very  inexpensive  matter,  as  the 
return  in  fruit  from  the  bananas  will  pay  for  the  cultivation  of  the 
■cocoa  until  the  trees  are  able  to  give  a  small  crop.  ^ 


62  ©eoarapbical  Botes  on  /iDejico. 

The  important  feature,  and  the  one  upon  which  the  success  and 
profit  of  the  industry  depend  hirgely,  is  that  of  cheap  and  certain  trans- 
portation facilities.  That  requisite  is  easily  obtainable  ;  for  instance^ 
there  are  extensive  and  cheap  lands  for  sale  along  the  Tampico  branch 
of  the  Mexican  Central  Railroad,  from  which  the  fruit  can  be  shipped 
either  all  by  rail,  or  by  rail  to  Tampico,  and  thence  by  boat. 

We  have  many  kinds  of  bananas  in  Mexico,  of  different  sizes, 
colors,  and  flavors,  ranging  in  length  from  two  to  eighteen  inches,  and 
from  one-half  of  an  inch  to  three  inches  in  diameter.  The  largest, 
which  in  some  places  are  thought  unfit  for  food,  are  in  others,  like  So- 
conusco,  considered  the  best  ;  very  likely  on  account  of  their  different 
quality.  When  roasted  the  latter  are  very  juicy,  and  taste  exactly  as  if 
they  had  been  preserved  in  sugar.  Some  people  on  the  coast  live 
almost  entirely  on  bananas,  this  fruit  forming  their  principal  food. 
The  banana  is  likewise  a  tropical  plant,  and  thrives  best  on  the  low- 
lands. 

Pineapple. — The  Toltecs  and  Aztecs  knew  how  to  cultivate  the  pine- 
apple, and  when  the  Spaniards  conquered  Mexico,  they  found  the 
fruit  in  the  markets  of  the  towns  on  their  way  from  Veracruz  to  the 
great  Tenochtitlan.  "  From  time  immemorial,"  Sir  Henry  Bering 
says,  "the  pineapple  has  been  cultivated  in  Araatlan,  a  town  five  miles 
south  of  Cordoba,  from  where  the  ancient  Mexicans  used  to  get  their 
main  supply."  Now  it  is  grown  in  tropical  Hidalgo,  Puebla,  Veracruz, 
Tabasco,  Chiapas,  Oaxaca,  Morelos,  Guerrero,  Michoacan,  Colima, 
Jalisco,  and  Tepic.  "  Besides  the  fruit  being  very  delicious  and  whole- 
some," Sir  Henry  Bering  says,  "a  fine  wine  and  vinegar  are  made  of 
the  juice.  The  leaf  furnishes  a  fibre  of  extraordinary  strength  and 
fineness,  making  it  even  more  valuable  than  the  fruit.  The  fibre  is 
made  into  ropes,  cables,  binding  twine,  thread,  mats,  bagging,  ham- 
mocks, and  paper.  A  pineapple  rope  three  and  a  half  inches  thick 
can  support  nearly  three  tons.  A  textile  fabric  as  fine  and  beautiful 
as  silk  is  made  of  this  fibre  too.  It  is  believed  that  the  fine  cloth  of 
various  colors  used  by  the  upper  classes  among  the  Aztecs  was  made 
of  the  pineapple  fibre.  The  modern  Mexicans  do  not  manufacture  it 
much  now,  except  in  the  Isthmus,  where  the  Zapotec  Indians  still 
make  a  cloth  from  it  and  from  wild  silk.  One  cause  for  its  disuse  is 
the  slow  and  wasteful  manner  in  which  it  is  separated."  Pineapples 
will  grow  at  elevations  of  from  2000  to  3000  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea,  but  the  best  and  most  delicate  fruit  is  produced  on  the  lowlands. 

Cocoa-Nift. — We  have  in  our  lowlands  near  the  sea  many  kinds  of 
palms  called  corozo,  bearing  different  kinds  of  fruit,  growing  in  large 
bunches  and  the  fruit  very  abundant,  being  in  the  shape  of  a  small  egg, 
very  rich  in  oils,  and  making  also  a  very  good  food,  although  it  is 
hardly  used  now  for  any  purpose.     The  palm  tree  bearing  the  cocoa-nut 


jflowers.  63 

grows,  of  course,  very  luxuriantly,  and  does  not  require  any  care  after 
it  is  once  planted.  The  cocoa-nut  prefers  the  sea-coast  and  high 
temperature.  The  saline  breezes  from  the  sea  are  very  beneficial 
to  it.  I  have  not  seen  in  Mexico  the  species  of  palm  bearing 
the  date,  perhaps  because  it  has  not  been  planted  there  ;  but  I  am 
sure  that  we  could  raise  it,  as  we  have  several  sections  with  a  climate 
similar  to  that  of  Egypt  and  Asia  Minor,  where  the  date  palm  grows 
so  well. 

Mangos. — The  mango  is  a  very  fine  fruit,  but  requires  a  cultivated 
taste,  and  is  generally  disliked  the  first  time  it  is  eaten.  It  has  a  very 
large  bone,  although  that  is  not  the  case  in  fine  qualities,  called  Manilla 
mango,  which  has  a  very  thin  one  and  a  great  deal  of  pulp.  The 
mango  occasionally  comes  to  the  United  States,  but  being  a  very  frail 
fruit,  has  to  be  taken  from  the  tree  when  very  green.  It  does  not 
ripen  well,  and,  if  taken  when  beginning  to  ripen,  it  reaches  its  desti- 
nation in  a  decayed  condition. 

Alligator  Pear. — The  alligator  pear  is  one  of  the  most  delicious 
fruits  that  we  raise  in  Mexico,  and  is  properly  called  vegetable  butter, 
being  a  good  substitute  for  butter.  It  is  not  eaten  by  itself  ;  the  most 
usual  way  to  eat  it  is  in  salad.  We  have  several  kinds  and  sizes  of  this 
fruit.  The  seed  of  the  alligator  pear  is  oval-shaped  and  quite  large, 
about  4  inches  in  length  by  i^  in  diameter,  and  of  some  oily  substance, 
which,  I  have  no  doubt,  has  some  good  medicinal  properties. 

Mamey. — The  same  is  the  case  with  the  seed  of  the  mamey,  a  fruit 
unknown  in  the  United  States,  having  a  red  pulp,  and  a  very  large 
seed  covered  with  a  thin  shell.  The  Indian  women  extract  an  oil 
from  that  seed  and  use  it  for  their  hair,  and  I  think  it  must  have  many 
more  useful  medicinal  properties. 

A  great  many  other  of  our  fruits  have  seeds  containing  substances 
which  I  have  no  doubt  will  be  found,  when  analyzed,  to  be  very  valua- 
ble to  therapeutics. 

Zapote. — The  zapote  is  one  of  our  tropical  fruits  which  does  not 
come  to  this  country.  I  have  just  heard  that  the  seeds  of  the  zapote 
have  recently  been  found  by  a  Mexican  doctor  to  be  a  very  good  nar- 
cotic, which  does  not  produce  the  ill  effects  of  the  drugs  now  in  use. 

Papaya. — This  fruit,  which  grows  in  our  hot  lands  resembles  the 
melon  in  shape,  pulp,  and  seeds,  but  ks  color  is  of  a  yellowish-red.  It 
was  considered  a  very  common  fruit,  but  recently  it  was  found  to  be  a 
powerful  digestive,  and  it  is  already  used  in  Europe  as  a  medicine  under 
the  name  of  Papaine. 

Flowers. — Mexico  is  a  favored  country  for  flowers.  They  grow  wild 
in  a  great  many  places,  and  they  can  be  raised  at  very  little  cost,  as  there 
is  no  need  of  hot-houses  or  any  other  expensive  appliance  to  cultivate 
them.     The  Indians  in  the  small  towns  around  the  City  of  Mexico 


64  Oeoorapbical  Motes  on  /iDejico. 

make  a  business  of  raising  flowers,  and  they  sell  handsome  bouquets, 
as  artistically  made  as  any  in  this  country,  for  a  mere  trifle.  A 
bouquet  which,  for  instance,  in  New  York  would  cost  $5  in  winter, 
could  be  had  in  the  City  of  Mexico  all  the  year  round  for  25  cents  ; 
and  I  look  forward  to  the  time  when  flowers  will  be  exported  in  large 
quantities  from  Mexico  to  the  United  States  if  the  protective  policy  of 
the  country  does  not  interfere. 

IRRIGATION. 

At  the  time  of  the  Spanish  invasion  of  Mexico,  the  Indians  in  those 
parts  of  the  country  where  the  population  was  greatest  were  dependent 
upon  irrigation  for  a  large  part  of  their  cereals,  and  for  cotton,  which 
played  so  important  a  part  in  their  economy.  As  the  same  method  had 
been  employed  from  time  immemorial  in  Spain,  it  followed  that  on  the 
partition  of  the  soil  among  the  Spanish  conquerors,  irrigation  became 
an  important  factor  in  their  agriculture  ;  but  with  expansion  of  popu- 
lation large  tracts  of  land  have  come  to  depend  entirely  upon  the  rain. 

In  recent  years  Mexican  agriculture  has  depended  almost  altogether 
on  the  rainfall,  except  in  a  few  places  well  supplied  with  water,  and 
where  irrigation  is  both  cheap  and  easy  ;  but  the  inhabited  portions 
of  the  country  have  been  depleted  of  their  timber  by  the  natives  for  the 
purpose  of  using  the  wood  for  fuel  or  lumber.  In  more  recent  years, 
the  building  of  railroads  has  increased  considerably  the  demand  for 
wood  both  for  sleepers  and  for  fuel  for  locomotives,  and  the  consequence 
is  that  a  great  change  is  taking  place  in  the  climatic  conditions  of  the 
country  and  that  fuel  is  exceedingly  high.  In  no  other  country  is  there 
so  much  timber — a  good  deal  of  it  not  yet  full  grown — consumed  an- 
nually as  in  Mexico.  The  consumption  of  timber  for  railroad  purposes 
alone,  not  to  mention  that  used  in  mines,  smelters,  and  as  fuel  in  cities 
and  towns,  is  incalculable. 

Competent  authority  in  Mexico,  among  whom  is  the  Inspector  of 
Manufactories,  created  for  the  purpose  of  insuring  the  collection  of  the 
internal-revenue  tax,  considers  that  only  in  the  Federal  District  of 
Mexico  the  consumption  of  wood  exceeds  4000  English  cords  daily, 
used  as  fuel  in  the  factories,  railroads,  and  other  plants  of  that  city. 

The  consumption  of  charcoal  by  private  families  in  the  old-style 
open  cooking  grates  is  at  least  500,000  pounds  in  the  Federal  District 
of  Mexico,  which  is  equivalent  to  2,500,000  pounds  of  wood  taken  from 
the  scanty  forests  of  the  central  plateau,  and  that  consumption  would 
be  very  much  reduced  if,  instead  of  those  old-fashioned  grates,  iron 
cooking  stoves  should  be  used  ;  and  to  encourage  their  use,  when  I  was 
last  in  the  Treasury  Department  of  Mexico,  I  was  instrumental  in  re- 
ducing considerably  the  duties  on  the  same. 

Another  cause  of  the  destruction  of  the  forest  in  Mexico  consists 


Hrrigation*  65 

in  the  primitive  way  in  which  the  Indians  raise  their  crops.  They  own 
in  common  a  large  tract  of  land,  and  they  begin  to  till  near  their  towns, 
commencing  by  destroying  the  forests  and  planting  every  year  in  a  dif- 
ferent locality,  because,  more  especially  in  the  lowlands,  the  vegetation 
springs  up  so  rank  after  the  first  year's  crop  that  it  is  very  difficult  to 
keep  the  ground  clear  of  weeds.  In  this  way  they  clear  new  land  every 
year,  going  farther  and  farther  from  their  town,  until  sometimes  their 
crops  are  raised  at  a  distance  of  as  much  as  thirty  or  forty  miles  from 
their  homes.  The  natural  result  is  the  destruction  of  the  forests  around 
the  towns  and  at  some  considerable  distance  from  the  same,  and  con- 
sequently the  diminution  of  the  rainfall.  I  was  greatly  struck,  on  my 
last  visit  to  Mexico,  in  1896,  by  the  scantiness  of  water  at  an  Indian 
town  called  San  Bernardino,  in  the  sierra  district,  about  five  miles 
north  of  Teotitlan,  the  county  seat  of  the  district,  which  I  had  visited 
in  November,  1855,  and  found  then  exceedingly  abundant  in  rainfall 
and  consequently  in  water,  as  well  as  all  the  mountains  north  of  that 
place,  which  extend  for  about  eighty  miles  to  the  lowlands  on  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico.  On  my  recent  visit,  however,  I  found  a  great  scarcity 
of  water  :  a  small  stream  of  probably  not  more  than  one-half  an  inch 
in  diameter,  carried  in  very  primitive  wooden  troughs,  was  all  the  water 
the  town  had,  and  that  only  during  the  rainy  season,  the  people  being 
obliged  to  go  a  considerable  distance  for  water  in  the  dry  season  ;  this 
being  only  one  illustration  of  what  the  destruction  of  the  woods  is 
doing  in  Mexico. 

The  city  of  Oaxaca,  at  the  foot  of  the  Sierra,  used  to  be,  in  my 
young  days,  very  well  supplied  with  water,  using  for  that  purpose  several 
streams  coming  from  the  mountains  ;  but  during  the  last  dry  season 
the  scarcity  of  water  has  been  such  as  to  cause  a  real  water  famine. 

The  diminution  of  the  rains,  together  with  other  atmospheric  phe- 
nomena, which  takes  place  from  time  to  time,  produces  in  some  years 
drought  that  prevents  the  crops  from  being  raised  ;  as  the  country  pro- 
duces at  present  only  the  corn  necessary  for  its  consumption,  which 
cannot  be  kept  from  year  to  year  on  account  of  its  being  eaten  by  in- 
sects. This  diminution  was  very  disastrous  before  the  railroad  era,  caus- 
ing serious  famines.  Since  the  railways  were  built,  we  import  in  such 
years  corn  from  the  United  States,  spending  several  millions  of  dollars 
in  providing  ourselves  with  that  staple.  All  that  will  be  changed,  and 
we  shall  be  able  to  produce  cereals  enough  not  only  for  home  consump- 
tion, but  even  for  export,  when  we  begin  to  use  irrigation.  The  con- 
figuration of  the  country  allows  dams  that  will  retain  sufficient  water 
both  for  irrigation  and  manufacturing  purposes,  to  be  built  at  compara- 
tively little  expense. 

Large  tracts  of  land  in  Western  Asia,  Northern  Africa,  and  South- 
ern Europe — countries  which,  according  to  historians,  were  once  densely 

VOL.    I — 5  "^ 


66  ©coorapbical  Motes  on  /iDejico. 

populated  and  gardens  of  the  world — are  now  uninhabited  and  barren 
wildernesses  ;  and  this  has  been  brought  about  by  the  wholesale  de- 
struction of  the  forests  and  the  absence  of  any  law  to  protect  them 
and  provide  for  their  replanting.  In  the  United  States  it  has  been  seen 
that  not  only  does  the  decrease  of  the  forest  area  lessen  the  rainfall, 
but  also  the  fall  of  snow  in  the  winter  months,  the  consequence  being 
a  marked  decrease  in  the  supply  of  water  for  irrigation  purposes  from 
the  streams  and  rivers  dependent  for  their  supply  on  the  snowy  moun- 
tain tops. 

Along  the  Mississipju  River  it  is  a  common  observation  of  the  river 
pilots  and  old  steamship  hands  that  the  summers  are  becoming  more 
and  more  dry  and  the  streams  smaller,  and  that  the  big  river  itself  has 
shown  a  marked  decrease  of  "  navigability  "  every  year  during  the  past 
twenty  years.  AM  this  is  caused  by  the  indiscriminate  chopping  down 
of  the  forests  at  the  head  of  the  principal  tributaries  of  the  big  river. 
Statistics  from  Russia,  Germany,  Spain,  Italy,  Palestine,  Australia,  and 
India  all  prove  beyond  a  doubt  that  the  protection  of  the  forests  is  a 
matter  of  vital  importance. 

Mexico  is  not  only  suffering  from  an  annual  decrease  in  rainfall, 
owing  to  the  continual  decrease  in  the  timber-bearing  area,  the  rainfall 
being  more  and  more  unequal  every  year  during  the  past  twenty  years 
but  the  winters  are  becoming  more  and  more  severe,  and  the  frosts  are 
reaching  farther  and  farther  south  each  year.  This  is  undoubtedly  due 
to  the  wholesale  destruction  of  timber  now  going  on  throughout  that 
Republic. 

The  Government  can  cope  with  this  matter  only  by  legislation,  and 
having  before  it  the  example  of  the  rest  of  the  world,  the  Mexican  Gov- 
ernment should  act  without  delay  and  in  a  manner  that  would  benefit, not 
only  the  present,  but  also  future  generations  ;  and  I  understand  it  has 
been  studying  the  advisability  of  prohibiting  the  use  of  wood  for  the 
locomotives  and  sleepers.  Experience  has  shown  that  in  tropical  coun- 
tries iron  sleepers  last  much  longer,  and  are,  on  the  whole,  cheaper 
than  wooden  ones,  and  our  supply  of  coal  will  soon  be  ample  enough 
to  furnish  all  the  fuel  necessary  for  the  railway  and  mining  industries. 

One  of  the  most  profitable  investments  for  capital  in  the  near  future 
will  undoubtedly  be  the  construction  of  reservoirs  in  the  mountains, 
dams  in  the  rivers,  artesian-well  boring,  the  erection  of  pumping  ma- 
chinery on  a  large  scale,  together  with  the  introduction  of  modern 
devices  and  appliances  that  will  facilitate  the  successful  cultivation  of 
the  soil  and  assure  cro{)s  of  all  descriptions  in  all  parts  of  the  country 
where  it  has  been  proved  that  irrigation  must  be  resorted  to.  Not  only 
are  these  recpiirements  essential  for  the  conservation  of  water  for  irriga- 
tion purposes,  but  many  large  cities  throughout  the  Republic  are  with- 
out any  certain  water  supply  ;  and  many  that  have  a  sufficient  supply 


flrriaation.  67 

show  by  their  death-rates  that  that  supply  is  bad,  and  during  the 
greater  part  of  the  year  is  the  cause  of  wide-spread  disease. 

Again,  much  is  to  be  gained  by  the  use  of  these  waters  for  the  gen- 
erating of  power  for  the  use  of  factories,  mines,  electric  lighting,  rail- 
ways, and  street  cars,  even  should  one  hundred  miles  or  more  intervene 
between  the  generating  plant  and  the  machinery  it  is  proposed  to  apply 
to  it. 

It  seems  marvellous  that  the  Mexico  of  to-day — presenting,  as  it 
does,  more  natural  resources,  a  greater  variety  of  climate,  cheaper 
labor,  and  better  facilities  for  the  construction  of  dams,  reservoirs, 
canals,  etc.,  than  almost  any  other  countr)' — should  be  so  far  behind 
the  times  in  a  matter  that  has  become  an  absolute  necessity  before  the 
greater  portion  of  its  area  can  be  thoroughly  populated.  The  great 
increase  in  value  of  a  piece  of  land  after  it  is  irrigated  ought  to  be  in- 
ducement enough  for  capital  to  be  invested  in  such  works.  Compe- 
tent engineers  contend  that  Mexico,  owing  to  its  topographical  and 
geological  features,  will  be  found  to  present  most  favorable  conditions 
for  the  construction  of  reservoirs,  dams,  gravitation  canals,  the  erection 
of  pumping  plants  driven  by  wind,  steam,  gasoline,  electricity,  or  even 
water  power,  and  also  for  the  cutting  off  and  bringing  to  the  surface 
of  the  underflowing  waters,  which  are  known  to  exist  in  greater  abun- 
dance there  than  elsewhere  on  the  face  of  the  globe,  as  nature  has 
been  very  prodigal  to  it  in  these  respects. 

Irrigation  in  arid  countries  is  the  corner-stone  of  civilization,  and, 
to  make  a  country  self-sustaining,  agriculture  should  be  the  first  aim 
of  its  inhabitants.  Agriculture  must  come  first  ;  manufacturing  and 
mining  cannot  thrive  until  the  food  supply  is  forthcoming. 

With  the  extension  of  railway  lines  and  the  notable  imi)ulse  given 
to  agricultural  enterprise  within  the  last  twenty  years,  Mexican  land- 
owners have  improved  more  and  more  upon  the  earlier  methods,  and 
have,  to  an  increasing  extent,  applied  the  principles  of  engineering 
science  to  the  methodical  cultivation  of  the  large  tracts  into  which 
their  holdings  are  usually  divided. 

The  Nazas  Irrigation. — Some  notice  of  an  irrigation  enterprise  in 
Mexico  will  show  how  much  we  are  now  doing  in  this  line. 

The  great  plan  of  northern  Mexico  embraces  nearly  the  whole  of 
the  States  of  Chihuahua  and  Coahuila,  being  bounded  east  and  west 
by  the  sierras  of  the  Pacific  and  Gulf  coasts  respectively.  It  consists 
of  two  watersheds, — that  of  the  Rio  Grande  to  the  north,  and  the 
the  so-called  desert  of  the  Rolson  of  Mapimi  in  the  south.  It  is 
about  four  hundred  miles  wide  by  six  hundred  long,  and  maintains 
a  general  level  of  about  four  thousand  feet  above  the  sea,  although 
much  broken  by  local  mountain  ranges.  The  Bolson  of  Mapimi 
has  much  the  same  formation  as  the  basin  of  the  Great  Salt  Lake. 


68  (BeoQrapbical  IRotes  on  /iDcjico. 

It  receives  the  drainage  of  all  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  Durango 
sierras  and  the  western  slopes  of  the  Coahuila  ranges,  but  possesses  no 
outlet.  As  a  consequence,  throughout  its  whole  area,  the  rivers  run 
into  broad,  shallow  lakes,  whence  the  waters  are  gradually  lost  by 
evaporation  during  the  dry  season.  Of  these  rivers,  the  largest  is  the 
Nazas,  which  has  a  course  of  nearly  three  hundred  miles  from  its 
source  to  where  it  is  dispersed  over  the  shallows,  called  on  modern 
maps  Lake  Mayran.  Sixty  or  seventy  years  ago  the  Nazas  discharged 
its  waters  into  a  series  of  extensive  lagoons,  occupying  what  is  now 
the  fertile  Laguna  district  of  Durango  and  Coahuila. 

At  that  time  a  phenomenal  and  long-continued  rainfall  so  over- 
charged the,  then,  bed  of  the  Nazas  as  to  cause  it  to  open  a  new 
course,  and  leave  the  Cayman  lagoons  thirty  miles  on  one  side.  In 
the  course  of  years  these  lagoons  were  converted  into  a  mesquite  wil- 
derness, almost  dead  level,  and  composed  of  a  deposit  of  the  finest 
detritus,  of  unknown  depth.  The  central  depression  of  this  lake-bed 
filled  a  broad  valley  running  north  and  south,  and  surrounded  by  a 
parallelogram  of  mountains.  The  area  thus  comprised  was  about  two 
hundred  and  ten  square  miles  of  pure  vegetable  loam, locally  known  as  the 
Lake  of  Tlahualilo.  This  cuenca,  or  bowl,  was  the  spot  chosen  about 
six  years  ago  for  the  establishment  of  the  great  irrigation  enterprise. 

The  problems  involved  called  for  courage  and  high  administrative 
qualities,  as  well  as  technical  engineering  knowledge.  It  had  early 
developed  that  the  lands  left  dry  by  the  changed  course  of  the  river 
were  of  extraordinary  fertility,  and  half  a  century  ago  these  tracts, 
immediately  adjacent  to  the  river,  had  been  taken  up  and  brought 
under  irrigation  after  the  rough  methods  then  practised.  The  result 
was  that,  by  1890,  about  250,000  acres  of  this  land  were  under  ditch, 
and  the  region  was  producing  the  greatest  part  of  the  cotton  grown  in 
Mexico,  as  well  as  heavy  crops  of  corn  and  wheat.  The  Tlahualilo 
basin  was  known  to  be  the  richest  portion  of  this  district,  but  the 
thirty  miles  of  sun-baked  desert  separating  it  from  the  present  course 
of  the  river  presented  an  obstacle  to  utilization  which  proved  too 
formidable  for  the  cultivators  of  the  Laguna  country.  In  1889  a 
project  was  formulated  for  carrying  a  ditch  across  the  intervening 
desert  to  the  head  of  the  Tlahualilo  cuenca,  and  converting  the 
whole  of  the  latter  area  into  a  huge  hacienda. 

Preliminary  survey  showed  that  the  lowest  level  of  the  basin  to  be 
irrigated  was  about  100  feet  below  the  point  on  the  river  Nazas 
which  it  was  proposed  to  dam  ;  that  the  main  canal,  on  account  of 
topographical  conditions,  would  require  a  development  of  39  miles  ; 
and  that  the  slope  of  the  lands  within  the  basin  was  such  that  about 
175  square  miles  out  of  the  210  composing  the  basin  could  be  advan- 
tageously irrigated.     A  company  was  formed  to  undertake  the  work. 


Ifrrioation,  69 

A  dam  of  piles  and  riprap  was  thrown  across  the  river  at  a  point  where 
it  is  about  1500  feet  wide  at  flood.  From  this  dam  the  line  of  the 
main  canal  was  traced  to  the  entrance  of  the  Tlahualilo, — a  distance 
of  39  miles.  The  canal  terminated  in  a  distributing  tank  at  the  en- 
trance to  the  irrigable  area,  whence  it  bifurcated,  one  arm  being  car- 
ried along  the  western  side  of  the  basin. 

The  rainfall  in  the  Bolson  of  Mapimi  is  confined  to  a  few  days  of 
heavy  showers  about  the  beginning  of  June  and  the  beginning  of  De- 
cember. But  up  in  the  mountains  of  Durango,  where  the  Nazas  takes 
its  rise,  the  rainfall  at  the  same  season  is  very  heavy  and  protracted, 
resulting  in  high  water  in  the  river,  which  lasts  for  several  weeks  at  a 
time.  It  is  during  these  freshets  that  the  cultivated  lands  in  the  Nazas 
district  are  irrigated.  For  the  rest  of  the  year  they  receive  no  water, 
except  from  occasional  brief  showers.  In  the  Tlahualilo  basin,  a  week 
or  ten  days  of  irrigation  is  all  that  is  needed  in  the  course  of  a  year, 
the  water  soaking  easily  and  quickly  through  the  almost  impalpable 
silt,  and  the  hot  sun  forming  a  protecting  crust  which  checks  evapora- 
tion, and  retains  the  moisture  in  the  subsoil  for  a  surprisingly  long 
time.  In  fact,  owing  to  their  long  roots,  the  cotton  plants  strictly  re- 
quire irrigation  only  once  every  other  year,  but  corn  and  wheat,  of 
course,  must  receive  it  at  each  planting.  The  distribution  of  the 
waters  is  regulated  by  government  schedule,  each  property  on  the 
river  being  allotted  its  proportion  of  water,  according  to  priority  of 
settlement.  Each  canal  on  the  river  is  permitted  to  take  as  many  irri- 
gations as  it  desires  during  the  season  of  high  waters,  but  in  strict 
rotation.  That  is,  after  a  property  has  taken  one  quota,  it  cannot  re- 
peat the  process  until  all  the  others  have  taken  theirs,  when  its  second 
quota  is  available.  Where  another  property,  as  often  happens,  does 
not  care  to  use  all  the  water  to  which  it  is  entitled,  its  further  allot- 
ments may  be  used  by  its  neighbor.  The  waters,  on  leaving  the  river, 
are  heavily  charged  with  sediment  largely  volcanic  in  its  origin,  and 
this  is  deposited  on  the  lands  at  each  flooding  in  the  shape  of  extremely 
fine  mud. 

Six  years  of  experience  with  this  property  demonstrates  the  fact 
that  irrigation,  when  applied  to  fertile  land  under  a  carefully  planned 
and  thoroughly  executed  system,  where  the  water  supply  is  owned  by 
the  user,  puts  agriculture  among  the  least  dubious  of  industries.  The 
system  adopted  by  the  Tlahualilo  Company  is  especially  worthy  of  atten- 
tion, because  of  the  notable  unity  of  plan  pursued  from  the  inception 
of  the  enterprise  to  its  fullest  development,  and  of  its  resultant  econo- 
mies. It  was  on  this  proi)erty  that  a  disastrous  experiment  of  colo- 
nization from  Alabama  took  place  in  the  year  1896,  when  hundreds  of 
negroes  were  taken  from  Alabama  and  other  points  of  the  southern 
portion  of  the  United  States  under  the  supposition  that  they  could 


70  ©cotjrapbical  IRotes  on  /iDejico. 

withstand  the  down-pour  of  the  tropical  sun  of  Mexico,  and  by  their 
knowledge  of  the  cultivation  of  cotton  succeed  in  carrying  out  the 
puri^ose  of  the  men  wlio  undertook  the  enterprise.  Unused  to  food 
conditions  in  Mexico,  especially  for  want  of  bacon  and  corn  bread, 
they  were  infested  with  sickness,  which  caused  great  mortality  among 
them,  and  frightened  and  demoralized  they  fled  from  Tlahualilo,  this 
experiment  showing  very  plainly  that  Mexican  planters  cannot  rely  for 
lal)or  on  the  colored  peoj)le  of  the  United  States. 

The  production  of  cotton  and  corn  in  the  vicinity  of  Torreon  can 
be  increased  eightfold  by  building  reservoirs  in  the  Nazas  River  and 
its  tributary  caiions,  to  hold  the  water  back  for  the  irrigation  of  the 
vast  area  of  fine  cotton  and  corn  lands  that  are  yet  unproductive, 
simply  through  the  non-retention  of  the  great  amount  of  water  flowing 
to  the  sea,  unused,  annually,  and  the  same  result  could  be  obtained 
by  doing  the  same  thing  with  many  other  rivers  in  Mexico.  With  one- 
fourth  of  the  water  now  needed  to  produce  a  good  crop,  the  same 
amount  of  grain  can  be  produced  by  good  cultivation.  The  reason  is 
that  by  the  methods  now  in  vogue  in  most  parts  of  the  country,  so  little 
soil  is  loosened  by  the  plow  that  nearly  all  the  water  runs  off,  where 
rain  is  relied  on,  and  only  with  a  great  amount  of  rain  can  a  crop  be 
raised.  When  irrigation  is  used,  the  water  required  to  keep  the  hard 
ground  moist  is  entirely  in  excess  of  the  reservoir,  rain,  and  river  sup- 
plies. This  is  the  reason  of  the  short  grain  supply  and  of  the  necessity 
for  importing  during  years  of  drought  large  quantities  of  corn.  If  the 
ground  were  plowed  deep  and  well,  it  would  absorb  most  of  the  rainfall 
and  create  sufficient  surface  moisture  to  meet  the  moisture  from  below, 
which  would  counteract  the  dry  action  of  the  atmosphere  on  the  soil 
and  roots  of  the  grain,  which,  by  its  luxuriant  growth,  would  soon  shade 
the  ground,  and  thus  contribute  still  further  to  the  retention  of  moisture. 

The  fact  is,  taking  Mexico  as  a  whole,  that  there  is  not  a  year  so 
dry  but  that  with  good  cultivation,  sufficient  grain  can  be  raised  to 
supply  domestic  demands,  while  all  the  excess  above  that  quantity  in 
favorable  seasons  should  be  used  as  feed  for  stock,  which  would  supply 
the  large  quantities  of  lard,  tallow,  hard-oil,  etc.,  now  being  imported, 
and  would  leave  a  large  amount  for  export,  together  with  a  consider- 
able quantity  of  meat  for  the  same  purpose,  thus  helping  to  cover  the 
balance  of  foreign  trade  and  keeping  our  silver  dollars  in  the  hands 
of  the  farmers  and  stockmen,  to  improve  and  increase  their  lands, 
herds,  and  flocks. 


The  present  Mexican  fauna  belongs,  like  its  flora,  to  the  North 
American  zone,  so  far  as  regards  the  plateau  regions,  and  to  the  An- 
tilles in  respect  to  the  coast  lands  round  the  Gulf,  while  that  of  the 


jfauna.  71 

Pacific  seaboard  is  intermediate  between  the  Californian  and  South 
American.  In  the  general  aspect  of  its  terrestrial  animals,  Mexico 
is  connected  more  with  the  United  States,  whereas  in  its  marine  forms 
the  reverse  movement  has  taken  place.  Thus  the  prevailing  species  in 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico  as  far  as  Tamaulipas  and  Texas,  and  the  Pacific 
coast  northwards  to  Sonora  and  Lower  California,  have  migrated  from 
South  America.  The  species  in  the  two  oceanic  basins  differ  almost 
completely  ;  and,  despite  the  proximity  of  the  Pacific  and  Atlantic 
shores,  their  shells  are  quite  distinct. 

The  fauna  includes  three  species  of  large  felidse,  the  puma  or 
American  lion,  jaguar,  and  ocelot  ;  among  the  smaller  is  the  wildcat. 
Wolves  are  common  in  the  northern  States,  and  also  the  coyote  ;  be- 
sides which  there  are  bears,  wild  boars,  and  bisons.  A  species  of 
sloth  is  found  in  the  southern  forests,  with  five  varieties  of  monkeys. 
Of  the  other  wild  animals  the  principal  are  hares,  rabbits,  squirrels, 
two  or  three  kinds  of  deer,  beavers,  moles,  martens,  and  otters. 

All  the  domestic  animals  introduced  by  the  early  Spanish  settlers 
have  multiplied  prodigiously.  The  horses,  though  small,  retain  the 
spirit  and  graceful  form  of  the  Andalusian  or  Arabian  stock,  from 
which  they  mainly  sprang. 

The  waters  of  the  estuaries  and  coast  streams  teem  with  fishes,  all 
the  numerous  varieties  of  which  differ  on  the  two  oceanic  slopes,  but 
still  present  a  certain  analogy  in  their  general  distribution.  Turtles 
are  taken  in  considerable  numbers  on  the  coast,  and  the  carey,  or 
turtle-shell,  of  Yucatan  and  Guerrero  is  the  object  of  a  trade  valued  at 
^20,000  yearly. 

The  ophidians  are  represented  by  a  few  boas  in  the  southern  forests, 
and  several  species  of  snakes,  some  extremely  venomous,  as  the  rattle 
and  coral  snakes.  The  largest  lizard  is  the  iguana,  whose  flesh  is  by 
some  of  the  natives  used  as  food.  Noxious  insects  infest  the  hot 
regions  in  myriads  ;  alacranes,  or  scorpions,  in  two  different  varieties, 
are  everywhere  feared,  and  many  children  were  every  year  killed  by 
their  sting  in  the  city  of  Durango  before  the  proper  antidote  was 
found  and  used.  Scolopendras,  gigantic  spiders,  tarantulas,  and  mos- 
quitoes abound. 

Bees  are  numerous  and  their  wax  is  an  article  of  export,  and  the 
silkworm,  though  comparatively  neglected,  yields  an  annual  profit  of 
some  importance.  The  birds  of  prey  are  eagles,  hawks,  and  zopilotes, 
or  turkey-buzzards,  the  scavengers  of  the  coast  towns,  with  three  or 
four  species  of  owls.  Domestic  fowl  are  extremely  abundant.  The 
parrots,  humming-birds,  trogons,  and  so  forth,  vie  in  richness  of 
plumage  with  those  of  Brazil,  and  the  Mexican  songsters,  the  ])rince 
of  which  is  the  zenzontle,  or  mocking-bird,  are  unequalled  by  those  of 
any  other  country. 


72 


6eoorapblcal  Botes  on  /IDcjico. 


Of  all  the  Mexican  fauna,  two  only  have  been  domesticated  :  the 
huahulotl  {Me/eagn's  Mexicand)^  which  is  a  species  of  duck,  and  the 
turkey,  introduced  into  Europe  by  the  Spaniards  from  the  West  Indies, 
hence  by  the  French  called  "  coc^  d'Inde."  The  techichi,  an  edible 
dumb  dog,  was  soon  exterminated  when  taxed  by  the  Spanish  authori- 
ties. The  other  farmyard  animals  have  all  been  introduced  into  Mex- 
ico by  the  conquerors. 

In  the  Gulf  of  California,  and  especially  near  La  Paz,  and  the  neigh- 
boring archipelagoes,  extensive  beds  of  pearl  oysters  are  fished.  Some 
other  islands  in  the  same  gulf  are  frequented  by  myriads  of  various 
species  of  aquatic  birds,  and  have  already  yielded  many  hundred  car- 
goes of  guano. 

It  is  noteworthy  that  the  Pacific  islands,  lying  at  some  distance 
from  the  coast,  have  all  a  fauna  different  from  that  of  the  mainland. 
Thus  the  little  Tres  Marias  group,  about  sixty  miles  off  the  coast  of 
Jalisco,  has  a  special  species  of  humming-bird.  The  Revillagigedo 
Archipelago  also  forms  a  separate  zoological  zone,  and  the  island  of 
Guadalupe,  over  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles  distant  from  Lower  Cali- 
fornia, has  eleven  species  of  land  birds,  every  one  of  which  differs 
from  the  corresponding  species  on  the  adjacent  continent. 

ETHNOLOGY. 

Mexico  is  inhabited  by  native  Indians  found  there  during  the  Span- 
ish conquest,  by  descendants  of  tlie  conquerors  of  Mexico  and  other 
European  races,  and  by  a  mixture  of  the  two.  There  are  so  few  in- 
habitants of  African  descent  that  it  is  hardly  worth  while  speaking  of 
them.  The  proportion  of  this  population  is  about  as  follows  :  Of  Eu- 
ropean descent,  19  per  cent.  ;  native  Indians,  43  per  cent.  ;  mixed  races, 
38  per  cent. 

Mexican  Indians. — The  native  Indians  found  by  the  Spaniards  be- 
long to  several  nations  and  tribes,  having  different  features  and  entirely 
distinct  languages.  The  principal  of  these  tribes  are  the  following, 
some  of  which  are  now  extinct  : 


Otomi, 

Chichimec, 

Huaxtec, 

Totonac, 

Mixtec, 

Zapotec, 

Mahuas, 

Toltec, 

Olmecs, 

Xicalancs, 

Tula, 


Apache, 

Irritilas, 

Tamaulioecs, 

Zacotec, 

Huastec, 

Zoque, 

Opata, 

Guaicuri, 

Yaqui, 

Mayo, 

Seri, 


Tarahumara, 

Tepehuan, 

Sabaibos, 

Acaxee, 

Xixime, 

Concho, 

Manosprietas, 

Comanche, 

Cuachichils, 

Tarascos, 

Mixe. 


These  tribes  have  been  classified  in  the  following  families  : 

Mexican  Family  ;  Totonaca  Family  ; 

Sonorense  Opata-Pima  Family  ;  Mixteco-Zapoteca  Family  ; 

Guaicura  y  Cochimi  Laimon  Fam-  Matlalzinga  6  Pirinda  Family  ; 

ily  ;  Maya-Quiche  Family  ; 

Seri  Family  ;  Chontal  Family  : 

Tarasco  Family  ;  Huave  Family  ; 

Zoque-Mixe  Family  ;  Apache  Family  ; 

Otomi  Family. 

There  is  a  great  deal  of  similarity  between  the  Mexican  Indians 
and  the  Malay  Asiatic  races — especially  the  Japanese  branch — which 
gives  foundation  to  the  idea  that  the  aborigines  of  Mexico  originally 
came  from  Asia,  or  vice  versa.^  Their  intensely  black  hair  and  eyes, 
their  brown  or  yellow  color,  their  small  stature  and  the  slight  obliquity 

'  The  following  extracts  from  the  San  Francisco,  Cal.,  Bulletin  of  June  7,  1S97, 
confirm  my  views  on  the  subject  : 

"  Information  is  received  from  Australia  concerning  the  reports  of  F.  W.  Christian 
of  the  Polynesian  Society,  who  has  returned  to  Sydney  after  an  extended  tour  of  the 
islands  of  the  South  Seas,  the  Caroline  group  especially,  where  he  has  been  on  a  suc- 
cessful search  for  ethnological  specimens.  These  reports  are  of  great  importance  to  the 
scientific  world  and  are  said  to  let  much  light  on  a  vexed  question  which  has  puzzled  the 
most  learned  savants  for  years.  Mr.  Christian  has  discovered  extensive  traces  of  the 
Chinese  and  Japanese  in  the  islands  of  the  Pacific,  and  claims  to  have  discovered  evi- 
dence pointing  to  the  existence  of  a  civilization  of  nearly  two  thousand  years  ago,  which 
is  linked  with  the  ancient  civilization  in  Central  America,  and  will  probably  explain  the 
origin  of  the  Aztec  races. 

"  Under  the  auspices  of  the  Polynesian  Society,  according  to  advices  from  Sydney, 
via  Honolulu,  received  per  Coptic  yesterday,  Mr.  Christian  worked.  The  gentleman 
spent  nearly  two  years  looking  for  traces  of  the  Chinese  in  the  islands,  and  was  lucky 
enough  to  find  ancient  records,  specimens  of  handiwork  and  weapons  which  proved 
that  Asiatic  races  were  extensive  traders  among  the  South  Sea  group  thousands  of  years 
ago.  Evidence  of  a  very  decisive  nature  was  secured  which  shows  that  a  large  trade 
was  carried  on  via  the  islands  of  the  Caroline  group,  between  China  and  Central  Am- 
erica, and  that  the  ancient  Chinese  were  more  inclined  to  emigrate  than  their  latter-day 
brethren  and  colonized  extensively. 

"  Extensive  inquiries  were  made  as  to  the  traditions  of  the  islanders,  and  many 
discoveries  were  made  concerning  the  early  history  of  the  Malays  with  regard  to  naviga- 
tion, all  proving  that  the  Torres  strait's  route  to  the  Pacific  was  not  taken,  but  that 
voyages  were  made  to  many  of  the  Caroline  islands. 

"  The  coincidence  is  a  strange  one  that  a  despatch  from  Hermosillo,  Mexico,  dated 
June  6th,  reports  that  a  rock  recently  discovered  in  the  mountains  of  Magdalena  dis- 
trict, State  of  Sonora,  which  is  covered  with  Chinese  inscriptions,  has  just  been  visited 
by  Sen  Yup,  a  well-educated  Chinese  of  Guaymas.  He  says  the  inscriptions  are  Chi- 
nese, but  are  somewhat  indistinct.  He  made  a  copy  of  them,  and  has  translated  enough 
of  the  lines  to  show  that  the  writing  was  probably  inscribed  on  the  rock  at  least  two 
thousand  years  ago." 


74  ©eoorapblcal  Botes  on  ^ejico. 

of  their  eyes,  are  features  common  to  the  Mexican  Indians  and  the 
Japanese.  When  I  first  came  to  Washington,  at  the  end  of  1859,  not 
having  been  out  of  Mexico  before,  I  retained  very  vivid  recollections 
of  the  Mexican  Indians,  with  whom  I  had  been  somewhat  closely  asso- 
ciated ;  and  shortly  afterwards  the  first  Japanese  Embassy  came  to  this 
country  and  was  received  in  a  very  solemn  manner  by  Mr.  Buchanan, 
then  President  of  the  United  States.  The  Embassy  consisted  of  about 
forty  persons  altogether,  comprising  ministers,  secretaries,  interpret- 
ers, servants,  etc.,  and  were  dressed  in  their  national  gala  costumes, 
not  having  yet  adopted  the  European  one.  The  Diplomatic  Corps 
having  been  invited  to  the  reception,  I  attended  as  a  member  of  the 
same,  and  was  greatly  struck  by  the  remarkable  similarity  which  I  found 
between  the  Japanese  members  of  the  Embassy  and  the  Mexican  In- 
dians, whom  I  had  just  left.  It  seemed  to  me  that  had  I  collected  at 
random  forty  Mexican  Indians  and  dressed  them  in  the  same  gorgeous 
costumes  that  the  Japanese  wore,  nobody  could  have  detected  the 
difference. 

Some  of  the  Indian  languages  seem  to  me  to  resemble  strongly  the 
Oriental  ones,  though  of  course  I  cannot  speak  with  authority,  as  I  do 
not  know  any  of  those  languages  and  have  heard  only  the  Chinese, 
Japanese,  and  Korean  spoken  ;  but  I  am  sure  that  if  any  educated  and 
intelligent  Chinese  should  go  to  Mexico  and  spend  some  time  among 
the  Indians,  he  would  find  traces,  in  the  language  which  would  con- 
tribute greatly  to  clear  up  this  problem.  Mr.  Tateno,  a  former  Jajjanese 
Minister,  who  visited  Mexico,  found,  during  his  short  stay  in  that  coun- 
try, several  words  that  are  used  in  Japan  and  that  have  the  same  mean- 
ing in  both  countries.  I  am  aware  that  Seiior  Pimentel,  a  very  learned 
philologist,  who  made  a  special  study  of  the  languages  of  the  Mexican 
Indians,  finds  no  similarity  at  all  between  them  and  the  Chinese  or 
other  Oriental  languages  ;  and  that  even  the  Otomi  language,  which  is 
monosyllabic,  he  finds  to  have  no  similarity  to  the  Chinese.  But, 
notwithstanding  that  great  authority,  I  believe  that  the  aborigines  of 
both  continents,  that  is,  Asiatic  and  American,  were  originally  of  the 
same  race,  and  that  there  must  be  some  relationship  between  their 
respective  languages. 

The  Indians  of  the  different  tribes  do  not  generally  mix  with  one 
another,  but  intermarry  among  themselves,  and  this  fact  contributes 
largely  to  their  physical  decay,  and  makes  very  difficult,  at  least  for 
some  time  to  come,  the  complete  assimilation  of  all  the  Mexican  popu- 
lation. 

The  Mexican  Indians  are  on  the  whole  a  hard-working,  sober, 
moral,  and  enduring  race,  and  when  educated  they  produce  very  dis- 
tinguished men.  Some  of  our  most  prominent  public  men  in  Mexico, 
like  Juarez  as  a  statesman,  and  Morelos  as  a  soldier,  were  pure-blooded 


I 


I 


lEtbnoloas.  75 

Indians,'  and  fortunately  there  is  no  prejudice  against  their  race  in 
Mexico,  and  so  when  they  are  educated  they  are  accepted  in  marriage 
among  the  highest  families  of  pure  Spanish  blood. ^ 

I  have  been  a  great  deal  among  them,  and  my  knowledge  of  their 
characteristics  only  increases  my  sympathy  and  admiration  for  them. 
In  the  State  of  Oaxaca,  for  instance,  wliere  I  spent  the  early  years  of 
my  life,  I  have  seen  Indians  from  the  mountain  districts,  who,  when 
they  had  to  go  to  the  capital,  especially  to  carry  money,  would  form 
parties  of  eight  or  ten  to  make  a  ten  days'  round  trip,  carrying  with 
them  their  food,  which  consists  of  roasted  ground  corn,  which  they 
take  three  times  a  day  ;  stopping  at  a  brook  to  mix  it  with  water,  and 

'  Sir  William  Kingston,  President  of  the  Surgery  Section  in  the  Second  Pan- 
American  Medical  Congress,  held  at  the  City  of  Mexico  in  October,  1896,  in  an  in- 
terview which  was  published  by  The  Gazette  of  Montreal,  Canada,  of  December  2, 
1896,  said,  concerning  his  visit  to  Mexico,  among  other  things  : 

"  The  pure-blooded  Indian  was  seen  on  all  sides. 

"  The  Spaniards  would  seem  to  have  pursued  the  same  course  as  was  followed  by 
the  original  French  settlers,  they  did  not  shove  aside  the  native  Indians  as  useless  lum- 
ber, to  be  got/en  out  of  the  loay,  as  a  distinguished  Harvard  professor  puts  it,  but  they 
treated  them  as  people  in  possession  of  the  soil,  with  whom  it  was  not  only  right  but 
proper  to  ally  in  marriage.  I  have  always  regarded  our  North  American  Indian  as 
the  best  type  of  the  aborigines  in  stature.  I  still  believe  he  is,  but  not  so  in  intellect. 
The  broad,  massive  forehead  of  the  native  of  Mexico,  and  his  soft  but  prominent  and 
intelligent  eye,  are  evidences  of  mental  power. 

*  I  take  from  a  spicy  article  published  by  Mr.  Charles  Dudley  Warner,  in  /i^ar- 
per's  A/agazine  ior  ]\ine,  i8g6,  the  following  description  of  the  dress  of  the  poorer 
classes  in  Mexico  : 

"  Herbert  Spencer  might  extend  here  his  comments  on  the  relation  of  color  to 
sex.  It  is  the  theory  that  all  the  males  of  birds  have  gay  plumage  in  order  to  make 
them  attractive  to  the  other  sex,  while  the  females  go  in  sober  colors.  This  is  also 
supposed  to  hold  true  of  barbarous  nations.  The  men  who  dress  at  all,  or  use  paint 
as  a  substitute,  wear  bright  colors  and  more  ornaments  than  the  women,  while  the  gen- 
tle sex  is  content  to  be  inconspicuous.  Needless  to  say  that  in  what  we  call  civiliza- 
tion, this  rule  is  reversed.  The  men  affect  plain  raiment,  while  the  women  vie  with 
the  tropical  birds  of  the  male  gender.  Tried  by  this  test  Mexico  has  not  reached  the 
civilization  of  the  United  States.  The  women  of  the  lower  orders  are  uniformly  sober 
in  apparel,  and  commonly  wear  drawn  over  the  head  a  reboso  in  plain  colors.  The 
scant  dress  is  usually  brown  or  pale  blue.  It  is  the  men  who  are  resplendent,  even  the 
poorest  and  the  beggars.  The  tall  conical  hats  give  to  all  of  them  an  "  operatic  "  dis- 
tinction ;  the  lower  integuments  may  be  white  (originally)  as  also  the  shirt  and  the 
jacket ;  or  the  man  may  have  marvellous  trousers,  slit  down  the  sides  and  fla])i)ing 
about  so  as  to  show  his  drawers,  or  s(mietimes,  in  the  better  class,  fastened  down 
with  silver  buttons  ;  but  every  man  of  them  slings  over  his  left  shoulder  or  wraps 
about  him,  drawing  it  about  his  mouth  on  the  least  chill  in  the  air,  a  brilliantly  col- 
ored sarape,  or  blanket,  frequently  of  bright  red.  Even  if  he  appears  in  white  cotton, 
he  is  apt  to  wear  a  red  scarf  round  his  waist;  and  if  he  is  of  a  higher  grade,  he  has 
the  taste  of  a  New  York  alderman  for  a  cravat.  This  variety  and  intensity  of  color 
in  the  dress  of  the  men  gives  great  animation  and  picturesqueness  to  any  crowd  in  the 
streets,  ar.d  lights  up  all  the  dusty  highways." 


^6  CeoQrapbical  Hotes  ow  /IDejico. 

sleeping  on  the  bare  ground,  preferring  always  the  open  air  ;  getting 
up  before  daylight  and  starting  on  their  journey  at  daybreak  imme- 
diately after  their  early  meal,  speaking  no  Spanish  and  travelling 
about  forty  miles  a  day.  When  they  reached  the  city  of  Oaxaca,  they 
would  remain  there  one  or  two  days,  and  go  back  to  their  homes  with- 
out taking  part  in  any  dissipation.  They  prefer  to  live  in  the  high, 
cool  localities,  and  they  have  their  patch  of  ground  to  raise  corn  and 
a  few  vegetables  in  the  hot  lowlands,  sometimes  thirty  miles  away  from 
their  homes,  and  carry  their  crops  on  their  backs  for  all  that  distance. 
They  make  very  good  soldiers,  and  military  leaders  have  used  them  to 
great  advantage  during  our  revolutions. 

Professor  Starr's  theory  that  we  are  all  on  this  Continent  assuming 
the  type  of  the  Indian,  is,  in  a  measure,  true.  It  is  nothing  new,  for  it 
was  already  indicated  by  an  English  physician  travelling  in  the  British 
colonies  before  the  United  States  were  thought  of. 

The  great  task  of  the  Mexican  Government  is  to  educate  our 
Indians  and  make  them  active  citizens,  consumers,  and  producers, 
elevating  their  condition.  Before  we  think  of  spending  money  to  en- 
courage European  immigration  to  Mexico,  we  ought  to  promote  the 
education  of  our  Indians,  which  I  consider  the  principal  public  need 
of  the  country. 

Increase  of  Alcxican  Population. — In  the  beginning  of  the  century 
Baron  Humboldt,  who  visited  Mexico  and  studied  very  carefully  the 
conditions  of  the  country,  thought  that  the  Indian  race,  which  was 
then  very  numerous,  would  continue  to  increase  and  would  be  the  pre- 
ponderant race  of  Mexico,  as  far  as  numbers  were  concerned,  as  it 
showed  a  large  proportion  in  a  census  made  in  1810  by  Don  Fernando 
Navarro  y  Noriega,  and  which  appears  in  Baron  Humboldt's  Political 
Essay  of  Neiu  Spain.  According  to  that  census  the  population  of 
Mexico  was  then  divided  as  follows  : 

European  and  American  Spaniards 1,097,928 

Indians 3,676,281 

Mixed  races  or  castes 1,338,706 

Secular  ecclesiastics 4,229 

Regular  ecclesiastics 3,112 

Nuns 2,098 


Total 6,122,354 

Including  among   the   Europeans   the   ecclesiastics  and  nuns,  the 
population  was,  according  to  that  census  : — 

Europeans 1,107,367  or   18  per  cent. 

Indians 3,676,281    "    60 

Mixed  races 1,338,706    "    22 

Total 6,122,354    "too 


In  the  census  of  1875  the  following  results  appear  : — 

European  race  and  descen- 
dants of  the  Spaniards 1,899,031  or  20  per  cent. 

Mixed  race 4,082,918    "  43    "      " 

Native  Indian  race 3,513,208    "  37    "      " 


Total 9,495,157    "100    "      " 

The  increase  of  population  in  the  65  years  which  elapsed  between 
the  two  censuses  mentioned,  deducting  from  the  census  of  18 10  the 
inhabitants  of  Texas,  New  Mexico,  and  Upper  California,  who  had 
passed  to  the  United  States,  numbering  58,338,  Avas 

Population  of  1810    6,064,016 

Census  of  1875 9,495»i57 


Increase  of  the  population  in  the  65  years 3,431,141 

From  the  preceding  data  it  appears  that  the  European  race  nearly 
doubled  its  population  in  the  space  of  65  years,  and  at  the  rate  of  i.i 
per  cent,  of  increase  per  year  ;  that  the  mixed  race  trebled  it  at  the 
rate  of  3.25  ;  and  that  the  native  race  diminished  it  at  the  rate  of  0.058 
per  cent,  per  annum. 

Families  in  Mexico  are  generally  very  large,  often  having  ten  or 
fifteen  children.  I  remember  how  much  surprise  it  caused  in  Wash- 
ington, my  stating  in  the  presence  of  Sefior  Don  Jacobo  Blanco,  the 
Mexican  Commissioner  in  the  late  International  Boundary  Com- 
mission, who  was  recently  here  for  a  year  finishing  his  office  work  and 
maps  and  preparing  his  report,  that  he  was  the  twenty-fourth  child  in 
his  family,  his  father  having  been  twice  married. 

Decrease  of  the  Indian  Population. — It  further  appears  that  the  In- 
dian population  has  been  decreasing  since  the  beginning  of  the  present 
century,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  Indian  race  on  the  whole  is 
very  prolific. 

The  causes  of  the  decrease  of  the  Indian  population  in  Mexico  are 
various  ;  bad  nourishment,  insufficient  shelter  from  the  inclemency  of 
the  weather,  wretched  attendance  in  sickness,  and  many  others,  some 
of  which  I  shall  mention  here,  having  contributed  toward  the  degener- 
ation and  decline  of  the  race. 

The  small-pox,  owing  to  the  carelessness  or  indolence  of  the  par- 
ents in  regard  to  vaccination,  or  their  repugnance  to  it,  causes  deplor- 
able ravages  in  this  race,  more  especially  among  the  individuals  that 
live  at  any  considerable  distance  from  the  cities. 

Indian  women,  even  when  far  advanced  in  pregnancy,  do  not  ab- 


78  Gcoorapbical  IRotes  on  ^c£ico. 

stain  from  hard  labor,  and,  witliout  any  care  for  their  coming  offspring, 
continue  grinding  their  corn  until  the  moment  of  parturition.  Then, 
before  the  proper  time  for  taking  the  child  from  the  breast,  it  is  fed 
with  food  unsuitable  for  its  age  and  difficult  of  digestion,  which  occa- 
sions diarrhoea  or  otiier  maladies  tliat  either  cause  its  death  or  at  least 
contribute  to  its  imperfect  development. 

Another  circumstance  which  causes  the  degeneration  of  the  Indians 
is  their  premature  marriages.  In  Mexico  the  marriageable  age  for  wo- 
men has  been  fixed  by  law  at  eighteen  years,  and  in  the  tierra  caliente, 
or  hot  country,  at  fourteen  ;  but  in  some  places  Indian  girls  are  married 
at  twelve.  Every  Indian  father  considers  it  his  duty  to  marry  his 
children,  whether  boys  or  girls,  as  soon  as  they  are  of  age,  the  parents 
of  course  making  the  match  to  suit  themselves. 

This  used  to  be  the  case  not  only  with  the  Indians,  but  even  with 
persons  of  Spanish  descent.  I  once  heard  General  Degollado,  a  very 
good  and  prominent  man  in  Mexico,  say,  that  the  day  he  married  he 
took,  immediately  after  the  ceremony  was  over,  his  bean-shooter  and 
went  to  shoot  birds,  because  he  had  no  conception  of  what  he  had  done, 
his  parents  having  arranged  the  match  for  him  ;  but  he  added  that  he 
could  not  possibly  have  made  a  better  choice  of  a  wife. 

The  Indians  are  strong  by  nature  ;  and  in  this  is  to  be  found  the  fact 
that  so  many  of  them  reach  an  advanced  age,  in  spite  of  their  scant 
and  i)Oor  food,  their  unhealthy  mode  of  living,  and  their  damp  and  un- 
wholesome habitations,  consisting  of  miserable  huts  where  whole 
families  are  huddled  together. 

The  Spaniards  in  Mexico. — The  Spaniards  are  a  money-making, 
wonderfully  frugal  race,  since  they  have  been  battling  with  hard  con- 
ditions at  home  for  centuries.  The  Spaniard  in  Mexico  is — as  Richard 
Ford  who  spent  thirty  years  in  the  i:)eninsula,  and  who  was  a  close  ob- 
server, depicts  him — a  hardy,  temperate  man,  well  fitted,  under  favor- 
able conditions,  to  become  a  dominant  influence. 

In  Mexico,  the  energy  of  the  Spaniard  is  remarkable.  He  is  force- 
ful of  word  and  phrase,  energetic  in  his  movements,  immensely  vital, 
tremendously  persistent,  and  wonderfully  enduring.  After  thirty  years 
behind  a  counter  selling  groceries,  he  retires,  a  man  of  fortune  ;  not 
always  large,  but  sufficient,  and  is  still  a  man  of  force  and  ready  for 
undertakings  demanding  good  brain  i)ower  and  courage.  They  come 
over  mere  lads,  from  ten  to  fifteen,  toil  and  moil,  feed  frugally,  and 
sleep  hardly,  and  they  become  millionaires,  bank  directors,  great  mill 
owners,  farmers  on  a  grand  scale,  hot-country  planters  and  monopolists, 
for  the  Spaniard  is  born  with  the  "  trust "  idea  ;  while  his  sons  are  too 
often  dudes  and  spendthrifts. 

The  thrifty  Spaniard  toils  and  saves,  and  his  ambition  is  to  marry  a 
rich  girl,  frequently  the  daughter  of  a  Mexican   landowner,  and  so  he 


Etbnoloo^.  79 

lays  the  foundation  for  permanent  wealth  ;  for  everywhere,  the  world 
over,  the  man  who  gets  tlie  lands  and  holds  on  to  them  is  the  wealthy 
man.  Speculators  and  financiers  come  and  go  like  bubbles  on  a  river, 
but  the  landed  proprietor  keeps  a  permanent  clincli  on  humanity. 

There  is  one  check  to  the  growth  of  Spanish  influence  in  Mexico, 
and  that  is  the  climate.  All  Europeans,  no  matter  what  their  nation- 
ality, become  physically  modified  by  residence  in  the  new  world  ;  and 
nowhere  is  the  effect  of  climate  more  noticeable  than  in  the  tropics. 
The  children  of  the  Spanish  residents  are  less  energetic  than  the  parents, 
and  the  third  generation  are  altogether  Creoles.  Just  as  the  Mexican 
of  Spanish  descent  is,  as  a  rule,  less  energetic,  not  so  vascular,  and  less 
vigorous  than  the  Spaniard,  so  is  the  American  less  full-blooded  and 
leaner  than  the  Englishman.  The  change  that  takes  place  in  the  hu- 
man organization,  transplanted  from  the  old  world  to  the  new,  is  a  pro- 
found one. 

English  and  Germans  in  Mexico. — The  present  century  has  seen 
many  changes  in  the  commercial  world  of  Mexico  ;  the  great  English 
houses  have  almost  all  disappeared  ;  especially  has  this  been  marked  in 
the  dry-goods,  or  draper's  business.  The  Germans,  with  superior  econ- 
omy, if  with  no  more  of  enterprise,  drove  the  English  out  of  that  pro- 
fitable business,  and  in  time  themselves  succumbed  to  the  still  closer 
methods  of  the  Barcelonettes  who  gained  a  foothold  in  the  business 
which  they  have  successfully  maintained.  The  dry-goods  business  in 
the  Republic  is  largely  in  the  hands  of  men  who  speak  the  French 
language.  From  the  great  houses  of  the  capital  go  forth  bright  young 
men,  trained  to  business  habits  who  are  established  over  branch  con- 
cerns in  the  interior  and  coast  towns.  Their  employers  become  their 
backers,  and  a  close  intimacy  is  maintained,  to  the  mutual  advantage  of 
older  and  younger  merchants. 

Very  few  of  the  foreigners  who  settle  in  Mexico,  and  especially 
Spaniards,  are  educated,  as  most  of  them  hardly  know  how  to  read 
and  write.  They  very  seldom  become  naturalized  Mexicans,  and  almost 
always  keep  their  allegiance  to  the  country  of  their  origin.  That 
seemed  natural  when  Mexico  was  in  constant  turmoil,  and  many  of  the 
foreigners  going  there  expected  to  make  large  fortunes  by  means  of 
diplomatic  claims  ;  but  that  reason  can  hardly  hold  good  now,  when 
the  country  is  at  peace,  and  perfect  security  is  extended  to  every  in- 
habitant. If  the  foreigners  continue  keeping  their  old  nationality 
when  they  become  permanent  settlers  of  Mexico,  some  changes  may 
be  necessary  in  the  legislation  of  the  country  affecting  their  condition. 

Americans  in  Mexico. — It  will  be  very  difficult  for  the  fun-loving, 
self-indulgent,  Anglo-Saxon  Englishman  of  America  to  compete  with 
these  self-denying  Spaniards,  capable  of  living  with  the  nose  to  the 
grindstone  twenty,  twenty-five,  or  thirty  years,  eating  always  sparingly, 


8o  Geoarapbical  IRotes  on  /IDejico. 

drinking  wine,  but  in  moderation,  spending  no  money,  dressing  poorly, 
and  ever  with  a  fortune  accumulating.  The  American  wants  to  cut  a 
dash  and  so  does  the  Englishman,  else  the  English  would  have  main- 
tained their  commercial  sui)remacy  in  Mexico.  They  lost  it  to  the 
more  frugal  and  economical  Germans. 

The  American  is  a  speculator,  a  dreamer  of  golden  dreams  ;  he  lives 
for  the  eyes  of  other  people  ;  he  is  not  capable  of  the  patience  that 
keeps  a  man  tied  to  a  desk  or  shop  for  half  a  lifetime,  making  a  savings 
bank  of  himself. 

Some  Mexicans  are  afraid  that  a  free  influx  of  citizens  from  this 
country  may  Americanize  it.  This  is  true  as  to  the  means  of  trans- 
portation, the  introduction  of  electric  lights,  improved  hotel  accomo- 
dations, and  where  similar  improvements  are  concerned.  But  there  is 
no  doubt  of  the  persistence  of  traditions  and  habits,  and  the  influence 
of  climate.  It  is  difficult  to  introduce  the  American  push  and  restless- 
ness in  business,  and  to  overcome  the  habits  formed  in  many  centuries 
of  letting  the  morrow  take  care  of  itself.  There  must  be  the  mid-day 
siesta,  and  the  number  of  working  days  is  reduced  by  several  feast 
days,  saints'  days,  and  holidays,  besides  the  Sundays.  There  is  no 
doubt  that  the  productiveness  of  nature  is  an  inducement  to  very 
leisurely  labor,  and  the  lack  of  any  sharp  division  of  seasons  is  a  sort 
of  moral  discipline,  as  well  as  a  stimulus  to  extra  exertion  in  summer 
to  prepare  for  winter.  What  must  be  the  effect  upon  character  when 
this  stimulus  is  wanting?  It  is  possible,  of  course,  that  industry  will 
be  stimulated  by  the  inflow  of  settlers  from  the  north,  and  that  Mexico 
will  take  on  new  enterprise  and  productive  vigor  ;  but  I  think  it  is 
easier  for  Americans  in  Mexico  to  fall  into  Mexican  ways  and  Mexican 
moral  views  than  it  is  to  convert  the  Mexicans  to  the  American  view 
of  life.  I  do  not  doubt  that  Mexico  has  a  great  industrial,  agricultu- 
ral, and  manufacturing  future,  but  I  fancy  that  its  power  of  absorp- 
tion, like  that  of  Egypt,  is  greater  than  its  facility  of  adaptation. 

Ruins. — We  have  in  Mexico  some  of  the  most  ancient  and  remark- 
able ruins,  and  although  there  are  different  surmises  about  the  time  at 
which  they  were  built  and  the  people  who  built  them,  nothing  is  known 
positively  about  them. 

The  principal  ones  are  in  Uxmal  and  Chichen  Itza  in  Yucatan, 
Comalcalco  in  Tabasco,  Teotihuacan  and  Cholula  in  Puebla  and 
Tlaxcala,  and  Mitla  in  Oaxaca. 

Uxjual. — Uxmal  is  not  far  from  the  city  of  Merida,  the  capital  of 
the  State  of  Yucatan,  supposed  to  have  been  built  by  the  Mayas,  and 
different  books  have  been  written  about  them,  especially  one  by  Dr. 
Augustus  Le  Plongeon,  a  French  savant,  who  passed  many  years  in 
Yucatan,  studying  its  magnificent  ruins,  and  published  in  New  York, 
in  1896,  a  book  entitled  Queen  Mod  and  the  Egyptian  Sphinx,  in  which 


he  contends  that  the  empire  of  the  Mayas,  which  had  its  seat  at  Yuca- 
tan, was  the  cradle  of  civilization,  and  that  from  there  it  went  to  India, 
Egypt,  and  finally  to  Greece  and  Western  Europe. 

Palenque. — Very  likely  the  same  Mayas  built  the  large  ruins  which 
still  exist  in  the  district  of  Palenque  in  the  State  of  Chiapas,  and  in 
some  places  in  Guatemala. 

Cholula. — The  great  pyramid  of  Cholula,  made  known  to  the  scien- 
tific world  by  Humboldt,  which  is  eight  miles  from  Puebla,  has  been 
pictured  and  described.  Its  base  is  looo  feet  on  each  side,  and  it  is 
built  in  two  great  terraces,  the  first  being  71  feet,  and  the  second  66 
feet,  in  height.  The  top  is  203  by  144  feet.  So  far  as  investigations 
have  revealed,  the  great  pyramid  is  artificial  and  is  constructed  of  sun- 
dried  brick. 

Teotihuacan. — Teotihuacan,  an  ancient  city  lying  twenty-five  miles 
northeast  of  the  City  of  Mexico,  and  occupying  an  area  of  about  one 
and  a  half  or  two  miles,  contains  some  of  the  most  remarkable  series 
of  ruins.  To  the  north  of  the  ruins  is  a  truncated  pyramid,  rectangu- 
lar in  form,  squared  to  the  points  of  the  compass,  and  known  as  the 
Pyramid  of  the  Moon.  South  of  it,  at  a  distance  of  about  1300  yards, 
is  another  pyramid  of  similar  form,  known  as  the  Pyramid  of  the  Sun. 
Its  perpendicular  height  is  223  feet,  and  its  base  measures  about  735 
feet  from  east  to  west.  Both  pyramids  are  united  by  a  straight  street, 
which  starts  from  a  circular  plaza  at  the  south  side  of  the  Pyramid  of 
the  Moon,  and  loses  itself  in  the  barranca  south  of  the  Pyramid  of  the 
Sun. 

These  colossal  pyramids  are  regarded  as  among  the  most  ancient 
monuments  of  Mexico,  far  antedating  the  civilization  found  by  the 
Spaniards.  They  are  wonderful  illustrations  of  what  perseverance  and 
time  will  accomplish.  Now  even  the  means  which  the  builders  used 
for  handling  the  immense  blocks  of  volcanic  stone  with  which  they 
constructed  is  unknown.  Other  ruins,  in  the  character  of  little 
mounds,  are  found  scattered  over  the  extensive  plain  in  which  the  two 
pyramids  are  situated.  The  street  or  avenue  which  united  the  latter 
is  called  the  "  Road  of  the  Dead."  Along  its  entire  length,  parallel  to 
it  on  both  sides,  there  is  a  terrace  constructed  of  cement,  clay,  and 
broken  lava,  faced  with  a  coating  of  mortar  or  plaster,  highly  ])olished, 
and  painted  red  and  white.  Desire  Charnay  removed  the  rubbish 
from  one  of  the  mounds  on  the  side  facing  this  road,  and  discovered 
what  he  calls  a  "  palace,"  with  two  large  halls  and  various  small  rooms. 
In  1886,  Sehor  Don  Leopoldo  Batres  made  an  excavation  in  one  of 
the  mounds,  and  found  two  polychrome  frescos  painted  on  the  wall 
of  the  building  which  was  laid  bare.  The  question  is  naturally  asked, 
how  these  monuments  came  to  be  covered  ?  Was  it  by  an  earthquake, 
or  by  t!ie  hands  of  the  builders  themselves?     Senor  Batres  inclines  to 

VOL.  I — 6 


82  (Beoorapbical  IRotcs  on  /IDejico, 

the  latter  view,  as  he  found  the  roofs  of  the  houses  perfectly  preserved, 
while  the  interior  of  the  rooms  was  in  every  case  filled  with  stones 
neatly  fitted  into  the  spaces,  and  joined  with  a  clayish  cement  to  form 
a  compact  mass.  His  conclusion  as  to  the  pyramids  is,  that  they  are 
two  great  temples  erected  to  two  old  Mexican  divinities.  Each  pyra- 
mid consists  of  five  terraces,  which  diminished  in  size  until  the  height 
of  223  feet  was  reached.  Each  has  on  one  of  its  sides  a  stairway  six 
and  one-half  feet  in  width,  which  makes  five  zigzag  turns,  and  leads  to 
the  sanctuary  or  shrine  on  the  summit.  The  outer  surface  of  the 
pyramids,  and  perhaps  the  interior  as  well,  was  plastered  over  with  a 
mortar  of  lime,  hard  and  smooth,  and  decorated  with  frescoes,  repre- 
senting quasi-historical  events  and  scenes. 

The  small  mounds  scattered  over  the  area  occupied  by  the  ruins 
were,  according  to  Batres,  dwellings  and  small  shrines.  Each  con- 
tained from  six  to  twelve  rooms,  quadrangular  and  rectangular  in  form. 
The  cornices  as  well  as  the  walls  were  beautifully  ornamented  in  colors. 
On  some  as  many  as  twenty  tints  had  been  used.  The  doors  were  rec- 
tangular, never  trapezoidal  in  form,  although  the  latter  style  has  been 
erroneously  attributed  to  ancient  American  architecture.  They  meas- 
ure eight  feet  in  height  by  about  three  feet  in  width.  The  houses  had 
neither  windows  nor  balconies.  The  city  was  crossed  by  subterranean 
aqueducts  constructed  of  stone,  the  walls  of  which  were  plastered  with 
firm  and  smooth  mortar.  Near  the  Pyramid  of  the  Moon,  among  the 
rubbish,  there  was  a  monolithic  statue  of  colossal  dimensions.  It  rep- 
resents a  woman  with  a  characteristic  head-dress,  and  wearing  a  neck- 
lace of  four  strings  of  beads.  Travellers  in  Teotihuacan  can  find 
countless  miniature  heads  modelled  in  clay  anywhere  on  the  freshly- 
plowed  stretches  of  level  land  that  lies  across  the  broad,  straight 
Micoatl,  or  "  Path  of  the  Dead."  They  vary  in  length  from  one  to  two 
inches,  and  invariably  have  nothing  more  than  a  neck  attached  to 
them.  They  may  be  distinguished  by  this  peculiarity  from  those  that 
are  apjjlied  as  ornaments  to  terra  cotta  vases,  and  from  fragments  of 
"idols."  The  features  and  peculiar  head-dresses  that  adorn  these 
little  lieads  of  Teotihuacan  vary  greatly,  and  this  diversity  has  given 
rise  to,  and  l)een  ([uoted  in  proof  of,  the  migration  of  tribes,  of  the  mix- 
tures of  widely  differing  races,  or  of  their  succession  to  each  other  in 
the  occupation  of  the  Valley  of  Mexico.  Owing  to  the  unfamiliar 
aspect  of  some  of  these  head-dresses,  it  has  been  asserted  that  they 
could  not  be  even  "Toltec,"but  must  be  relics  of  still  more  remote 
and  unknown  races  of  men.  Various  uses  have  been  assigned  to  them, 
the  commonest  supposition  being  that  they  were  in  some  way  associated 
with  ceremonies  relating  to  the  dead.  There  is  probably  no  subject 
connected  with  Mexican  archaeology,  except  the  calendar,  that  has  given 
rise  to  more  discussion.     Dr.  E.  B.  Tylor  regarded  them  as  a  puzzle, 


iBtbnolOQ^.  83 

and  Professor  F.  W.  Putnam  has  spoken  of  them  as  the  "  riddle  of  the 
many  heads."  Desire  Charnay  saw  in  some  of  them  Chinese  and 
Japanese  masks,  and  even  types  of  the  white  race,  proving  in  his  opin- 
ion how  many  races  must  have  been  mingled  or  succeeded  each  other 
on  this  old  continent. 

Mitla. — About  twenty  miles  east  of  the  city  of  Oaxaca  is  an  Indian 
town  called  Mitla,  near  which  still  remain  the  ruins  of  great  edifices 
and  palaces.  The  temples  were  built,  it  is  supposed,  by  the  ancient 
Zapotecas,  and  are  the  most  interesting  relics  of  the  earlier  civilizations 
of  Mexico.  The  first  description  of  these  ruins  was  given  by  the 
Spanish  priest,  Burgoa,  who  accompanied  the  conquerors  of  Monte- 
zuma. The  interior  of  the  principal  hall  or  room  of  the  main  palace 
is  supposed  to  be  the  teocali  of  the  high  priest.  The  peculiar  archi- 
tecture and  elaborate  and  grotesque  decoration  can  easily  be  observed. 
It  is  astonishing  to  see  the  enormous  size  of  the  stones  used  in  the 
walls  of  these  temples.  Professor  Bickmore  said  that  he  had  seen 
nothing  to  equal  them  except  at  Baalbec,  in  Syria.  At  Mitla  are  found 
some  clay  images,  mostly  miniature,  doubtless  of  gods,  but  some  of 
them  no  doubt  portraits,  and  some  of  these  bore  a  striking  resemblance 
to  the  little  heads  found  at  the  pyramids  of  the  Sun  and  Moon  in 
the  Valley  of  Mexico  ;  that  is,  some  of  them  had  the  slant  Oriental 
eyes,  and  others  Ethiopian  features,  very  different  from  any  races  we 
now  know  in  these  regions.  The  ruined  temples  of  Mitla  are  covered 
with  stucco,  which  was  painted  Pompeiian  red.  There  is  a  pyramid 
also  at  Mitla,  and  there  are  some  elaborately  wrought  sepulchral 
chambers. 

I  borrow  from  Mr.  Vivien  Cory  the  following  extracts  of  his  de- 
scription of  the  ruins  of  Mitla. 

"  There  are  four  of  these  places  ;  the  first  is  almost  entirely  destroyed,  only  some 
huge  monolithic  slabs  supported  horizontally  upon  tottering  piles  of  broken  stones  re- 
maining ;  while  everywhere  amongst  the  ruins  have  sprung  up  the  grass  huts  of  the 
Mexican  Indians,  and  of  the  fourth  or  one  farthest  from  the  hamlet  nothing  but  indi- 
cation of  the  site  is  left,  upon  which  the  Spaniards  have  reared  a  modern  church.  It 
is  in  the  two  palaces  that  lie  between,  each  slightly  raised  above  the  surrounding  country 
on  a  separate  eminence,  that  the  interest  centres. 

"  One  of  these  is  in  the  form  of  a  double  Greek  cross,  its  stem  running  north  and 
south,  and  its  arms  extended  east  and  west.  In  the  centre  is  the  large  court,  surrounded 
on  all  sides  by  rising  ground  and  ruined  mounds  of  stones  :  there  are  traces  still  remain- 
ing of  the  foundations,  that  speak  of  four  apartments  built  upon  these  mounds  to  face 
the  court,  but  of  these  those  on  the  west  and  south  sides  have  disappeared  ;  on  the  east 
side,  only  two  colossal  pillars  and  a  portion  of  the  walls  remain,  while  to  the  north  side 
the  whole  apartment  forming  the  head  of  the  cross  has  been  spared  and  stands  almost 
unharmed  in  its  original  beauty  and  richness.  The  fa9ade  of  this  apartment  extends 
the  whole  length  of  the  court,  one  hundred  and  forty-one  feet,  and  its  height  is  a  little 
over  fifteen  feet :  the  material  is  freestone,  the  color  a  faint,  dull,  amber  tint,  soft  as  the 
light  seen  in  the  sky  at  evening.     In  the  centre  are  three  square  portals  and  above  these 


84  ©cogvapblcal  IFlotcs  on  /iDejico* 

forming  the  head-piece  to  them  all  extends  one  long  and  narrow  panel  of  carving,  a 
high  relief  of  the  natural  stone  on  a  crimson  ground.  The  whole  fafade  is  composed  of 
a  series  of  these  panels,  from  the  straight  line  of  the  foundation-stone  to  the  straight 
line  of  the  summit,  nine  panels  being  on  each  side  of  the  entrance,  arranged  in  three 
tiers,  divided  by  horizontal  bands  of  the  natural  stone.  In  some  of  the  panels,  the 
ground  retains  still  a  faint  tint  of  its  former  rich  vermillion,  in  others,  all  color  has 
subsided  into  the  soft  neutral  shade  of  the  freestone.  The  designs  are  wonderfully  rich 
and  varied,  thirteen  difTerent  patterns  being  represented  on  this  fa9ade  alone  ;  all  these 
designs  are  remarkable  for  the  straight  lines  in  which  they  are  executed  and  the  absence 
of  all  curves.  Throughout  all  the  ruins,  upon  the  walls  of  which  appear  twenty-three 
different  models  of  carving,  only  two  of  these  represent  any  curve  in  their  design.  In 
one  of  these  two  there  is  visible  the  form  of  the  Arabic  letter  '  L'  placed  horizontally, 
and  in  the  other  a  double  curve  '  S,'  possibly  intended  to  represent  or  suggest  the  snake. 
With  these  exceptions  the  designs  are  of  the  Greek  key  pattern,  variations  on  this,  or 
parallelograms. 

"  Behind  this  fafade  is  a  narrow  court,  roofless  as  all  the  courts  are,  and  empty,  save 
for  six  colossal  pillars  standing  at  even  distances  down  the  centre,  and  giving  to  this 
chamber  the  name  of  Hall  of  the  Monoliths.  Each  pillar  is  one  solid  stone,  eleven 
feet  high  and  eleven  feet  in  circumference.  A  low  stone  passage  leads  from  this 
chamber  northward  to  the  smallest  and  richest  court  of  all,  entering  it  at  the  southeast 
corner.  There  is  comparatively  little  trace  of  the  destructiveness  of  the  elements  or 
the  iconoclasm  of  man  here.  The  court  and  all  the  four  chambers  opening  from  it  are 
perfect  and  singularly  rich  in  carving.  The  court  is  perfectly  square  and  the  chambers 
are  entered  from  it,  each  through  one  square  doorway,  the  roof  of  which  is  formed  by 
a  iiuge  monolith,  thirteen  feet  long  and  with  a  richly  carved  face.  Of  these  four  lin- 
tels each  has  a  separate  design.  Each  of  the  four  walls  has  six  panels,  the  uppermost 
extending  the  whole  length  of  the  wall,  two  smaller  panels  being  on  either  side  of  the 
entrance,  and  one  long  narrow  one  above  it.  Between  the  panels  stand  out  in  high 
relief  the  horizontal  and  vertical  edges  of  the  freestone,  forming  a  symmetrical  frame 
to  each  panel. 

"  Within  the  four  chambers  the  walls  are  designed  differently,  the  carving  running 
simply  and  evenly  round  the  entire  room  in  three  straight  horizontal  bands,  each  band 
possessing  a  separate  pattern  and  being  about  three  feet  in  width.  Beneath  these 
bands  of  carving  was  originally,  evidently,  a  dado  of  vermillion  stucco,  of  such  fine 
and  delicate  quality  that  the  smooth  and  polished  surface  resembles  marble.  Portions 
of  this  delicate  stucco  still  adhere  to  the  crumbling  walls  in  places  and  are  of  various 
colors,  scarlet,  black  and  white.  In  some  instances  this  stucco  seems  to  have  been 
plain,  simply  bearing  a  brilliant  polish,  in  others,  there  remains  distinctly  traced  in 
white  upon  a  crimson  ground,  a  wierd,  fantastic,  yet  handsome  design,  the  head  ;  half 
horse,  half  dragon,  repeated  in  four  inch  squares.  This  latter  ornamented  stucco,  how- 
ever, does  not  appear  except  in  the  fourth  palace,  containing  the  Spanish  church,  where 
it  is  visible  on  the  walls  of  one  of  the  courts,  now  used  as  a  stable  for  the  padre's  horse. 
Leaving  the  richest  of  the  centre  palaces,  passing  through  a  gap  in  the  ruined  wall  on 
the  south  side,  descending  the  elevation  on  which  it  is  placed  and  ascending  the  op- 
posite eminence,  the  patio  of  the  second  palace  is  reached.  This  is  almost  wholly  in 
ruins  ;  three  of  the  fa9ades  that  face  the  court  remain  indeed,  but  the  great  smooth 
slabs  with  which  the  walls  were  faced  have  been  torn  away  at  the  base,  and  most  of  the 
beautiful  panels  of  carving  stripped  from  the  front.  Yet  it  is  in  this  ruined  palace  that 
one  lingers  longest  and  to  which  one's  feet  return,  drawn  by  an  irrisistible  fascination  ; 
for  this  palace  contains  the  tomb  and  the  pillar  of  death. 

"  This  subterranean  vault  is  called  by  general  consent  a  sepulchre,  but  there  is  no 
line  (if  history,  no  record,  no  tradition  even,  left  to  explain  to  us  its  origin  and  use.      It 


may  have  been  a  torture-chamber,  sacrificial  hall,  or  tomb.  The  excavation  is  but  a  little 
behjw  the  surface  of  the  court,  now  carried  clown  so  deeply  that  the  light  is  wholly  ex- 
cluded. From  the  entrance  there  is  enough  to  fill  the  interior  with  a  sad,  gray  twilight. 
The  vault  is  in  the  form  of  a  simple  cross  lying  north  and  south  ;  its  walls  are  massive 
and  heavily  decorated  with  panels  of  carving  let  into  their  sides,  while  it  is  roofed  by 
enormous  monolithic  slabs  that  reach  from  wall  to  wall.  In  the  centre  of  the  cross, 
just  where  by  descending  a  few  steps  one  enters  the  tomb,  stands  the  pillar  of  death, 
round  which,  the  Indians  say,  should  a  man  clasp  his  arms  he  must  shortly  afterwards 
die.  Does  not  this  very  tradition,  handed  down  perhaps  through  the  long  fde  of  count- 
less years,  seem  to  indicate  that  this  pillar  was  some  ancient  stone  of  sacrifice  to  which 
human  victims  were  bound  or  chained,  and  from  which  death  alone  released  them  ? 
As  one  gazes  at  the  massive  column,  that  one  man's  arms  alone  could  not  entirely  en- 
circle, the  eye  notices  an  indentation  round  the  base  where  the  column  sinks  into  the 
floor.     The  stone  is  corroded  and  worn  away  as  by  the  long  friction  of  ropes  or  chains. 

"  Most  of  the  panels  do  not  consist  of  actual  carving,  though  they  produce  that 
effect  at  a  few  yards'  distance  ;  they  are  formed  in  reality  by  small  slabs  of  the  freestone 
cut  perfectly  square  and  inserted  edgeways  into  the  wall,  the  remaining  edges  standing 
out  at  various  distances  from  it  and  thus  forming  the  different  designs.  This,  although 
a  work  of  infinite  patience,  does  not  necessarily  presuppose  a  high  stage  of  civilization, 
no  instrument  sharper  than  hard  stone  being  required  to  cut  the  slabs  of  soft  freestone  ; 
and  that  only  a  stone  instrument  was  employed  by  the  workers  seems  indicated  by  the 
fact  that,  in  the  large  panels  where  the  stone  is  actually  carved,  the  edges  are  not  sharp, 
but  rounded,  as  if  made  with  a  blunt  tool.  The  effect  of  the  panels  of  inserted  squares 
of  stone,  however  simply  produced,  is  that  of  the  most  finished  and  clear-cut  carving 
and  the  designs  themselves  are  rich  and  elaborate.  There  is  no  crudity,  no  harshness 
in  them,  no  suggestion  of  the  primitive  savage's  scratching  on  his  native  rock  ;  but 
rather  that  of  Greek  work  on  some  Athenian  temple.  The  patterns  have  a  complicated 
elegance  and  distinction  of  line  that  can  only  be  produced  by  a  people  of  cultivated 
mind  and  eye. 

"  Evidence,  too,  of  what  high  grade  of  civilization  in  some  ways  at  least  they  must 
have  arrived  at,  lies  in  the  gigantic  stones  that  they  have  placed  as  lintels  over  their 
doorways  and  which  in  their  immense  weight  and  bulk  have  defied  the  greed  or  rage  of 
all  the  succeeding  races  to  remove  or  destroy.  The  mystery  here  is  the  Egyptian 
mystery  of  the  Pyramids  ;  that  these  enormous  blocks  of  stone  are  resting  here  in  po- 
sitions and  elevations  where  it  would  require  all  the  modern  knowledge  of  mechanics, 
engineering  skill,  and  mechanical  appliances  to  place  them  ;  and,  as  in  Egypt,  so  here 
the  mystery  will  never  be  solved,  as  the  builders  have  passed  hence  and  left  no  clue. 
The  solid  stone  rests  there  upon  its  supporting  pillars  before  the  eye  as  it  has  rested 
for  a  thousand  years,  but  how  the  perished  hands  lifted  and  placed  it  there  remains  its 
own  inviolable  secret. 

"  Leaving  the  palace  court  by  the  south  sitle  and  following  the  road  to  the  dry  and 
stony  bed  of  a  wide  river,  if  one  turns  aside  here  a  little  to  the  eastward  he  finds  him- 
self facing  a  Zapotecan  mound,  a  solid  base  composed  of  earth  and  stones,  in  which  are 
visible  at  intervals  large  slabs  of  cement,  portions  of  terraces  and  tiers  that  originally 
formed  its  sides.     Ascending  this,  from  the  summit  one  can  overlook  the  whole  valley," 

LANGUAGKS, 

About  one  hundred  and  fifty  different  Indian  languages  are  known 
to  have  been  spoken  by  the  Mexican  Indians,  The  Spanisli  monks 
accompanying  the  concjuerors  and  who  went  to  the  country  soon  after- 


86 


Geocjrapbical  Botes  on  /iDejico, 


wards  compiled  grammars  and  even  dictionaries  of  some  of  these 
languages  ;  but  the  Indians  falling  into  a  semi-barbarous  state  after 
the  conquest,  having  lost  their  civilization  and  literature,  their  lan- 
guages have  either  disappeared  completely  or  become  very  primitive, 
and  it  is  ascertained  that  some  of  them  have  become  entirely  extinct. 

The  Spanish  is,  of  course,  the  language  of  the  country  and  most 
of  the  Indians  speak  it,  although  very  imperfectly  and  incorrectly  ; 
only  a  small  portion  of  them  speaking  no  language  but  their  own. 

The  chief  languages  spoken  in  Mexico  proper,  excluding  Chiapas 
and  Yucatan,  are  as  follows  : 

Nahuatl  or  Mexican  (Aztec)  with  Acaxee,  Sabaibo,  Xixime, 
Cochimi,  Concho  and  other  members  of  the  same  family. 

Seri,  Upanguaima,  and  Guaima. 

Papago,  Opata,  Yaqui,  Mayo,  Tarahumara,  Tepehuan,  Cora,  etc. 

Apache  or  Yavipai,  Navajo,  Mescalero,  Llanero  Lipan,  etc. 

Otomi  or  Hia-hiu,  Fame,  Mazahua,  etc. 

Huaxtec,  Totonac. 

Tarascan,  Matlaltzincan. 

Mixtec,  Zopotec,  Mixe,  Zoque,  Chinantec. 

Senor  Don  Manuel  Orosco  y  Berra  wrote  a  treatise  on  the  language 
of  the  Indian  tribes  in  Mexico  entitled  "  Geography  of  Languages," 
which  describes  the  languages  of  the  races  who  inhabited  Mexico,  and 
Senor  Don  Francisco  Pimentel  enlarged  upon  that  work,  making 
philological  comparisons,  and  from  the  data  collected  by  both  authors 
Senor  Don  Antonio  Garcia  Cubas  a  distinguished  Mexican  geographer 
made  the  following  synopsis  of  the  Indian  languages  spoken  in  Mexico. 

SYNOPSIS    OF    THE    INDIAN    LANGUAGES    OF    MEXICO,    FORMED    ACCORD- 
ING   TO    THE    CLASSIFICATION    OF    DON    FRANCISCO    PIMENTEL. 
Note. — The  sign  *  indicates  that  the  classification  is  doubtful. 


FAMILIES. 


I. 

Mexican. 


LANGUAGES. 


1st  Order. — Languages  polysyllabic, 
polysynthetic  of  sub-flexion. 


I .  Mexican,  Nahuatl  or  Azteca 

*j.  Cuitlateco 

3.  Opata,  Teguima  or  Teguima  Sonorense 

4.  Eudebe,     heve    or    hegue,   dohme  or  dohema- 

batuco 

5.  Joba,  joval  ova . . 

6.  Pima,  nevome,  ohotama  or  Otama 

7.  Pepehuan 

8.  Papago  or  Papabicotan 

q   to  12.      El    Yuma   comprising   Cuchan,    Coco- 

maricopa  or   Opa,   Mojave  or    Mahao,   Die- 
gueno,    or    Cuneil,     Yavipai,   Yampai,    and 

yampaio 

13.*  Cijuenche,  Cucapa  or  Jallicuamay 

14.  Sjobaipure 

15.  Julime 


f        Conchos,  Si- 

I  naloense,  *   Ma- 

zapil,    Jaliscien- 

se,      Ahualulco, 

Pipil,  Niquiraii. 


(  TecoripaT 
)  Sabaqui. 
Various. 


XanguaGCS, 


87 


GROUPS. 

FAMILIES. 

LANGUAGES. 

DIALECTS. 

1st  Order. — Languages  polysyllabic, 
polysynthetic  of  sub-flexion. 

II. 

sonorense  or 
Opata-Pima. 

1  Varogio  or  Chi- 
J  nipa,         Guaza- 

1  pare,  Pachera, 
I  and  others. 

(  Yaqui,  Mayo, 
<.  Tehueco  or  Zua- 
(que. 

fMuutzicat, 

20.  Colotlan 

21.  Tubar 

22.  Huichola 

23.  Zacateco 

24.  Acaxee  or  Topia,  comprising  Sab^iibo,  Tebaca, 

and     Xixime,    the    last    of    doubtful    classi- 
fication  

(Ateanaca. 
Various. 

< 

III. 

Comanche  So- 
shone. 

25.  Comanche,  Nauni,  Paduca,    Hietan   or   Getan. 

26.  Caigua  or  Kioway. 

27.  Shoshone  or  Chochone. 

28.  Wihinasht. 

29.  Utah,  Yutah  or  Vuta. 
JO.  Pah-Utah  or  Payuta. 

31.  Chemegue  or  Cheme-huevi. 

32.  Cahuillo  or  Cawio. 

33.  Kechi. 

34.  Netela. 

35.  Kizh  or  Kij. 

36.  Fernandeno. 

37.  Moqui  and  some  others  spoken  in  the  United 

Various. 

0 

IV. 
Tbxana  or  Coa- 

HUILTF-CA. 

< 

X 

V. 

♦Kkres  Zufii. 

f  Kiwomi   or    Ki- 
vome,         Cochi- 
-(  teumi     or    Qui- 
1  me,  Acoma  and 
[          Acuco. 

43.  Zuni  or  Cibola 

VI. 

MUTSIIN. 

44.  Mutsun. 

45.  Rumsen. 

46.  Achastli. 

47.  Soledad. 

48.  Costefio   or  Costanos  and  other  languages   of 

VII. 

GUAICURA. 

49.  Guaicura,  Vaicura  or  Monqui. 

50.  Aripa. 

51.  Uchita. 

52.  Cora. 

53.  Concho  or  Lauretano 

VIII. 

Cochimi-Laimon. 

54  to  57.  Cochimi,    divided    into    four    sister   lan- 
guages,  viz.:    Cadegomo  and  the  languages 
used   in   the    missions    of    San    Javier,    San 

58.  Laimon  or  Layamon 

. 

IX. 
Seri. 

61.  Upanguaima 

X. 

Tarasca. 

XI. 

Z0QUE-M1XK. 

Various. 

88 


(3eoorapbical  IRotes  on  /IDejtco. 


FAMILIES. 


XII. 

ToTONACA. 


XIII. 

Mixtkco-Zatci- 

TKCA. 


LANGUAGES. 


67.  Totonaco  (mixed  language). 


2d  Order.     Languages  polysyllabic 
polysynthetic  of  juxtaposition. 


Mixteco Eleven. 

69.  Zapoteco Twelve. 


\ 


Four. 


70.  Chuchon 

71.  Popoloco 

72.  Cuicateco. . 

73.  Chatino  .  . . 

74.  Papabuco. . 

75.  Amusgo  . . . 

76.  Mazateco  . . 
*77.  Solteco  . . . . 
*73.  Chinanteco 


Two. 
Two. 


Two. 


XIV. 

PiRINDA  OR   Ma- 
Tl-ALZINCA. 


XV. 

Maya. 


XVI. 
Chontal. 


XVII. 
Derivativfs  of 

Nicaragua. 


XVIII. 
Afachh. 


XIX. 

Otomi. 


Pirinda  or  Matlalzinca. 


•^d  Order. 


-Languages  Polosyllabic 
Synthetic. 


Yucateco  or  Maya 

Piinctunc 

Lacandon  or  Xochinel 

Peten  or  Itzae 

Chanabal,  Comiteco,  Jocolobal 

Choi  or  iNIopan 

Chorti  or  Chorte 

Cakchi,  Caichi,  Cachi  or  Cakgi 

Ixil,  Izil 

Coxoh 

Quiche,  Utlateco 

Zutuhii,  Zutugil,  Atiteca,  Zacapula 

Cachiquel,  Cachiquil 

Tzotzil,  Zotzil,  Tzinanteco,  Cinanteco 

Tzendal,  Zendal 

Mame,  Mem,  Zaklohpakap 

Poconchi,  Pocoman 

Atche,  Atchi 

Huaxteco 

Haitiano,    Quizqueja    or    Itis,  with  their  af- 
finities, Cubano,  Borigua  and  Jamaica 


*ioo.  Chontal   doubtful   in   its  morphologic  char- 
acter  


*ioi.  Huave,    Huazontecn 
*io2.  Chiapaneco 


103.  Apache 


4th  Order. — Languages  cuasi-mo- 
nosyllabic. 


104.  Otomi  or  H  iahiu 

105.  Serrano 

106.  Mazahua 

107.  Pame 

108.  Jonaz  or  Meco._    (Perhaps    the    rest    of    the 

ancient  Chichimeco) 


Various. 


Various. 


North  American 
Apache,     Mexi- 
can  Apache, 
Mimbrefio, 
Pinaleno,  Nava- 
jo, Xicarilla  or 
Faraon,  Lipan 
Mescalero. 


I 


Various. 


population.  89 

POPULATION. 

We  have  until  recently  taken  a  regularly  correct  census  of  our 
population.  The  first  reliable  census  was  made  in  1795,  under  Revil- 
lagigedo's  viceroyalty,  the  second  in  1810  by  Don  Fernando  Navarro 
y  Noriega,  the  third  one  was  estimated  by  Mr.  Poinsett,  United  States 
Minister  in  Mexico,  in  1824,  and  the  others  have  been  taken  by  the 
Mexican  Government. 

The  following  is  a  statement  of  the  general  results  of  our  various 
censuses : 

Years.  Inhabitants. 

1795 5,200,000 

i8io 6,122,354 

1824 6,500,000 

1839 7,044,140 

1854 7,853,395 

1869 8,743,614 

1878 9,384,193 

1879 9,908,01 1 

1886 10,791,685 

1895 12,570,195 

The  population  of  Mexico  appears  to  be,  from  our  last  census, 
taken  in  1895,  12,570,195,  which  would  give  16.38  for  each  square 
mile  ;  but  from  my  personal  knowledge  of  the  country,  I  am  quite 
sure  that  it  is  not  less  than  15,000,000.  It  is  very  difficult  to  take  a 
correct  census  in  Mexico,  because  there  is  not  the  proper  machinery 
in  operation  for  that  purpose,  and  especially  because  a  great  many 
districts  are  inhabited  by  Indians,  who  are  impressed  with  the  fear 
that  if  they  inscribe  themselves  in  the  census  they  will  be  taxed  or 
drafted  into  the  military  service,  and  they  try  to  avoid  registration. 

A  great  many  of  our  people  live  in  such  remote  districts  that  they 
are  practically  cut  off  from  communication  with  other  portions  of  the 
country,  and  in  fact  are  almost  isolated  ;  and  this  constitutes  still 
another  difficulty  in  the  way  of  taking  a  correct  census.  These  people 
generally  raise  everything  they  need  for  their  living,  as  well  as  for 
their  clothing.  They  also  raise  their  domestic  animals,  and  wear  either 
cotton  or  woollen  clothes,  manufactured  by  the  women.  The  configu- 
ration of  the  country,  which  makes  transportation  very  expensive,  to- 
gether with  the  very  sparse  population,  has  caused  their  isolation,  and 
this  explains  why  some  agricultural  products  which  are  very  cheap  in 
other  countries  are  very  dear  in  certain  districts  of  Mexico,  as  prices 
can  be  easily  controlled,  there  being  no  possibility  of  competition. 
While  sugar,  for  instance,  costs  25  cents  per  pound  in  some  districts, 
it  can  be  had  in  others  for  one  cent.  This  fact  shows  also  that  a  year 
of  good  crops  was  often  a  real  misfortune  to  these  districts. 


90  ©eoovapbical  Botes  on  /IDe^ico. 

The  upper  lands  being  the  healthiest,  most  of  the  population  in 
Mexico  is  settled  in  the  central  plateau  ;  a  relatively  small  portion 
lives  in  the  temperate  zone,  while  the  torrid  zone  is  very  thinly  popu- 
lated. I  imagine,  at  a  rough  calculation,  that  about  75  per  cent,  of  the 
poinilation  make  their  abode  in  the  cold  zone,  from  15  to  18  per  cent, 
in  the  temperate  zone,  and  from  7  to  10  per  cent,  in  the  torrid  zone. 

From  the  synopsis  of  our  censuses,  inserted  above,  it  appears  that 
the  population  in  Mexico  has  duplicated  during  the  last  century,  and 
although  that  increase  does  not  keep  pace  with  the  increase  in  the 
United  States,  because  this  has  been  really  wonderful,  it  compares 
favorably  with  the  increase  in  other  countries.  Mexico  also,  as  a  new 
country  and  one  full  of  possibilities,  ought  to  have  increased  its  popu- 
lation more  rapidly,  but  its  slow  progress  can  be  accounted  for  in 
several  ways. 

Under  the  head  of  Ethnology  I  enumerated  the  different  races 
inhabiting  Mexico  and  stated  the  number  of  inhabitants  belonging  to 
each,  and  I  gave  at  length  the  reasons  for  the  slow  increase  of  the  In- 
dian population,  which  is  the  largest  in  Mexico.  I  will  only  add  here 
that  while  the  Indians  lead  a  very  abstemious  and  simple  life,  marry 
while  very  young  and  generally  have  a  family  of  several  children,  they 
are  at  the  same  time  subject  to  epidemics.  Notwithstanding  that  the 
race  on  the  whole  is  sturdy  and  little  subject  to  disease,  the  mortality 
is  very  large  among  the  children  for  want  of  proper  nutrition  and  care. 
The  losses  caused  by  our  civil  wars  could  not  at  all  explain  the  slow 
increase  of  our  population,  and  the  only  way  in  which  I  can  account 
for  it  is  that  they  are  not  so  well  prepared  as  the  people  of  the  United 
States  and  other  more  advanced  countries,  to  bear  the  discomforts  of 
life  and  climate,  and  that,  therefore,  they  cannot  bring  up  all  the 
children  born  in  the  family,  among  whom  there  is  annually  a  great 
mortality. 

Classification  of  Mexican  States.  Under  the  Spanish  rule  Mexico 
was  divided  into  several  provinces,  the  Spaniards  trying  to  divide  the 
provinces  in  accordance  with  the  different  nationalities  of  the  aborig- 
ines found  there,  and  each  province  possessing  a  very  large  extent 
of  territory.  After  our  independence  and  when  we  established  a  Fed- 
eral government,  each  province  was  made  a  state,  and  since  then  some 
of  the  largest  states  have  been  divided  into  two  or  even  three  smaller 
ones.  In  the  chapter  on  Political  Organizations  I  shall  give  further 
information  on  this  subject. 

The  Mexican  states  are  classified  in  several  ways,  and  generally  as 
Northern,  Southern,  Central,  Pacific,  and  Gulf  States  ;  but  it  is  difficult 
to  make  a  proper  division  of  them,  because  there  are  several  included 
in  two  denominations.  I  will,  therefore,  divide  them  into  Northern 
States,  calling  so  those  bordering  on  the  United  States  ;  Southern  States, 


IPopulation. 


91 


those  bordering  on  Gautemala  and  Belize  ;  Gulf,  Caribbean  Sea,  and 
Pacific  States,  those  bordering  on  their  respective  waters  ;  and  Central 
States  those  which  do  not  belong  to  any  of  the  above  denominations, 
although  I  do  not  consider  this  a  proper  classification,  because  the 
State  of  Tamaulias  included  among  the  Northern  States,  and  the  States 
of  Tabasco,  Campeche,  and  Yucatan  among  the  Southern  States,  are 
all  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  are,  therefore,  Gulf  States,  the  latter 
being  also  washed  on  their  southern  side  by  the  Caribbean  Sea,  and 
the  State  of  Sonora,  classified  as  a  Northern  State,  borders  on  the 
Pacific  ;  the  State  of  Chiapas,  included  among  the  Southern  States,  also 
borders  on  the  Pacific,  and,  therefore,  is,  like  Sonora,  also  a  Pacific 
State. 

Our  last  official  census,  taken  in  1895,  gives  the  following  results 
by  States,  which  I  compared  with  the  census  of  1879. 

AREA    AND    POPULATION    OF    THE    UNITED    MEXICAN    STATES. 


Tamaulipas  . 
5  iS'C!^  i  Nuevo  Leon. 
i;  rt.^  (i>  ■{  Coahuila  .. . . 
oc/5  g-S  Chihuahua.. 
^     .Q  B     Sonora 


-c  w  SPrt-S  J  Campeche. 
5i!-c  a  S  I  Tabasco... 


Veracruz. 


rOaxaca  . . . . 
o  Guerrero.. . 
IS  J  Michoacan. 

rt  ]  Colima 

Jalisco 

sinaloa  . . . . 


rt  1  Co 


Aguascalientes.. 

Durango 

Guanajuato  . ..  . 

Hidalgo 

Morelos 

Mexico    

Puebla 

Quer6taro 

f  laxcala 

San  Luis  Potosi. 
Zacatecas 


H2 


Tepic 

Lower  California. 


Federal  District  . 
Islands 


Totals 


AREA  IN 
SQUARE 
MILES. 


32,58s 
24.324 
62,376 
87,820 
76,92a 


35,214 
18,091 
10,07s 
27,230 


35,392 

25,003 

22,881 

2,273 

3',855 
33,681 


11,374 
8,920 
2,774 
9,250 

12,207 
3,558 
1,595 

25,323 

24,764 


1 1,279 
58,345 


463 
1.471 

767,226 


POPULATION 


in  1879. 


140,137 

203,284 
130,026 
225,541 
115,424 


302,315 

90,413 
104,747 

205,362 


542,918 


744,000 
295,590 
661,534 
65,827 
983,484 

186,491 

140,430 

190,846 

834,845 
427,350 
159,160 

710,579 
784,466 
203,250 

138,988 
516,486 

422,506 


30,208 

351,804 


9,908,01 1 


in  1895. 


204,206 
309,607 
235,638 
266,831 
191,281 


297,507 

90,458 

'34,794 

313,678 


855,975 


882,529 
417,621 
889,795 
55,677 
1,107,863 
256,414 

103,645 
294,366 
1,047,238 
548,039 
159,800 
838,737 
979,723 
227,233 
166,803 
570,814 
452,720 

144,308 

42,287 


484,608 


POPULA- 
TION PER 
SQUARE 
MILE. 


6.3 
13.I 

3-7 

3-0 

2-4 


8.4 

5-0 
'3-3 
II. 5 


24.9 
16.7 
38.8 
24-5 
34.8 
7.6 

35-1 
7-7 
92.1 
61.6 
57.6 
90.7 
80.2 
63.9 
104.6 
22.5 
18.2 

12.8 
0.7 


1046.7 


Ciudad  Victoria. 

Monterey 

Saltillo 

Chihuahua 

Hermosillo 


Merida 

Campeche 

S.  Juan  Bautista. 
Tuxtla  Gutierrez 


Jalapa  . 


Oaxaca 

Chilpancingo. 

Morelia 

Colima 

Guadalajara.. 
Culiacan 


Aguas  Calientes 

Durango 

Guanajuato 

Pachuca 

Cuernavaca 

Toluca 

Puebla 

Quer^taro 

Tlaxcala 

San  Luis  Potosi . 
Zacatecas 


POPULA- 
TION. 


Tepic 

La  Paz  and 

Ensenada  de 

Todos  Santos  . , 
City  of  Mexico.. 


'4,575 
56,855 
'9,6S4 
18,521 
8,376 


36,720 

16,631 

27,036 

7,882 


32,641 

6,204 

32,287 

'9,305 
83,870  < 
>4,205 

3',6'9 
42,165 
39,337 
52,189 

8.554 
23,648 
9'.9i7 
32,790 

2,874 
69,676 
40,026 

16,266 
4,737 

1.259 
339.935 


92  (Beograpbical  IRotes  on  /IDejico, 

RELIGION. 

All  Mexicans  are  born  in  the  Catholic  Church,  that  being  the  pre- 
vailing religion  of  the  country  ;  but  there  is  no  connection  between 
Church  and  State,  and  the  Constitution  guarantees  the  free  exercise  of 
all  religions. 

While  Mexico  was  a  colony  of  Spain  and  for  many  years  afterwards, 
the  catholic  religion  was  the  only  one  allowed  in  the  country,  and 
anybody  professing  any  other  would  expose  himself  to  great  hardships 
if  he  avowed  that  he  was  a  dissenter,  especially  while  the  Inquisition 
was  in  existence. 

The  clergy  became  one  of  the  principal  pillars  of  the  Spanish  dom- 
ination in  Mexico.  In  the  early  part  of  the  present  century  the  Church 
was  flourishing,  and  it  was  the  high-water  mark  of  clerical  pros- 
perity. The  humble  Mexican  priests  did  the  hard  laborious  work, 
while  the  Spanish-born  ecclesiastics  filled  the  great  bishoprics  and 
other  great  posts  and  lived  at  their  ease,  and  the  great  convents  in 
their  most  lucrative  positions  of  control  were  practically  in  Spanish 
hands. 

Huge  convents  occupied  a  considerable  part  of  the  site  of  the 
City  of  Mexico,  Puebla,  Morelia,  Guadalajara,  Quer^taro,  and  other 
cities.  The  incomes  of  the  convents  were  derived  from  endowments, 
amounting  to  a  large  sum.  To  support  the  high  ecclesiastics,  great 
sums  were  derived  from  tithes.  The  archbishop  of  Mexico  had  an 
income  of  $130,000  a  year;  the  bishops  of  Puebla,  $110,000;  of 
Michoacan,  $100,000  ;  and  of  Guadalajara,  $90,000.  Meantime,  the 
parish  priests,  who  bore  the  brunt  of  Christian  work  among  the  masses, 
were  living  on  very  moderate  sums.  The  Church  erected  in  Mexico 
buildings  which  are  remarkable  for  their  dimensions  and  taste.' 

'  Mr.  Charles  Dudley  Warner  in  the  Editor's  Study  of  Harper  s  Illustrated 
Monthly  Magazine  for  July,  iSgy,  speaks  in  the  following  way  of  the  church  edifices 
in  Mexico  : 

"  Somebody  of  authority,  by  the  way,  ought  to  explain  why  Mexico  has  so  many 
church  edifices  that  go  to  the  heart  of  the  lover  of  beauty,  and  why  the  United  States 
has  so  few  that  are  interesting.  Aside  from  the  great  Gothic  monuments  in  Spain, 
Mexico  surpasses  Spain  in  interesting  ecclesiastical  architecture.  It  has  more  variety, 
more  quaint  beauty,  more  originality  in  towers  and  fa9ades.  The  interiors  are  gener- 
ally monotonous,  and  repetitions  of  each  other.  The  Spaniards,  in  an  age  of  faith, 
built  churches,  convents,  monasteries,  all  over  the  county,  in  remote  and  unimportant 
Indian  villages,  and  as  far  north  as  their  patient  ministers  of  religion  wandered,  even 
to  the  Vjay  of  San  Francisco.  In  these  edifices  the  Spanish  ingenuity  and  enthusiasm 
prevailed,  but  they  were  largely  executed  by  Indian  builders  and  artists  ;  and  if  there 
is  Sarasenic  feeling  shown,  there  are  also,  especially  in  ornamentation,  traces  of  that 
aboriginal  artistic  spirit  which,  long  before  the  Spanish  conquest,  executed  both  in  stone 
and  in  pottery  singularly  attractive  work.  Even  within  a  hundred  years  of  our  own  time 
Indian  genius  has  been  distinguished.     Those  who  think  that  this  genius  is  only  exhib- 


1 


IRellgion*  93 

Not  all  the  great  dignitaries  of  the  Church  exhibited  an  unchristian 
selfishness,  for  many  often  spent  their  income  in  pious  and  charitable 
works,  and  in  prosecuting  missionary  undertakings  among  the  Indians 
of  the  remote  distances. 

The  wealth  of  the  Church  was  loaned  out  at  a  moderate  rate  of  in- 
terest to  landed  proprietors,  who  formed  the  moral  support  of  the 
Church  among  the  laity  and  whose  influence  was  prodigiously  strong. 
The  wealth  of  the  Church  was  mostly  in  mortgages,  while  it  held  a 
large  amount  of  real  estate.  In  the  City  of  Mexico  and  other  places, 
the  clergy  owned  a  large  portion  of  the  real  estate  and  held  a  great 
many  mortages,  and,  to  its  credit  be  it  said,  was  not  at  all  usurious,  ex- 
acting only  a  fair  rate  of  interest  and  being  hardly  ever  oppressive  in 
dealing  with  delinquent  debtors. 

After  the  Revolution  which  effected  the  independence  of  the 
country,  the  ecclesiastical  life  began  to  cease  having  many  of  the 
attractions  it  had  before.  While  many  men  became  friars  from 
genuine  inclination  and  vocation,  not  a  few  went  into  the  religious  life 
because  it  gave  them  support  without  hard  labor,  and  because  it  was 
one  of  the  best  careers  opened  to  young  men  at  the  time. 

The  nunneries  sheltered  a  great  many  pious  women,  who  effected 
some  good  as  educators  of  the  young,  as  almoners  for  the  wealthy,  and 
as  nurses  of  the  sick.  There  were  abuses,  of  course,  but  on  the  whole 
the  religious  life  afforded  a  refuge  for  many  thousands  of  good  women 
who  felt  drawn  to  works  of"  charity  and  usefulness.  Rich  young  girls 
were  often  over-persuaded  to  enter  the  convents,  by  avaricious  and 
scheming  priests,  but  such  abuses  are  common  to  all  religions.  The 
Liberal  party  thought  that  the  best  way  to  destroy  the  Church  influence 
in  Mexico  was  to  suppress  convents,  both  of  friars  and  nuns,  because  they 


ited  in  bizarre  forms,  and  in  such  small  details  of  design  and  color  as  the  potter  can 
attain,  should  see  at  Queretaro  the  work  of  Tresguerras,  architect,  sculptor,  and  pain- 
ter. Any  modern  architect,  who  is  led  away  by  straining  after  effect  in  a  grotesque 
combination  of  distinct  Greek  styles  with  medireval  and  early  English,  having  no  note 
of  originality  anywhere,  could  study  with  profit  the  simple  elegance — as  simple  as  the 
Old  Louvre — of  the  Bishop's  Palace  in  Queretaro,  or  the  wood-carving  in  the  church 
of  the  sequestered  Convent  of  Santa  Rosa.  In  my  remembrance  there  is  not,  on  such 
a  great  scale,  any  wood-carving  in  the  world  equal  to  it  in  freshness  and  largeness  of 
execution  and  in  beauty  of  design.  It  could  not  have  been  all  done  by  the  hand  of 
Tresguerras,  but  it  was  all  from  his  designs  and  under  his  superintendence.  Of  course, 
as  to  civic  and  ecclesiastic  architecture,  climate  and  lack  of  popular  taste  for  the  beauti- 
ful put  limits  upon  our  architectural  work,  but  it  is  worth  the  while  of  the  American 
architect  to  consider  whether  he  cannot  learn  more  from  our  sister  republic  below  the 
Tropic  of  Cancer  than  he  is  likely  to  get  from  the  well-studied  structures  of  Europe. 
In  many  petty  and  poverty-stricken  Indian  villages  are  charming  towers  and  curious 
fa9ades  which  would  be  a  most  valuable  education  in  the  principles  of  taste  to  any 
American  community." 


94  0eoorapbical  TRotes  on  /IDejico, 

were  considered  a  nest  of  superstition,  and  they  thought  that  the  best 
interest  of  the  country  required  to  close  tlieni. 

During  our  civil  wars  the  clergy  contributed  large  amounts  to  the 
support  of  the  conservative  governments,  which  it  often  established. 
It  is  thought  that  in  1853,  General  Santa  Anna  abandoned  the  Con- 
servative Government,  which  he  then  presided  over,  because  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Mexico  did  not  give  him  all  the  money  he  required  to  carry 
on  the  war  waged  against  him  by  the  Liberal  party. 

The  wealth  accumulated  by  the  Church  of  Mexico  was  used  for  the 
purpose  of  supporting  the  conservative  governments,  whose  policy  was 
to  keep  the  statu  quo,  and  was  therefore  opposed  to  progress  of  any 
kind.  The  Church  became  a  very  prominent  factor  in  politics,  and 
could  upset  and  establish  governments  at  its  pleasure,  fomenting 
the  many  revolutions  which  were  constantly  breaking  out.  It  was 
thought  necessary,  therefore,  to  destroy  the  political  power  of  the 
Church  before  we  could  establish  and  maintain  ])eace,  and  that  work 
was  done  by  what  we  call  our  Laws  of  Reform,  issued  in  1859,  which 
established  a  comj)lete  independence  between  the  Church  and  the 
State,  and  were  intended  to  completely  end  the  domination  of  the 
Catholic  Church  in  civil  affairs  in  Mexico  :  the  Church  property  was 
confiscated,  so  that  even  the  houses  of  worship  are  now  the  property 
of  the  government  ;  all  convents  of  friars  and  nuns  were  closed,  all 
religious  ceremonies — such  as  processions  and  wearing  a  distinctive 
dress, — were  ordered  to  be  confined  to  the  interior  of  the  edifices  ; 
the  cemeteries  were  secularized,  and  marriage  made  exclusively  a  civil 
contract.  No  religious  instruction  or  ceremony  is  allowed  in  the  public 
schools,  and  never  is  a  j)rayer  offered  as  a  part  of  the  program  of  a 
national  celebration.  In  an  article,  which  I  published  in  the  North 
American  Review,  of  January,  1895,  entitled  "The  Philosophy  of  the 
Mexican  Revolutions,"  I  dwelt  especially  on  this  subject,  and  to  that 
article  I  refer  the  reader  who  may  desire  more  detailed  information. 

The  Liberals  were  not  the  first  to  dispose  of  the  Church  property 
and  revenues,  as  the  Spanish  Government,  under  the  rule  of  Godoy,  in 
1805  and  1806,  to  secure  funds  to  form  a  redemption  provision  for  the 
royal  vales  or  credit  notes,  pounced  on  the  property  of  the  Church  in 
Mexico,  and  that,  later  on,  when  the  Mexicans  rose  in  their  war  for 
independence,  the  royal  authorities  took  another  ])art  of  the  Church's 
wealth  to  fight  the  patriots. 

The  bigoted  Catholic  element  which  used  to  be  decidely  opposed  to 
any  liberal  government  and  was  always  conspiring  to  overthrow  it,  has 
since  the  downfall  of  Maximilian,  become  satisfied  that  the  condi- 
tion of  things  has  changed  having  accordingly  changed  their  course, 
and  now  there  are  thousands  of  progressive  catholics  in  Mexico 
sincerely  devoted  to  their  Church,  who  see  only  danger  and  eventual 


I 


IReligiou.  95 

disastrous  defeat  in  the  adoption  of  a  program  of  reaction.  They  go 
with  the  times  and  support  the  administration  of  Gen.  Diaz  because, 
on  the  whole,  it  suits  them,  and  manifests  no  hostiHty  to  their  con- 
scientiously held  convictions.  The  pope's  influence  seems  to  be 
directed  to  assuaging  ancient  rancors,  and  to  the  calming  of  passionate 
resentments,  which  is  a  great  deal  better  for  the  Church. 

Protestantism  i?i  Mexico. — The  Liberal  party  proclaimed  as  an 
inherent  right  of  man,  freedom  of  conscience  and  the  free  exercise 
of  one's  religion  ;  but  the  question  was  really  only  a  theoretical 
one,  since  excepting  a  few  foreigners,  no  one  in  Mexico  had  any 
other  religion  than  the  Catholic.  The  clergy,  the  Church  party, 
and  all  strict  Mexican  catholics  were  greatly  opposed  to  the  intro- 
duction of  Protestantism,  because  protestants  were  looked  upon  as 
heretics  whose  purpose  was  to  divide  the  Mexican  people  into  dif- 
ferent sects,  disturbing  their  religious  unity,  which  they  considered  a 
source  of  national  strength,  and  ultimately  aiding  in  what  some 
Mexicans  fear  is  the  aim  of  this  country,  that  is  :  the  final  absorption  of 
Mexico.  When  the  struggles  between  the  Liberal  and  the  Church 
party  terminated  in  favor  of  the  former  in  1867,  with  the  withdrawl  of 
the  French  army  from  Mexico  and  the  downfall  of  Maximilian,  the 
time  came  to  put  into  practice  the  principles  of  the  Liberal  creed,  and 
protestant  organizations  in  the  United  States  sent  missionaries  to 
Mexico  for  the  purpose  of  establishing  and  propagating  the  protestant 
religion  there.  The  Mexican  Government  could  not  refuse  to  allow 
the  missionaries  the  free  exercise  of  the  Protestant  or  any  other  faith, 
because  that  right  was  guaranteed  to  all  men  in  our  constitution,  and 
also  because  it  has  been  a  principle  for  which  the  Liberal  party  had 
been  contending  during  many  years. 

But  we  went,  then,  further  than  allowing  the  Protestants  the  free  ex- 
ercise and  preaching  of  their  religion,  and  as  I  am  in  a  measure  respon- 
sible for  that  step,  I  think  it  proper  to  give  my  reasons  for  the  same. 
My  opinion  has  never  been  favorable  to  missionary  work,  because  al- 
though I  recognize  that  some  religions  have  higher  moral  principles  than 
others,  I  think  that  on  the  whole  they  are  all  intended  to  accomplish  the 
same  purpose,  that  all  are  good,  when  practised  in  good  faith.  It  has 
always  seemed  to  me  that  Christian  missionaries  sent  to  heathen 
countries  would  be  looked  upon  in  the  same  manner  as  would  be 
heathen  missionaries  sent  to  Christian  countries.  But  even  supposing 
that  it  should  be  proper  and  desirable  for  the  Christian  religion,  on 
account  of  its  high  morals  and  principles,  to  send  missionaries  to 
heathen  countries  for  tlie  purpose  of  converting  them  to  Christianity, 
that  principle  would  scaracely  hold  good  in  Christian  countries  of 
different  denominations,  and  Catholicism  is  a  Christian  religion — what- 
ever abuses  it  may  have  committed, — and  I  think  the  natural  tendency 


96  6eoorapbical  IRotes  on  /FDejico. 

of  all  religions  when  they  are  predominant  is  to  absorb  and  misuse 
power  ;  but  that  Protestants  should  send  missionaries  to  a  Catholic 
country  seems  to  me  inconsistent.  In  principle,  therefore,  Mexico  is 
hardly  the  proper  field  for  Protestant  missionaries,  notwithstanding 
that  there  is  a  great  deal  of  room  for  improvement  there,  in  so  far  as 
religious  matters  are  concerned. 

After  having  witnessed  the  terrible  consequences  of  religious  intol- 
erance and  political  domination  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  Mexico, 
I  was  of  course  greatly  impressed  Avith  the  condition  of  things  existing 
in  the  United  States,  where  all  religions  are  tolerated  and  none  attempts 
to  control  the  political  destinies  of  the  country.  I  thought  that  one  of 
the  best  ways  to  diminish  the  evils  of  the  political  domination  and 
abuses  of  the  clergy  in  Mexico  was  to  favor  the  establishment  of  other 
sects,  which  would  come  in  some  measure  into  competition  with  the 
Catholic  clergy  and  thus  serve  to  cause  it  to  refrain  from  excesses 
of  which  it  had  been  guilty  before.  When,  after  having  lived  for 
ten  years  in  the  United  States,  from  1859  to  1868,  I  returned  to 
Mexico  and  took  charge  of  the  Treasury  Department  there,  just  at 
the  time  when  the  religious  question  was  being  solved,  I,  therefore, 
favored  the  establishment  of  a  Protestant  community  as  planned  by 
Mr.  Henry  C.  Riley,  since  made  a  Bishop,  a  gentleman  of  English 
parentage,  born  in  Chili,  who  had  been  educated  in  London  and  New 
York  and  was  graduated  with  high  honors  at  Columbia  College,  New 
York,  who  spoke  equally  well  English  and  Spanish,  and  eagerly  desired 
to  establish  a  Mexican  National  Church  in  competition  with  the  Roman 
Catholic,  in  which  undertaking,  I  understand,  he  used  his  own  funds. 
He  proposed  to  buy  one  of  the  finest  churches,  the  main  church  of  the 
Franciscan  convent,  which  had  been  built  by  the  Spaniards,  located  in 
the  best  section  of  the  City  of  Mexico,  and  which  could  not  now  be 
duplicated  but  for  a  very  large  amount  of  money  ;  and  with  the  hearty 
support  of  President  Juarez,  who  shared  my  views  and  who  was  perhaps 
a  great  deal  more  radical  than  I  was  myself  on  such  subjects,  I  sold 
the  building  which  had  become  national  property  after  the  confiscation 
of  the  Church  property,  for  a  mere  trifle,  if  I  remember  rightly  about 
$4000,  most  of  that  amount  being  paid  in  Government  bonds  which 
were  then  at  a  nominal  price. 

The  magnificent  building  sold  to  Dr.  Riley's  community  was  bought 
recently  by  the  Catholic  Church  to  restore  it  as  a  Catholic  temple,  for 
the  sum  of  $roo,ooo,  as  I  understand.  My  assistance  was  rendered  to 
the  Protestant  cause  for  the  reasons  that  I  have  stated,  and  not  because 
I  had  adopted  the  Protestant  faith  ;  therefore  the  action  of  the  Mexi- 
can Government  in  the  matter  at  the  time  I  speak  of,  was  all  the  more 
praiseworthy.  Dr.  Butler  bought  about  the  same  time  another  part  of 
the  same  convent  of  San  Francisco,  where  he  established  a  Methodist 
Church  in  a  verv  creditable  building. 


II 


IReliaion.  97 

It  is  true  that  a  great  many  Mexicans,  namely  the  Indians,  do  not 
know  much  about  religion  and  keep  to  their  old  idolatry,  having  changed 
only  their  idols,  that  is,  replaced  their  old  deities  with  the  images  of  the 
Saints  of  the  Catholic  Church,  but  it  would  be  difficult  for  the  Protest- 
ant missionaries  to  reach  them.  The  Spaniards  labored  zealously  to 
make  the  natives  adopt  the  Catholic  religion,  and  although  they  suc- 
ceeded wonderfully,  it  was  a  task  too  difficult  to  fully  accomplish  in  the 
three  centuries  of  the  Spanish  domination  in  Mexico. 

I  do  not  think  that  the  American  Protestant  missionaries  in  Mexico 
have  made  much  progress,  and  I  doubt  very  much  whether  Mexico  is 
a  good  field  for  them  ;  but  they  are  satisfied  with  their  work,  and  they 
think  that  under  the  circumstances,  they  have  made  very  good  progress. 

The  number  of  Catholic  churches  and  chapels  in  the  country  was, 
in  1889,  10,112,  while  the  number  of  Protestant  places  of  worship  was 
119.  On  August  12,  1890,  there  were  in  the  municipality  of  Mexico 
320,143  Catholics  and  2623  Protestants. 

The  American  missionaries,  and  especially  Dr.  Riley,  whom  I  con- 
sider a  very  benevolent  and  unselfish  man,  have  established  Protestant 
schools  and  asylums  for  children,  spending  considerable  money  in  main- 
taining such  institutions.  Of  course  poor  parents  were  glad  to  send 
their  children  to  the  Protestant  schools  and  asylums  when  they  could 
not  afford  to  keep  them  at  home  or  send  them  to  more  desirable  places, 
and  these  Protestant  institutions  were  of  a  very  benevolent  character 
and  worthy,  therefore,  to  be  encouraged.  Parents  in  such  cases  de- 
clared themselves  to  be  partial  to  Protestantism,  but  only  for  the  sake 
of  having  their  children  accepted  in  the  Protestant  schools  and  asylums, 
and  this  made  the  Protestants  think  they  were  making  a  great  many 
converts. 

Now  and  then  a  Catholic  priest  would  renounce  Catholicism  and 
accept  Protestantism,  and  such  occurrences  were  always  considered  as 
great  triumphs  for  the  Protestant  cause,  but  although  in  some  instances 
such  changes  have  been  made  in  good  faith,  in  others  they  were  made 
for  selfish  purposes,  and  they  never  had  any  great  weight  with  the 
community. 

I  have  no  prejudice  against  Protestantism  ;  on  the  contrary,  I  ad- 
mire greatly  many  of  its  principles,  and  in  speaking  on  this  subject  I 
consider  myself  perfectly  impartial  and  unbiassed. 

In  February,  1888,  the  Evangelical  Assembly,  representing  the  vari- 
ous Protestant  denominations  and  Evangelical  Societies  conducting 
missionary  operations  in  the  Republic  of  Mexico,  was  held  in  the  City 
of  Mexico.  They  claimed  that,  notwithstanding  the  difficulties  of 
language  and  climate  and  the  other  obstacles  with  which  they  had  to 
contend,  they  found  that  they  had  over  600  congregations,  192  foreign 
and  585  native  workers,  over  7000  in  the  day  schools,  and  about  10,000 


98  (Bcoorapbical  Botes  on  /iDejico* 

in  the  Sunday-schools,  18,000  communicants  and  a  Protestant  commu- 
nity of  over  60,000  souls.  Ten  small  publishing-houses  are  turning  out 
millions  of  pages  each  year,  and  their  church  property  is  valued  at 
nearly  a  million  and  a  quarter  dollars  in  silver. 

POLITICAL    ORGANIZATION. 

Mexico  was  the  largest  and  richest  American  colony  of  Spain,  and 
for  this  reason  it  was  called  New  Spain.  The  City  of  Mexico  grew 
during  the  Spanish  rule  to  be  larger  than  Madrid,  the  capital  of  the 
Spanish  Kingdom,  the  population  of  the  country  being  estimated  in 
1810,  just  before  the  independence  movement  began,  at  6,122,354; 
while  the  public  revenue  of  the  whole  colony  amounted  to  the  very 
large  sum  of  $20,000,000  yearly,  the  only  exports  of  the  country 
being  silver  and  gold,  and  commodities  of  great  value  in  small  volume 
and  weight,  such  as  cochineal,  vanilla,  indigo,  and  a  few  others. 

Mexico  accomplished  her  independence  in  182 1,  and  since  then 
has  had  two  Federal  Constitutions,  both  modelled  after  the  Constitu- 
tion of  the  United  States  ;  two  Central  Constitutions,  which  organized 
the  country  into  a  centralized  republic,  and  two  ephemeral  empires, 
one  under  Iturbide,  lasting  ten  months,  from  1822  to  1823,  and  the 
other  under  Maximilian,  established  by  French  intervention,  lasting 
from  1864  to  1867. 

Mexico  is  now  organized,  under  the  Constitution  of  the  5th  of 
February,  1857,  with  its  several  amendments,  into  a  Federal  Republic, 
composed  of  twenty-seven  states,  two  territories,  and  a  federal  district, 
and  the  political  organization  is  almost  identical  with  that  of  this 
country.  The  powers  of  the  Federal  Government  are  divided  into 
three  branches — Legislative,  Executive,  and  Judicial.  The  Legislative 
is  composed  of  a  House  of  Representatives  and  a  Senate  ;  the  mem- 
bers of  the  House  are  elected  for  two  years  and  the  senators  for  four, 
the  Senate  being  renewed  by  half  every  two  years.  Representatives 
are  elected  by  the  suffrage  of  all  male  adults,  at  the  rate  of  one  mem- 
ber for  every  40,000  inhabitants.  The  qualifications  requisite  are  to 
be  at  least  twenty-five  years  of  age  and  a  resident  of  the  State  ;  and  for 
senators  thirty  years. 

The  Executive  is  exercised  by  a  President  elected  by  the  electors 
popularly  chosen,  who  holds  his  office  for  four  years,  without  any 
provision  forbidding  his  re-election.  He  has  a  cabinet  of  seven  mem- 
bers, namely  :  Secretary  of  Foreign  Affairs,  of  the  Interior,  of  Justice 
and  Public  Instruction,  of  Fomento,  which  means  ^promotion  of  Pub- 
lic Improvements,  and  includes  public  lands,  patents,  and  coloniza- 
tion ;  of  Communications  and  Public  Works,  of  the  Treasury,  and 
of  War  and  Navy.  No  Vice-President  is  elected,  but  by  an  amend- 
ment to  our   Constitution,   promulgated   April    24,    1896,   in  the   per- 


polttical  ©roanisation,  99 

manent  or  temporary  disability  of  the  President,  not  caused  by 
resignation  or  by  leave,  the  Secretary  of  State,  and  after  him  the  Secre- 
tary of  the  Interior,  shall  exercise  that  office  until  Congress  elects  a 
President  pro  tempore.  In  case  of  resignation,  Congress,  accepting  it, 
elects  a  President  pro  tempore,  and  in  case  of  leave  the  President  re- 
commends to  Congress  the  person  to  fill  that  office. 

The  Federal  Judiciary  is  composed  of  a  Supreme  Court,  consisting 
of  eleven  Judges,  four  substitutes,  one  x'Vttorney-General,  and  one  Fis- 
cal, chosen  for  six  years;  three  Circuit  and  thirty-two  District  Courts. 

The  States  are  independent  in  their  domestic  affairs,  and  their 
governments  are  similarly  divided  into  three  branches  :  the  Governor, 
the  Legislature,  and  the  State  Judiciary. 

As  we  adopted  the  federal  system  rather  to  follow  the  example  of 
the  United  States  than  to  suit  the  conditions  of  Mexico,  that  system 
did  not  work  with  us  so  easily  or  so  satisfactorily  as  it  works  here  ; 
and  the  tendency  is  rather  to  centralization  and  to  the  increasing  of 
the  powers  given  by  the  Constitution  to  the  Federal  Government.  In 
the  article  above  mentioned  published  in  the  North  American  Review^ 
for  January,  1896,  entitled,  "  The  Philosophy  of  the  Mexican  Revo- 
lutions," '  I  dwelt  particularly  on  the  results  of  our  having  copied  al- 
most literally  the  political  institutions  of  the  United  States,  and  gave  a 
general  idea  of  our  political  condition. 

Political  Division. — When  the  federal  system  was  established  in 
Mexico,  in  1824,  each  of  the  old  provinces  under  the  Spanish  rule  was 
organized  as  a  State,  and  our  Constitution  of  October  4,  1824,  enumer- 
ated nineteen  States.  After  the  war  with  the  United  States  we  lost 
Texas,  New  Mexico,  and  California  ;  but  since  then  as  I  stated  in 
the  chapter  on  population  some  of  the  larger  States  have  been  divided 
into  two,  or  even  three  States,  as  was  the  case  with  the  old  State  of 
Mexico,  out  of  which  were  formed  the  three  present  States  of  Mexico, 
Hidalgo,  and  Morelos.  Our  present  Constitution,  of  February  5,  1857, 
enumerates  twenty-four  States  ;  but  we  now  have  twenty-seven. 

The  tabular  statement  published  above,  under  the  head  of  "  Popu- 
lation," shows  the  number  of  States  which  form  the  Mexican  Con- 
federation, their  area,  population,  and  capital  cities. 

Army  and  Navy. — During  our  civil  wars,  and  for  some  time  later, 
we  had  to  keep  a  very  large  standing  army,  and  our  army  acquired  re- 
cently a  very  high  degree  of  discipline  and  efficiency.  The  Liberal  party 
always  favored  the  reduction  of  the  army,  while  the  Church  party 
favored  a  large  army,  as  our  old  regular  army,  on  the  whole,  took  sides 
with  the  Church.  Soon  after  the  restoration  of  the  Republic,  in  1867, 
the  Mexican  army  consisted  of  :   Infantry,  22,964  ;  engineers,  766  ;  ar- 

'  This  article  will  appear  in  this  volume  under  the  head  of  "  Historical  Notes  on 
Mexico." 


loo  Geoorapbical  IRotes  on  /IDejico. 

tillery,  2304  ;  cavalry,  8454  ;  rural  guards  of  police,  2365  ;  gendarmerie, 
250;  total,  37,103;  and  was  commanded  by  11  Major-Generals,  73 
Brigadier-Generals,  1041  Colonels,  Lieutenant-Colonels,  and  Majors, 
and  2335  Commissioned  Officers.  The  total  fighting  strength,  including 
reserves,  is  stated  to  be  132,000  infantry,  25,000  cavalry,  and  8000 
artillery.  Every  Mexican  capable  of  carrying  arms  is  liable  for  mili- 
tary service  from  his  twentieth  to  his  fiftieth  year. 

Notwithstanding  that  General  Diaz  is  himself  a  soldier,  he  has  fol- 
lowed the  policy  of  the  Liberal  party  of  reducing  the  army  as  much  as 
possible,  and  in  his  report  of  November  30,  1896,  in  which  he  informs 
his  fellow  citizens  of  his  results  of  his  sixteen  years  administration,  he 
gives  the  following  figures,  showing  the  reduction  he  has  been  able  to 
accomplish  in  the  army  since  1888  : 

The  army  had,  in  1888,  according  to  President  Diaz's  report,  the 
following  personnel  : 

Major-Generals 16 

Brigadier-Generals 84 

Commissioned  Officers 1,205 

Non-Commissioned  Officers 2,566 

Soldiers 29,367 

Total 33,238 

In  1896  the  personnel  had  been  reduced  in  the  following  numbers  : 

Generals 24 

Commissioned  Officers 166 

Non-Commissioned  Officers 299 

Soldiers 8,170 

Total 8,659 

The  Mexican  navy  is  now  in  its  inception,  as  it  consists  of  a  fleet  of 
two  dispatch  vessels,  launched  1874,  each  of  425  tons  and  425  horse- 
power, and  severally  armed  with  a  four-ton  muzzle-loading  gun,  and 
four  small  breech-loaders.  A  steel  training  ship,  the  Zaragoza,  of 
1200  tons,  was  built  at  Havre,  in  1891  ;  four  gun-boats  are  building, 
and  a  battle-ship  and  cruiser  are  projected  ;  five  first-class  torpedo- 
boats  have  been  ordered  in  England.  The  fleet  is  manned  by  ninety 
officers  and  five  hundred  men. 

EDUCATION. 

In  1521,  the  City  of  Mexico  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  conquering 
Spaniards,  and  exactly  eight  years  after  that  event  there  was  established 
in  the  City  of  Mexico  the  College  of  San  Juan  de  Letran,  for  giving 
secondary  education  to  intelligent  Indians  as  well  as  to  the  sons  of  the 


B&ucation,  loi 

invading  race.  Thus,  ninety  years  before  the  landing  of  the  Pilgrims, 
the  City  of  Mexico  had  its  "  Harvard." 

Universities  Established  by  the  Spanish  Government. — The  first  vice- 
roy of  New  Spain,  as  Mexico  was  called  then,  fourteen  years  after 
the  conquest,  petitioned  the  King  of  Spain  to  permit  him  to  found 
a  university  in  Mexico,  and,  anticipating  from  his  knowledge  of  the 
good-will  of  the  Spanish-rulers  that  the  desired  permission  would 
be  given,  the  viceroy  took  the  responsibility  of  establishing  certain 
classes  in  the  higher  learning,  a  fact  which  does  not  support  the 
commonly  held  theory  that  Spain  has  always  been  the  enemy  of  edu- 
cation and  of  popular  enlightenment.  Owing  to  the  slow  means  of 
communication  in  those  days,  and  the  legal  steps  necessary  to  be 
taken  in  the  mother  country,  the  university  was  not  formally  established 
until  1553,  or  eighty-three  years  before  Harvard  College  was  opened. 
The  great  event  6i  setting  on  foot  the  university  came  under  the 
enlightened  rule  of  the  second  viceroy,  Don  Luis  de  Velasco,  who 
did  so  many  great  things  for  Spain's  new  dependency. 

Later  on,  in  1573,  there  were  founded  in  Mexico  the  colleges  of 
San  Gregorio  and  San  Ildefonso,  the  latter  still  open,  but  modernized 
into  the  national  preparatory  school,  a  really  great  institution  in  that 
city  of  many  schools.  A  few  years  later,  long  before  the  17th  century 
had  dawned,  came  the  founding  of  two  more  colleges  and  a  divinity 
school,  so  that  in  the  first  sixty-five  years  of  Spain's  control  in  Mexico 
no  less  than  seven  seats  of  the  higher  learning  had  been  established  on 
secure  foundations. 

No  wonder  that  Mexico's  capital  became  known  as  the  Athens  of 
the  new  world,  producing  men  of  great  learning,  such  as  Don  Juan 
Ruiz  de  Alarcon  and  such  notably  erudite  women  as  Juana  Inez  de  la 
Cruz.  The  extensive  library  of  "  Americana,"  belonging  to  Don  Jose  de 
Agreda,  of  that  city,  containing  over  4000  books,  many  of  them  invalu- 
able, attests  the  literary,  antiquarian,  scientific  and  artistic  activity  of 
the  Spaniards  who  planted  there  in  a  short  space  of  time  so  much  of 
learning  and  such  vast  institutions  dedicated  to  the  instruction  in  all 
the  higher  branches  of  knowledge. 

At  the  outset  the  University  of  Mexico  gave  instruction  only  in 
mathematics,  Latin  and  the  arts.  Medicine  and  surgery  were  not 
esteemed  highly  during  the  middle  ages,  and  it  was  not  until  long  after 
the  revival  of  learning  in  the  Renaissance  that  the  physician  came  to 
be  considered  as  a  true  man  of  science.  So  it  is  not  to  be  marvelled 
at  that  the  University  of  Mexico  waited  until  1578  to  establish  a  chair 
of  medicine — the  first  in  the  new  world  discovered  by  Columbus.  The 
first  chair  of  medicine  was  a  morning  class,  and  a  single  professor 
carried  his  students  through  a  four  years'  course  unaided.  In  1599,  a 
second  medical  professorship  was  added  ;  in  1661,  anatomy  and  surgery 


10  2  0eograpbical  IRotes  on  /IDc^ico. 

were  added,  and,  consequently  dissection  was  authorized.  At  the 
outset  the  viceroys  appointed  the  professors,  but  after  a  time  the 
candidates  for  chairs  had  to  win  the  coveted  prizes  through  competitive 
examinations. 

The  early  students  were  not  railroaded  through.  They  had  to  study 
four  years  to  obtain  the  diploma  of  a  bachelor  of  medicine  ;  then 
went  out  into  active  life,  and,  on  gaining  practical  knowledge,  received, 
passing  a  fresh  examination,  the  diploma  of  licentiate  of  medicine,  and, 
later,  that  of  doctor  of  medicine. 

School  of  Medicine. — In  1768  a  decree  was  issued  for  the  establish- 
ment in  the  City  of  Mexico  of  a  royal  college  for  surgeons,  similar  to 
institutions  in  Cadiz  and  Barcelona.  This  college  was  a  very  com- 
plete one,  instruction  being  given  in  anatomy  and  dissection,  in 
physiology,  operations,  clinical  surgery,  and  medical  jurisprudence. 
There  were  graduated  also  from  the  college  all  the  dentists,  bone- 
setters,  phlebotomists,  and  midwives.  A  knowledge  of  Latin  was  not 
essential  to  receive  a  medical  degree  until  1803. 

In  182 1,  Mexico  having  achieved  her  independence,  the  same  care- 
ful watch  over  education  continued,  and  in  1833  a  general  revision  of 
educational  institutions  was  ordered  under  the  administration  of  Don 
Valentin  Gomez  Farias  a  leader  of  the  Liberal  party  and  the  univer- 
sity was  closed,  because  it  was  considered  to  have  conservative  tend- 
encies, and  a  general  board  of  education  organized,  which,  among  other 
things  established  what  was  called  the  School  of  Medical  Science,  with 
ten  professors,  giving  a  remarkably  complete  and  modern  course.  On 
account  of  a  revolution  which  occurred  in  1834  which  overthrew  the 
Gomez  Farias  Government,  the  new  school  of  medicine  was  closed, 
and  the  old  university  reopened  ;  but,  as  the  officials  of  the  university, 
on  making  a  careful  study  of  the  conditons  of  the  new  school  of 
medicine  rendered  an  impartial  report,  setting  forth  its  manifold  ad- 
vantages it  was  decided  to  keep  open  the  institution. 

The  incessant  revolutions  and  consequent  changes  of  government 
brought  many  evil  things  to  pass,  and  the  medical  professors  at  times 
found  themselves  without  salaries,  and  nobly  devoted  themselves  to 
their  classes  without  remuneration.  They  at  one  time  were  deprived 
of  their  building  and  literally  thrown  into  the  street.  Better  times 
came,  however,  the  successive  governments  began  to  give  substantial 
aid  to  the  school,  and  in  1845  it  took  the  name  it  still  bears,  the 
National  School  of  Medicine.  After  more  vicissitudes,  many  movings 
and  trials  which  bore  hard  on  the  enthusiastic  professors,  the  National 
School  of  Medicine  finally  was  located  where  it  now  remains,  in  a 
part  of  the  enormous  edifice  belonging  formerly  to  the  Inquisition. 

In  the  chaos  of  succeeding  revolutions  the  salaries  of  the  professors 
were    often  unpaid,  but  the    devoted    men  of    science   struggled    on, 


f 


jEDucation.  103 

assisted  by  wealthier  students  and  contributing  often  out  of  their  own 
slender  means  to  keep  the  school  alive  ;  but,  in  1857,  a  better  era 
commenced,  and  not  since  then,  with  rare  exceptions,  have  there  been 
any  interruptions  in  financial  aid  from  the  various  governments.  All 
the  other  institutions  of  learning  suffered  the  same  fate  and  were  ex- 
posed to  similar  ups  and  downs. 

School  of  Engineering. — Our  mining  college  is  the  best  in  Spanish 
America,  and  it  was  established  when  engineering  was  hardly  taught, 
and  endowed  by  a  portion  of  the  taxes  levied  by  the  Spanish  Govern- 
ment on  mines.  Its  edifice  is  one  of  the  best  built  by  the  Spaniards 
in  their  colonies,  and  still  stands  as  a  great  monument,  embellishing 
the  City  of  Mexico, 

The  above  given  facts  will  show  how  early  did  Mexico  open 
great  schools  for  the  higher  education,  and  how  solicitous  was  the 
Spanish  government  to  maintain  them.  But,  three  centuries  of  devo- 
tion to  learning,  antedating  the  war  for  independence,  planted  there 
firmly  a  love  of  knowledge  which  is  now  exhibited  in  the  great 
government  schools,  in  a  city  full  of  students,  in  innumerable  pri- 
vate schools,  in  the  well-filled  public  primary  institutions,  in  night 
schools  for  adults,  and  in  the  thirty-five  bookstores  of  that  city. 

Mexican  Technical  Schools  in  the  Present  Time. — The  edifice  of 
the  first  University  in  America,  founded  by  the  Spanish  crown  in 
155 1,  is  to-day  occupied  by  the  National  Conservatory  of  Music. 
The  National  Academy  of  Art,  ancient  Academy  of  San  Carlos, 
stands  where  Fray  Pedro  de  Gante  founded,  in  1524,  the  first  school 
of  the  New  World — a  school  for  Indians.  The  Normal  School  for 
males,  with  its  six  hundred  pupils  and  its  first-class  German  equip- 
ment, occupies  the  old  convent  of  Santa  Teresa,  (1678).  The  Normal 
School  for  females  has  fourteen  hundred  pupils,  an  expensive  building 
of  1648.  The  fine  old  Jesuit  College  of  San  Ildefonso,  erected  in  1749 
at  a  cost  of  $400,000  is  now  filled  with  a  thousand  pupils  of  the 
National  Preparatory  School.  The  National  College  of  Medicine  is 
housed  in  the  old  home  of  the  Inquisition  (1732),  an  edifice  whose  four 
hanging  arches  at  each  corner  of  the  lower  corridor  are  famous.  The 
building  was  taken  for  its  present  purpose  in  this  century,  the  Holy 
Office  dying  in  America  with  the  Independence,  but  the  medical  col- 
lege was  established  by  royal  decree  of  1768.  It  has  now  several 
hundred  pupils.  San  Lorenzo  (1598)  is  now  the  manual  training- 
school  where  poor  boys  are  gratuitously  taught  lithography,  engrav- 
ing, printing,  carpentry,  and  many  other  trades.  The  similar  institution 
for  girls  is  of  course  modern,  dating  only  from  1874.  The  National 
Library,  with  its  200,000  volumes,  dwells  in  the  splendid  sequestered 
Church  of  San  Agustin.  The  National  Museum  occupies  part  of  the 
million-dollar  building  erected  in  1731  for  the  royal  mint.     And  so  on 


I04  ©eoarapbical  IRotes  on  /iDejico. 

through  a  list  that  would  rival  that  of  any  other  country.  The  School 
of  Mines  and  Engineering,  however,  stands  as  one  of  the  first.  Its 
magnificent  building  of  Chiluca,  the  nearest  to  granite  the  valley  affords, 
was  built  for  it  by  Tolsa  in  1793,  and  cost  three  millions.  The  institu- 
tion named  the  Colegio  de  la  Paz,  better  known  as  the  Vizcainas  is  one 
of  the  principal  establishments  for  the  education  of  young  women, 
founded  in  1734,  at  a  cost  for  construction  alone  of  about  $2,000,000, 
subscribed  by  three  Spanish  merchants,  who  also  provided  funds  for 
its  support.  These  funds,  when  insufficient  to  meet  expenses,  are  sup- 
plemented by  the  Federal  Government.  We  have  also  a  very  high 
grade  Military  School  located  at  the  historical  grounds  of  Chapulte- 
pec,  which  educates  fine  soldiers. 

As  late  as  1824  Humboldt  declared,  "  No  city  of  the  New  Con- 
tinent, not  excepting  those  of  the  United  States,  presents  scientific 
establishments  so  great  and  solid  as  those  of  the  capital  of  Mexico." 
Except  as  to  the  buildings,  of  course,  so  much  could  not  be  said  to- 
day, as  wealth  and  numbers  have  made  other  countries  take  more 
rapid  strides  in  higher  education.  Some  of  the  universities  of  the 
United  States  pay  even  $10,000  a  year  to  professors  and  they  there- 
fore can  secure  the  best  talent. 

From  the  time  of  the  Spanish  domination  in  Mexico  to  but  a  few 
years  ago,  the  Mexican  Government  considered  itself  bound  to  give  to 
the  people  free  secondary  education,  and  for  this  purpose  colleges  for 
all  literary  and  scientific  professions  were  established  in  the  City  of 
Mexico,  and  each  State  did  the  same  in  its  respective  capital,  in  so 
far  as  its  means  allowed  it,  so  that  anybody  who  intended  to  follow  a 
scientific  career  could  do  so  without  any  expense  to  himself. 

The  result  of  the  free  technical  schools  has  been  that  most  of  the 
young  men  of  well-to-do  families  in  Mexico  follow  a  literary  career 
and  that  does  not  cost  them  anything,  and  we  have  more  lawyers, 
doctors,  engineers  than  we  really  need  for  the  country. 

Reorganization  of  the  Technical  Colleges. — We  had  before  1868  sev- 
eral higher  colleges  and  in  each  of  them  the  same  careers  were  taught, 
as  law,  medicine,  engineering,  etc.,  but  in  the  reorganization  of  our 
national  colleges  which  took  place  in  that  year,  it  was  thought  proper 
to  establish  a  special  college  for  each  career,  and  a  preparatory  col- 
lege for  such  elementary  studies  as  would  be  required  for  all  careers, 
such  as  elementary  mathematics,  physics,  chemistry,  etc.,  etc.,  so  that 
we  now  have  in  the  City  of  Mexico,  supi)orted  by  the  Federal  Govern- 
ment a  si)ecial  school  for  engineering,  one  for  law,  one  for  medicine, 
another  for  agriculture,  etc.,  etc.,  but  each  State  generally  supports 
one  technical  college  wliere  all  literary  careers  are  taught. 

Primary  Education. — Comparatively  little  attention  was  paid  to  the 
primary   education,   and    the    public    schools    were   so    deficient    that 


1 


Bbucation.  105 

parents  of  some  means  did  not  send  their  children  to  them,  but  to 
private  schools  where  they  were  better  attended  to.  The  fact  that  the 
elevation  of  the  people  depends  on  their  primary  education  has  caused 
common  schools  to  be  established  in  the  country,  and  now  the  States 
vie  with  each  other  for  the  purpose  of  establishing  the  best  system  of 
common  schools  and  increasing  their  number. 

The  Mexican  Government  has  been  too  much  disturbed  since  its 
independence  to  earnestly  promote  the  education  of  the  Indians.  I 
consider  that  one  of  the  first  duties  of  Mexico  is  to  educate  the  large 
number  of  Indians  which  we  have,  and  when  that  is  accomplished  the 
whole  condition  of  the  country  will  change,  as  it  will  be  able  in  a  few 
years  to  increase  by  several  millions  its  productive  and  consuming 
population. 

In  1896  the  Federal  Congress  of  Mexico  passed  a  law  which  was 
promulgated  on  June  3d  of  that  year,  making  primary  education  obliga- 
tory on  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  Federal  District  and  Territories,  and 
placing  public  education  under  the  control  of  the  Federal  Government, 
having  been  before  under  the  respective  municipalities. 

In  almost  all  the  States  education  is  free  and  compulsory,  but  the  law 
has  not  been  strictly  enforced.  Primary  instruction  is  mostly  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  municipalities,  but  the  Federal  Government  makes  frequent 
grants,  and  many  schools  are  under  the  care  of  the  beneficent  societies. 

School  Statistics. — Statistical  reports  on  public  instruction  for  1876 
showed  an  aggregate  of  8165  primary  schools,  with  an  attendance  of 
368,754  children  of  both  sexes  throughout  the  Republic.  Reports  for 
1895  show  a  total  number  of  public  schools  for  both  sexes  through- 
out the  Republic  amounting  to  10,915,  in  which  are  instructed  722,435 
scholars,  at  an  aggregate  cost  of  $5,455,549.60.  The  proportion  of 
children  of  both  sexes  attending  the  school  is,  with  respect  to  the 
general  population,  nearly  five  per  cent.,  and  that  of  the  children  of 
school  age,  actually  attending  school  about  27  per  cent,  with  an  aver- 
age yearly  outlay  per  capita  of  $7.55.  'I'he  entire  number  of  private 
schools  for  both  sexes,  including  those  supported  by  religious  and  civil 
associations,  is  2585,  with  a  total  attendance  of  81,221.  Adding  these 
to  the  preceding  figures  we  have  an  aggregate  of  13,500  schools  with 
an  attendance  of  803,656  scholars.  The  number  of  schools  in  the 
country  for  professional  technical  education  is  136,  attended  by  16,809 
pupils  of  both  sexes. 

In  the  Federal  District  there  are  454  public  primary  schools  with 
an  attendance  of  44,776  pupils,  and  247  private  schools  with  an  attend- 
ance of  19,334  pupils.  In  the  matter  of  education  Mexico  now  stands 
upon  a  plane  as  high,  if  not  higher,  than  any  of  the  Spanish  American 
Republics,  out-ranking  even  Chili  and  the  Argentine  Republic,  both 
of  which  greatly  surpassed  her  in  former  years. 


io6  (Beoorapbical  IRotes  on  /iDeyico. 

The  statistical  i)arl  of  this  paper  will  contain  detailed  information 
about  the  number  of  schools  established  in  each  State,  their  cost,  etc., 
during  the  year  1895,  which  complements  the  information  embraced 
in  this  chapter. 

Libraries. — Many  great  and  noteworthy  public  and  private  libraries 
attest  the  ineradicable  love  of  learning  characteristic  of  the  Mexican 
jieople.  In  1894  there  were  in  the  Republic  the  National  Library,  with 
200,000  volumes,  and  102  other  public  libraries.  There  were  in  that 
year  22  museums  for  scientific  and  educational  purposes,  and  3  meteo- 
rological observatories.  Our  National  Library  at  the  City  of  Mexico 
collected  all  the  books  possessed  by  the  libraries  of  the  different  con- 
vents when  they  were  suppressed  by  the  National  Government,  and 
has  therefore  a  very  large  number  of  rare  and  valuable  books. 

Newspapers. — The  number  of  newspapers  published  was  363,  of 
which  94  are  published  in  the  capital  :  4  in  English,  2  in  French,  and  i 
in  German,  showing  that  the  Press  has  not  attained  there  the  great  de- 
velopment that  it  has  in  this  country. 

THE    VALLEY    OF    MEXICO. 

The  Valley  of  Mexico  is  one  of  the  finest  spots  in  the  world.  Sur- 
rounded by  high  mountains — almost  at  the  foot  of  the  two  highest  in 
the  country,  Popocatepetl  and  Ixtaccihuatl — with  a  very  rare  and  clear 
atmosphere  and  a  beautiful  blue  sky,  especially  after  a  rain  ;  it  is  really 
a  centre  of  magnificent  scenery.  The  rareness  of  the  atmosphere 
makes  distant  objects  appear  to  be  very  near,  and  when  looking  from 
the  City  of  Mexico  at  the  mountains  which  surround  the  Valley,  one 
imagines  that  they  are  at  the  end  of  the  City,  while  some  of  them  are 
at  a  distance  of  forty  miles.  The  view  of  the  Valley  from  Chapultepec 
Hill,  which  is  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  high  and  distant  about 
three  miles  from  the  City,  towards  its  western  extremity,  where  our 
military  school  now  is  and  where  the  President  has  made  his  summer 
residence,  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  with  which  the  earth  is  endowed. 
I  have  seen  the  Bosphorus,  Constantinople,  the  Bay  of  Naples  and  other 
spots  in  the  world  which  are  considered  to  be  most  remarkable  for  their 
natural  beauty,  but  I  think  the  view  of  the  Valley  of  Mexico  from 
Chapultepec  can  be  advantageously  compared  with  any  of  them,  if  it 
does  not  excel  them  all. 

Six  lakes  are  within  the  limits  of  the  Valley, — Chalco,  Zochimilco, 
Texcoco,  Xaltocan,  San  Cristobal,  and  Zupango,  the  two  former  being 
of  fresh  water  and  the  others  of  salt  water — and,  as  they  have  no 
natural  outlet  the  City  of  Mexico  has  been  deprived  for  some  time  of 
a  proper  drainage  and  its  health  has  been  affected  very  materially 
thereby.     But  the  colossal  undertaking  of  making  an  artificial  outlet  is 


XTbe  Cit^  of  /IDejico.  107 

now  practically  finished.  In  an  article  which  I  published  in  the 
Engineering  Magazine  in  January,  1895,  1  dwelt  especially  on  the  work 
done  during  four  centuries  to  accomplish  that  great  end.' 

The  prevailing  wind  in  the  Valley  of  Mexico  is  northwest  and 
north-northwest,  which  blew  250  times  during  the  year  1883  ;  while 
the  southern  winds,  which  are  very  dry,  are  rare,  as  they  only  blew  51 
times  in  that  year  ;  but  at  the  same  time  they  have  greater  velocity 
than  the  others,  and  the  greatest  relative  velocity  of  the  winds  is  3.0. 
The  west  and  northwest  winds  are  very  damp. 

At  the  present  stage  of  industrial  development,  speaking  especially 
of  the  Valley  of  Mexico,  the  question  of  a  cheaper  combustible  is  the 
one  of  supreme  importance.  In  the  absence  of  water-power  of  im- 
portance and  permanence  of  volume,  the  only  solution  of  the  problem 
so  vital  to  the  growth  of  manufactures  there  lies  in  procuring  abundant 
and  cheap  fuel. 

THE    CITY    OF    MEXICO. 

The  City  of  Mexico,  located  in  the  western  end  of  the  valley,  on 
the  Anahuac  plateau,  at  an  altitude  of  7350  feet  above  the  sea  level  in 
19°  26'  north  latitude  and  99°  07'  53"  .4  longitude  west  of  Greenwich, 
covering  about  twenty  square  miles,  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  cities 
of  this  continent,  was  the  capital  of  the  Aztec  Empire,  of  the  Spanish 
Colony  of  New  Spain  and  now  of  the  Mexican  Republic,  and  of  the 
Federal  District  of  Mexico. 

Mexico  dates  either  from  the  year  1325  or  1327,  when  the  Aztecs, 
after  long  wanderings  over  the  plateau  were  directed  by  the  oracle  to 
settle  at  this  spot.  For  here  had  been  witnessed  the  auspicious  omen 
of  an  eagle  perched  on  a  nopal  (cactus)  and  devouring  a  snake.  Hence 
the  original  name  of  the  city,  Tenochtitlan  (cactus  on  a  stone),  changed 
afterwards  to  Mexico  in  honor  of  the  war  god  Mexitli.  The  eagle 
holding  a  snake  in  her  beak  and  standing  on  a  cactus  upon  a  stone,  is 
the  coat-of-arms  of  the  Mexican  Republic.  With  the  progress  of  the 
Aztec  culture  the  place  rapidly  improved,  and  about  1450  the  old  mud 
and  rush  houses  were  replaced  by  solid  stone  structures,  erected  partly 
on  piles  amid  the  islets  of  Lake  Texcoco,  and  grouped  around  the  cen- 
tral enclosure  of  the  great  teocalli.  The  city  had  reached  its  highest 
splendor  on  the  arrival  of  the  Spaniards  in  15 19,  when  it  comprised 
from  50,000  to  60,000  houses,  with  perhaps  500,000  inhabitants,  and 
seemed  to  Cortes,  according  to  Prescott's,  "  like  a  thing  of  fairy  crea- 
tion rather  than  the  work  of  mortal  hands."  It  was  at  that  time 
about  T2  miles  in  circumference,  everywhere  intersected  by  canals, 
and  connected  with  the  mainland  by  six  long  and  solidly  constructed 
causeways,  as  is  clearly  shown  by  the  plan  given  in  the  edition  of 

'  That  article  is  appended  to  this  paper. 


io8  Oeoorapbical  IRotes  on  /IDejico. 

Cortez's  letters  published  at  Nuremberg  in  1524.'  After  its  almost 
destruction  in  November,  15 21,  Cortez  employed  some  400,000  natives 
in  rebuilding  it  on  the  same  site  ;  but  since  then  the  lake  seems  to 
have  considerably  subsided,  for  although  still  50  square  miles  in  extent, 
it  is  very  shallow  and  has  retired  two  and  a  half  miles  from  the  city. 

During  the  Spanish  rule  the  chief  event   was   the  revolt   in  1692,  , 
when  the  municipal  buildings  were  destroyed.     Since  then  Mexico  has 
been  the  scene  of  many  revolutions,  was  captured  by  the  United  States  } 
Army  after  the  battle  of  Chapulte])ec,  on  September  13,  1847,  and  by   ^ 
the  French  Army  under  Marshall  Forey  in  1863.     But  since  the  over- 
throw of  Maximilian,  and  the  French  Intervention  in  1867,  peace  has 
been  established   and  it  has  become  a  great  centre  of  civilizing  in- 
fluences for  the  surrounding  peoples. 

The  City  of  Mexico  is  263  miles  by  rail  from  Veracruz  on  the 
Atlantic,  290  from  Acapulco  on  the  Pacific,  285  from  Oaxaca,  863 
from  Matamoros  on  the  frontier  with  the  United  States,  and  1224  miles 
from  El  Paso.  Mexico  is  the  largest  and  finest  city  in  Spanish  America,  • 
and  at  one  time  larger  than  Madrid,  the  capital  of  Spain,  forming  a 
square  of  nearly  3  miles  both  ways,  and  laid  out  with  perfect  regu- 
larity, all  its  six  hundred  streets  and  lanes  running  at  right  angles 
north  to  south  and  east  to  west,  and  covering  within  the  walls  an  area 
of  about  ten  square  miles,  with  a  population  now  of  539,935. 

The  present  City  of  Mexico  is  almost  twice  as  large  as  the  old  one,  it 
having  increased  towards  the  northwest,  and,  strange  to  say,  the  new 
portion  is  not  laid  out  as  regularly  as  the  old  one.  All  the  main 
thoroughfares  converge  on  the  central  Plaza  de  Armas,  or  Main 
Square,  which  covers  14  acres,  and  is  tastefully  laid  out  with  shady 
trees,  garden  plots,  marble  fountains,  and  seats.  Here  also  are  grouped 
most  of  the  public  buildings,  towering  above  which  is  the  Cathedral, 
the  largest  and  most  sumptuous  church  in  America,  which  stands  on 
the  north  side  of  the  plaza  on  the  site  of  the  great  pyramidal  teocalli 
or  temple  of  Huitzilopochtli,  titular  god  of  the  Aztecs.  This  church, 
which  was  founded  in  1573  and  finished  in  1657,  at  a  cost  of  $2,000,- 
000,  for  the  walls  alone,  forms  a  Greek  cross,  426  feet  long  and  203  feet 
wide,  with  two  great  naves  and  three  aisles,  twenty  side  chapels,  and  a 
magnificent  high  altar  supported  by  marble  columns,  and  surrounded 
by  a  tumbago  balustrade  with  sixty-two  statues  of  the  same  rich  gold, 
silver,  and  copper  alloy  serving  as  candelabra.  The  elaborately  carved 
choir  was  also  enclosed  by  tumbago  railings  made  in  Macao,  weighing 
twenty-six  tons,  and  valued  at  about  $1,500,000.  In  the  interior,  the 
Doric  style  prevails,  and  Renaissance  in  the  exterior,  which  is  adorned 
by  five  domes  and  two  ojien  towers  218  feet  high.     At  the  foot  of  the 

'  Reproduced  in  vol.  iv.  of  II.  H.  Bancroft's  History  of  the  Pacific  States,  San 
Francisco,  1833,  p.  2S0. 


Ube  Citi?  of  /IDejico,  109 

left  tower  was  placed  the  famous  calendar  stone,  the  most  interesting 
relic  of  Aztec  culture,  which  is  now  at  the  National  Museum. 

The  east  side  of  the  plaza  is  occupied  by  the  old  vice-regal  resi- 
dence, now  the  National  Palace,  with  675  feet  frontage,  containing 
most  of  the  Government  offices,  ministerial,  cabinet,  treasury,  military 
headquarters,  archives,  meteorological  department  with  observatory, 
and  the  spacious  halls  of  ambassadors,  with  some  remarkable  paintings 
by  Miranda  and  native  artists.  North  of  the  National  Palace,  and 
forming  portions  of  it,  are  the  post-office  and  the  national  museum  of 
natural  history  and  antiquities,  with  a  priceless  collection  of  Mexican 
relics. 

Close  to  the  cathedral  stands  the  Monte  de  Piedad,  or  national 
pawnshop,  a  useful  institution,  endowed  in  1744  by  Don  Manuel 
Romero  de  Terreros  with  $375,000,  and  now  possessing  nearly  $10,- 
000,000  of  accumulated  funds.  Facing  the  cathedral  is  the  Palacio 
Municipal,  or  City  Hall,  252  feet  by  122,  rebuilt  in  1792  at  a  cost  of 
$150,000,  and  containing  the  city  and  district  offices,  and  the  mer- 
chant's exchange. 

Around  the  Plaza  San  Domingo  were  grouped  the  convent  of  that 
name,  which  contained  vast  treasures  buried  within  its  walls,  the  old 
inquisition,  now  the  school  of  medicine,  and  for  some  time  the  Custom 
House,  which  has  now  been  removed  to  the  city  boundary.  In  the 
same  neighborhood  are  the  Church  of  the  Jesuits  and  the  School  of 
Arts,  which  is,  in  the  language  of  Brocklehurst,  "  an  immense  work- 
shop, including  iron  and  brass  foundries,  carriage  and  cart  mending, 
building  and  masonry,  various  branches  of  joinery  and  upholstery 
work,  and  silk  and  cotton  hand-weaving." 

Other  noteworthy  buildings  are  the  national  picture  gallery  of  San 
Carlos,  the  finest  in  America,  in  which  the  Florentine  and  Flemish 
schools  are  well  represented,  and  which  contains  the  famous  Zas  Casas, 
by  Felix  Parra  ;  the  national  library  of  St.  Augustine,  with  over  200- 
000  volumes,  numerous  MSS.,  and  many  rare  old  Spanish  books  ;  the 
mint,'  which  since  1690  has  issued  coinage,  chiefly  silver,  to  the  amount 
of  nearly  $3,000,000,000  ;  the  Iturbide  Hotel,  formerly  the  residence  of 
the  Emperor  Iturbide  ;  the  Mineria,  or  schools  of  mines,  with  lecture- 
rooms,  laboratories,  rich  mineralogical  and  geological  specimens,  and 
a  fossil  horse,  three  feet  high,  of  the  Pleistocene  period. 

'  The  Spanish  Government  intended  during  last  century  to  build  a  spacious, 
costly,  and  magnificent  mint  in  the  City  of  Mexico,  and  its  plans  and  specifications 
were  approved  by  the  king,  but  by  a  mistake  of  the  clerks  in  Madrid,  they  were 
forwarded  to  Santiago,  Chili,  instead  of  being  sent  to  the  City  of  Mexico,  and  it  was  in 
consequence  built  there.  The  building  was  so  fine  that,  not  having  any  mint  at 
Santiago,  it  was  used  as  the  Government  House,  and  it  is  now  the  Executive  Mansion 
and  Departments,  and  it  is  called  "  La  Moneda,"  an  abbreviation  of  "  La  Casa  de 
Moneda,"  which  is  the  Spanish  name  for  mint. 


no  Geoorapbical  IRotes  on  ^ejtco. 

Among  the  twenty  scientific  institutes,  mention  should  be  made  of 
the  Geographical  and  Statistical  Society,  whose  meteorological  depart- 
ment issues  charts  and  maps  of  unsurpassed  excellence. 

Owing  to  the  spongy  nature  of  the  soil,  the  Mineria  and  many 
other  structures  have  settled  out  of  the  perpendicular,  thus  often  pre- 
senting irregular  lines  and  a  rickety  appearance. 

Before  i860  half  of  the  city  consisted  of  churches,  convents,  and 
other  ecclesiastical  structures,  most  of  which  have  been  sequestrated 
and  converted  into  libraries,  stores,  warehouses,  hotels,  and  even 
stables,  or  pulled  down  for  civic  improvements.  Nevertheless  there 
still  remain  fourteen  parish  and  thirty  other  churches,  some  of  large 
size,  with  towers  and  domes.  San  Francisco  Street  is  the  leading 
thoroughfare,  and  is  rivalled  in  splendor  only  by  the  new  Cinco  de 
Mayo  Street,  running  from  the  National  Theatre  to  the  cathedral. 

It  would  take  a  great  deal  more  space  than  it  is  convenient  to  give 
in  this  paper,  should  I  attempt  to  make  a  longer  description  of  the  City 
of  Mexico  which,  being  one  of  the  oldest  on  this  continent  and  the 
largest  and  principal  one  during  the  three  centuries  of  the  Spanish 
rule,  it  has  quite  a  number  of  remarkable  buildings  and  monuments 
and  a  very  important  histor}^,  a  great  deal  of  romance  being  connected 
with  it. 

The  City  of  Mexico  is  not  only  the  capital  of  the  country,  but  the 
real  head  of  the  Republic  ;  and  the  aim  of  all  other  Mexican  cities  is 
to  follow  in  its  footsteps  and  imitate  as  much  as  possible  the  City  of 
Mexico,  which  to  them  is  a  beau  ideal  and  a  real  paradise. 

The  City  of  Mexico  is  now  literally  encircled  with  a  belt  of  fac- 
tories— cotton,  paper,  linen,  etc.,  packing  houses,  brick  works,  cork 
factories,  soap  works,  etc.,  and  cheaper  fuel  will  add  largely  to  their 
number.  They  have  been  able  to  show  profits  under  the  load  of  a  dear 
combustible,  and  they  will  welcome  the  introduction  of  any  fuel,  which 
will  enable  them  to  work  even  more  successfully. 

Clwiate. — From  the  official  reports  of  Professor  Mariano  Barcena, 
Director  of  the  National  Meteorological  Observatory  of  the  City  of 
Mexico,  of  the  weather  conditions  in  1895,  it  appears  that  there  were 
121  cloudy  days.  But  the  rains  were  mostly  at  night  or  late  in  the 
afternoon,  of  short  duration,  and  immediately  succeeded  by  sunshine 
showers.  Long  periods  of  rainy  weather  are  unknown  there.  The 
total  rainfall  for  the  year,  less  than  twenty  inches,  will  convey  a  fair 
idea  of  the  dryness  of  the  climate.  The  mean  temperature  in  the  shade 
for  1895  was  60  degrees,  the  highest  being  65,  reached  in  April,  and 
the  lowest  53,  in  January,  a  temperature  rather  which  avoids  both 
extremities.  The  mean  temperature  for  the  summer  months"  were  ; 
June,  64  degrees  ;  July,  62  ;   August,  62  ;  September,  61. 

The  table  on  page  112,  prepared  by  the  Weather  Bureau  of  the  City 


Ube  Cit^  of  Mexico.  m 

( 

of  Mexico,  contains  the  average  annual  climatological  data  of  that  city 
from  the  years  1877  to  1895. 

More  detailed  data  about  the  climatological  conditions  of  the  City 
of  Mexico  during  the  year  1896,  prepared  also  by  our  Weather  Bureau, 
is  appended  on  page  113. 

Mortality  in  the  City  of  Mexico. — During  the  year  1896  the  total 
mortality  in  the  City  of  Mexico,  under  a  recorded  population  of  330,698, 
was  15,567,  not  including  1275  still-births,  equivalent  to  4.70  percent. 
The  principal  diseases  which  caused  that  mortality  were  those  affecting 

'   A   BRIEF  HISTORICAL   SKETCH   OF  THE   METEOROLOGY    IN   THE   MEXICAN    REPUBLIC, 

Priest  Jose  Antonio  Alzate  stands  in  the  first  place  among  those  who  have  culti- 
vated the  meteorological  science  in  our  country,  being  he  who  first  devoted  himself  to 
its  study,  and  made  regular  observations  during  more  than  eight  years,  as  he  himself 
says  in  \\\%  Descripcion  iopogrdfua  de  Mexico  (1738  to  1799).  Of  these  observations,  he, 
unfortunately,  only  published  those  belonging  to  the  last  nine  months  of  the  year  1769, 
in  his  famous  Gaceta  de  Literatura  de  Mt'xico,  1788  to  1795.  He  also  published  many 
articles  describing  some  phenomena  and  instruments,  climates  of  towns,  value  and 
usefulness  of  observations,  as  he  had  done  in  others  of  his  publications  :  Diario  Liter- 
ario  de  Me'xico,  1768  ;  Asuntos  varies  sobre  Ciencias  y  Artes,  1772  to  1773  ;  and  Ob- 
servaciones  sobre  la  Ffsica  Historia  Natural y  Artes  utiles,  17S7.  He  was  the  first  in 
determining  the  height  of  the  City  of  Mexico. 

After  these  labors  of  Father  Alzate,  we  find  in  the  journal  El  Sol  regular  series 
of  observations  published,  daily,  from  the  14th  of  June,  1824,  to  the  14th  of  Janu.ary, 
1828.  Dr.  John  Burkart  in  1826  ;  Sr.  Francisco  Gerolt  from  1S33  to  1834,  at  the 
School  of  Mines  ;  Sr.  Jose  Gomez  de  la  Cortina,  Conde  de  la  Cortina,  from  1841  to 
1845  ;  the  members  of  the  Geographical  Section  of  the  Army  Staff  from  1842  to  1843  ; 
the  Astronomer  Sr.  Francisco  Jimenez  in  1858  ;  the  School  of  Mines  in  the  years 
1850,  1856,  1857,  and  1858;  Sr.  Ignacio  Cornejo,  M.E.,  at  the  same  school  from 
1865  to  1866  ;  and  Sr.  Juan  de  Mier  y  Teran  at  the  "  Escuela  Preparatoria  "  from 
1868  to  1875,  respectively,  made  some  meteorological  observations. 

A  series  of  observations  from  1855  to  1875  were  made  at  the  Hacienda  de  San 
Nicolas  Buenavista,  and  another  one  at  the  city  of  Cordoba  from  1859  to  1863,  by 
Dr.  Jose  Apolinario  Nieto  ;  Sr.  Carlos  Sartorius  at  the  Hacienda  del  Mirador  (State 
of  Veracruz) ;  Sr.  Miguel  Velazquez  de  Leon,  and  his  sons,  Joaquin  and  Luis,  engi- 
neers, from  1869  up  to  the  present,  at  the  Hacienda  del  Pabellon  ;  Sr.  Gregorio  Bar- 
reto  from  1869  to  1880,  at  the  city  of  Colima ;  General  Mariano  Reyes,  Sr.  Jose 
Maria  Romero,  engineer,  and  Sr.  Pascual  Alcocer,  from  1870  to  the  present  date,  at 
the  city  of  Queretaro  ;  Sr.  Lazaro  Perez  from  1874  to  1S85,  at  the  city  of  Guadalajara  ; 
Sr.  Isidoro  Epstein  at  the  City  of  Monterrey,  1855  ;  Sr.  Vicente  Reyes,  a  civil  engi- 
neer and  architect,  at  the  city  of  Cuernavaca,  1873,  1874,  and  1876  ;  Sr.  Joaquin  de 
Mendi'zabal  Tamborrel,  an  engineer,  at  the  city  of  Puebla,  1872  to  1873  ;  Sr.  Augustin 
Galindo  at  the  same  city,  1S75  ;  Professor  Manuel  M.  Chazaro  at  San  Juan  Michapa 
(State  of  Veracruz),  1872  to  1873  ;  Priest  Pedro  Spina,  S.  J.,  at  the  city  of  Puebla, 
1876,  and  perhaps  many  others  from  whom  we  have  no  notice,  have  devoted  them- 
selves to  making  meteorological  observations. 

The  "  Sociedad  de  Geografia  y  Estadistica  "  the  most  ancient  scientific  society  in 
Mexico,  distributed,  in  1862,  some  instruments  and  instructions  to  observers. 

Finally,  on   the  6th  of   March,  1S77,  being   President  of  the   Republic,  General 


112 


Gcoorapbtcal  IRotes  on  /IDejico. 


00    O    ( 
O    ^Ct 


tN.  o»  o*  v>  o*  o  r^ 

O  OCO   O  00  ovo 


fO  ro  O    IN   -H    oi 

6  6  6  6       «  e 


o^ 


1  mvo  moo  o^  o*^  'O 


)  00  o^  m  « 


00  o  t^  ovo  o  o  m  m  iO 
O  n^oo  o      

•      •      •    O  Q    ■*  "^  "*  iO\0 


lO  M  —  a^  o  » 


t>»  O   tv 

_     _        vo    ro    •  M 

cnroo  w  M  o^  *** 
6  6  6  6       f^  M       ^' 


w 


<  vo  *0  00  vo 


2  :?^ 


t>00  -^  O  Oi  o   o^o  o*  »o 
'•  o  ovo  m  ^oo  00 


O     N  00 


uo  M  M  o  t-s  moo 


wi  tooo  o*  fo  CI  in 


00  in  n  r^^ 

-)   M     «     C      ^ 

CO  CO  * 

6  6  6  6 


00    ro^ 


■  «  lO  O   -^  moo  (>■ 

a»  a>  "*  o^o  H  \o 
u~)  inoo  oo  fo  ro  in 


o  o  m  o  oo  tN.  1 
M  N  O  -i-  fo  ^^  ( 
en  m  -  M  M  OM 

6  6  6  6        in  » 


^    ^: 


00  oo    O-cc    ■*  O    O  00    O    O 

O    «  00  o 

•    •     •  oo  a-  -^  in  ro  O  m 
m  m  N  m  moo  ^  m  m  lo 


I  00   o    . 


22^ 


H     oo 


moo  o  fo  fo  m 


e«*r>.t^mo*roo^«oo 
O    CI  00  o 

.  -  .  CN  c>  m  o  vo  o  ^ 
fo  CO  N  m  moo  o  fo  en  m 
CI  «  ei  w 


■^  t>.00 
m  CO  o  « 

6  6  6  6 


vo  '^  ■*  o  -^^o  mo    •  :* 
"       w  in  m  ? 

o  c<       (A 


o  o*  "♦  1^  N  mvo 


O  moo  ( 
rn  m  < 


( looo  o  m  «  m 


j:  p. 


t^c>mt^H  -^Ooo  O  t>. 
O  «  00  o 

•     •     •  o  o  -^  m  m  O  ^o 
m  m  N  m*o  oo  o  m  m  m 


C4   M  o   ■*  » 
m  m  -i  c<  t 

6  6  6  6 


»     .    »^    W    M     M    ^ 


t^  M  o  Ov  moo  CO 
o  o  •'t-^  ^o  oo  o 


vo  «  ■*  o  ■^^  O  00    •J 
mmo  w  w-o^o  *n 

6  6  6  6       ^  w        " 


.»o  m   . 


o     ^ 


G     2 


5    S 


c*  Ov  CO  m  r 


•  -J-  lO  o    o   m  o  ! 


O    ■♦?  «    M    ^    w  ^  ^ 


W  joo^ 


O 


<  'O  00    o 

-J   O     O   tN. 


v6  M  mvo 


«  m  o  o 
'«^»o  o  HI 


00  O  O  o 


M  m  c*  « 
mvo  moo 


1  m  o  « 

6  6  6 


noo  « 


1^ 


rt-5  g-J:  D--:  ^ 
J-C-C.S.E32  ss'o'? 


m5  2rt^  e  S  - -- 


►^   M   N   CO  r^  r^ 


tn>o 


CO    O  irj  ts.co  00 


)  ^O    O    O    fO    • 


T3    C    u' 

«  J!  «J  v;  ;:   • 

1(1  o  rt  S  -    • 

S  c.2.2  c  «• 


a  a,: 

5  rt  «  >  ^'v^^' 

o.  >  >  1)  o   o  rt 

o  s  c  c  c  (/i"t: 

«  rt  rt  rt  rt  >,.5 

.:::  4J  4;  o  u  -  (- 

S  S  ?,  S  Q  oi 


3  "  2 


>.'0     •        o 

5^r  --"f  I 


O  O    Ml 

c  c  — 

3  =  n 

o  o  > 

6  E  2 


2^ 

:w-  :  c.S? 

I  >;>  e  ° 

:  "  .,  1^ 

O  u  3 

I'M  Go 

I  >  2  S 

1  0<! 


Ube  (Xit^  of  /IDejico. 


113 


O  t^  -"J-OO    '^  o 


\o  o  O  ^  O  ^  rvoo  o»fOH\o  mo  •-'  '-'  ' 
mmowMOO'-''^  . 
d  d  d  d      (^  •-"      z 


*&. 


OOOOOO'^^Oi-t 


^^.  ^^ « 


ffi 


M    O    t-<\C  OOQOOOO-*  ■'f-oo  O'^'^MNminOO    -om 

ov^iO'^oroo  w  mcoromo^  t*«  "^vo  t^'O  '-■00     •  Cd 
O  <N  o    •  J  ^  -;^   :    •  ^   '    •    •  fOfOOr^        t^m*^ 

•  00   M    r«-  On  ^00    n^  w    >-'    10  ....  .     . 

M  fn  «  in  t^  ■*  1000  fo  m  -^o  m  OOOO        00        2 

w   IT)  r-H  Tj-co   O  00   O   «   -^vo   ■*NM0*O\OMt^t^tnH-^    .locn 
rs.rxu-)romMco  ■:>  r^oo  00  Nor^txOO  t-.M  m  moo     •  w  h 

ro  m  «  O    C^  -^^O  CO    '^  N    -^vo    m  0000         '^'-«         Z 

M0t-^N^OOOO\000000'«*-00*0*OOO^NCI'^'^«      -00 

°  ^.^.  «  r^d  «•  dcJ  meJ  c;  &  Ttq  ".        '^'^"^   . 

fo  m  «  \o  tN.  mvo  co  '^  m  '^^  lo  oooo       coo       SS 

N  O  NO  "tf-Q  -^ovo  c*  '\  -*--«*-m«o«^o  o  o  u-i  XT)  yt  rn  .  m  I- 
«  ■*o^o\'^r0  H  -^^o  Chvo  «  m^c  vo  oo  oo  t^  cn  w  m  o,^  t^  m 

m  ro  w  V3    t>»  "^vo    O'  '■J-  CJ    -TUD    vo  0000         C^0         ^ 

vo  O  ino  O  O^  Ooo  Qoo  ovo  inmo^o  mvo  «  o  r^  m     .  vo  m 

O    -^O    m  moo  OO    •-•^0    O    Ol'O    (NOVOOOCO    O^mtN    MOO      •«    M 

r   ^.   '^r  r^  M   M-   ro  4  ^  r^-  4  c^   d  ^?  ^  ^   «.        "^  ^^  "^    . 

ro  ro  fN  vo  OO   iO\0    O-  -^  n    --j-vd  UD  OOOO         mO         2; 

ooowcooo   O   «  O   0   O   Ooooo   "*"^mt^o   m    roo   mm    .ooro 

r-^  't  O  -^  ^00  o  0  moi'O  c^o^iom-^-^mmM  t>*m*a 

*-!  ".  '^  uS  ro  N  vo  lOMD  4cd  wd  '^'^".'T'       '^'T         • 

ro  m  (N  \D  OO  '^^  o^  m  m  -^"0  ^  0000        mo        Z 

<N    «    (N 

H^sM■<^■^QNvoo■<*•«'OOt>.^>.MMc»oo^%^ors.ln      \oo^ 
t^  t^  n-vo  w  0  00  ooo  o^OiH^o^-^HM-^to       i^o_r«* 
°.  ".  °-  <^  a.  d  tiod  ri  I-;  cJ  »  ci  T  f?  1  ^      t  -  *  ^ 

m  r^,  ^  vo  00   invo   o  ■'T  ro  invo  vo  OOOO        OO        * 

H 


•    M  >0      .    «    O 
.    M>0       ■ 

2;      "2 


^  f-  r',  a 

.     M     O        • 


2  fo  m 


0^  r^ 
.  VO  N  t 
2   ■»  r^  . 


1:5       <^ 


J  o^vo  OO   o   o   -^o  c 


i  vo  00  -^vo  o^  po  m  - 


en         t^  (N    ■^  ? 


J  vo  00  -^vo  a> 


000    OVOVOOO    N    mVO    Ovt^  "+VO    O-  -^  rn    . 

o'  o"      «■ 


1  <N    O  VO 

d  d  d  d 


■•"^O    O    -vJ-O    -*00O    ■^WOQVO    H    t^cO    l^vo    O  IOC 

J „...._ ^  ^  ..  _  J —      ^  ^ 

O  o 
d  d 


.  l^vo    t^  Ov  I 


o  ^  o- 

ri    «    O    " 

d  d  d  d 


^VO   «      . 


rOO  00    "l-O    0    ■^■*0    O    O    OMD  -f-'^'^-^roO 

CO    c^c-^O   mmOM   n   r^orOM  ir>ir,  -i-  -^co   o* 
O  ^  °°  i^,  ^4<6  in  -H*  d  ch  invd  m  ".  ".  9  t 

r-)  m  cs  u')  rs.  m  mco  mw-^inin  OOOO 


o  o       in  z       m 


o 


c  o 


■S.5-S 


c  ■"■ 


"j::  C-O 


-  '^'^^  S  c  5.S  c  c  c-  S.tl  C-^  P-"  <" 


■«^^ 


C    C  V 

-   3'C 

rt  o 


\°  o 


;2t)2n2j3u4) 


2  "^ 

C   -:   S   i^—  r= 


-_  o  o  _      r=  g 
>,>,=  c-2.2  o  « 

ii  i!  e  s  -,i5- 


3    3°" 
»  O    O    >vT3 


-■a  b 


S  3  S 


J'  o  ij 


'p  o  o  a  an  £  « 


;pU3   5aJ3523ut)^3rtrt>>^^- 

1.5  E  C.5.S.5.5  ccccccccu:^ 
IcXXrtMrtnnndrt  >.- 

-  -  _  -3  .-  rt  rt  D  4J  <U  U  tU  OJ  "J  O  rt  01 


c  « 


3   i^>»,    <J  "^  O 
O  M  o  o  t*  o  p  _ 

wr-<^33nc.5a 


2  = 
6.S 


5  ° 

g  s 


114  (Beoorapbical  IRotes  on  /IDejico. 

the  digestive  and  respiratory  organs,  the  former  amounting  to  4472  or 
1.35  per  cent,  of  the  population  and  the  latter  to  3904  or  1.18  per  cent, 
of  the  population,  and  both  causing  8376  deaths  or  53.81  per  cent,  of 
the  total  number  of  deaths.  Deaths  by  typhus  and  typhoid  fevers  and 
small-pox,  which  are  supposed  to  make  such  great  ravages  in  the  City 
of  Mexico,  were  in  reality  insignificant,  the  deaths  by  the  former 
amounting  in  that  year  to  480  or  0.14  per  cent,  of  the  population,  and 
the  deaths  by  small-pox  were,  in  the  Federal  District,  embracing  the 
City  of  Mexico  and  twenty-three  suburban  towns,  217  or  0.047  per  cent, 
of  the  population  of  the  District  which  is  473,820.  Small-pox  only 
attacks  the  very  poor  people,  and,  strange  to  say,  also  foreigners,  even 
in  case  they  have  been  vaccinated  in  their  country,  and  to  be  free  from 
small-pox  they  must  be  vaccinated  in  Mexico. 

The  months  of  the  greatest  mortality  during  the  same  year  were 
from  February  to  May,  and  of  the  smallest  the  month  of  August,  show- 
ing that  the  unhealthy  months  are  the  dry  months,  that  is  before  the 
rains  set  in. 

The  mortality  in  the  City  of  Mexico  is  indeed  very  large,  and  it  is 
due  principally  to  two  causes,  first,  the  want  of  proper  drainage  and 
sewerage  for  the  refuse  of  the  city,  a  trouble  which  is  now  almost  com- 

Porfirio  Diaz,  and  by  the  suggestion  of  General  Vicente  Riva  Palacio,  then  Secretary 
of  Public  Works,  the  Central  Meteorological  Observatory  was  established.  From 
that  date  up  to  the  present,  an  uninterrupted  hourly  observation  is  regularly  taken 
during  the  day  and  the  night  in  the  Central  Meteorological  Observatory.  Some  mag- 
netical  observations  have  also  been  made,  and  the  Observatory  is  now  thought  of  be- 
ing removed  to  a  more  suitable  spot. 

After  the  establishment  of  the  Central  Meteorological  Observatory,  some  official 
or  private  meteorological  stations  have  also  been  established  as  follows  :  Aguascalien- 
tes  (Institute  del  Estado)  ;  Guadalajara  (Escuela  de  Ingenieros),  observer,  Augustin 
V.  Pascal  ;  Guanajuato  (Colegio  del  Estado),  observer,  Genaro  Montes  de  Oca  ;  Leon 
(Escuela  Secundaria),  observer,  Mariano  Leal  ;  Mazatlan  (Observatorio  Astronomico 
y  Meteorologico),  observer,  N.  Gonzalez  ;  Oaxaca  (Colegio  del  Estado),  observer.  Dr. 
A.  Dominguez  ;  Pachuca  (Institute  del  Estado),  observer,  Dr.  N.  Andrade  ;  Puebla 
(Colegio  Catoiico  and  Colegio  del  Estado),  observers.  Priest  P.  Spina  and  B.  G.  Gon- 
zalez respectively ;  Queretaro  (Colegio  Civil),  observer,  J.  B.  Alcocer ;  San  Luis  Po- 
tosi  (Institute  del  Estado),  observer.  Dr.  G.  Barroeta  ;  Toluca  (Institute  del  Estado), 
observer,  S.  Enri'quez  ;  Veracruz,  observer,  G.  Batureni ;  Zacatecas  (Institute),  J.  A. 
Bonilla.  Dr.  Manuel  Andrade,  of  Huejutla  ;  Dr.  Matienzo,  of  Tampico;  Father 
Perez,  of  Merelia  ;  Father  Arreola,  of  Celima ;  Father  Castellanos,  of  Zapetlan  ;  Sr. 
Pascual  Borbon,  of  Tacambaro,  are  enlightened  observers  to  whom  the  Central  Me- 
teorological Observatory  is  indebted  for  their  valuable  co-operation,  and  also  to  the 
telegraph  operators  of  the  "  Telegraph  system,"  who  send,  daily,  seme  weather  obser- 
vations to  this  office. 

The  staff  of  the  Central  Meteorological  Observatory  is  now  as  follows :  Director, 
Mariano  Barcena  ;  Vice-Director,  Jose  Zendejas,  C.  E.  ;  Second  Observer,  Francisco 
Tore  ;  Assistants,  Rafael  Aguilar,  Francisco  Quiroga,  Angel  Robelo,  Jose  Torres, 
and  J.  I.  Vazquez. 


IRailwai^s.  115 

pletely  remedied,  and  the  second,  the  unhygienic  way  of  living  of  the 
poor  classes,  among  whom  takes  place  the  largest  mortality. 

The  very  large  number  of  still-births  which  occurred  in  the  City  of 
Mexico  in  1896,  almost  exclusively  among  the  poor  classes,  shows  the 
little  care  that  the  poor  women  take  of  themselves,  and  is  enough  to  ex- 
plain the  present  large  mortality. 

RAILWAYS. 

For  many  years  the  government  earnestly  endeavored  to  further 
the  construction  of  railroads  in  Mexico,  but  the  broken  surface  of  the 
country  made  the  building  of  these  roads  very  expensive.  Until  1873 
the  means  of  internal  locomotion  were  mainly  limited  to  a  few  wagon 
roads,  over  which  travelled  twenty-four  regular  lines  of  diligences, 
under  one  management  ;  and  bridle-paths  from  the  central  plateau 
over  the  sierras  and  terrace  lands  down  to  a  few  points  on  both  coasts. 

In  1854  the  first  railroad  was  finished,  connecting  the  City  of  Mex- 
ico with  Guadalupe,  about  three  miles  in  length,  and  another  from 
Veracruz  to  Tejeria  towards  the  City  of  Mexico  about  twelve  miles  in 
length  ;  these  being  the  only  railroads  that  were  built,  up  to  1861. 
During  the  French  Intervention  the  French  army  extended  the  Tejeria 
road  to  Paso  del  Macho,  about  thirty-five  miles  further,  to  the  foot  of 
the  mountain,  so  as  to  be  able  to  transport  their  army,  with  the  shortest 
delay  possible,  out  of  the  yellow-fever  zone,  toward  the  central  plateau  ; 
and  an  English  Company,  which  had  a  grant  for  a  road  from  the  City  of 
Mexico  to  Veracruz,  which  was  supposed  at  the  time  to  be  the  only  one 
that  could  be  built  in  Mexico,  extended  the  Guadalupe  road  to  Api- 
zaco  in  the  direction  of  Veracruz  and  not  far  from  Puebla. 

No  construction  of  consequence  was  done  immediately  after  the 
French  Intervention,  because  the  country  was  generally  in  a  disturbed 
condition,  although  several  efforts  were  made  in  that  direction  by 
President  Juarez,  under  whose  administration  a  new  and  very  liberal 
grant  was  given  to  the  Veracruz  railway  company.  The  Veracruz 
road  was  finished  in  1873,  during  Sefior  Lerdo  de  Tejada's  Presidency, 
and  when  General  Diaz  became  President  in  1876  he  earnestly  pro- 
moted railroad  building  ;  and  we  now  have  two  trunk  lines  connecting 
the  City  of  Mexico  with  the  United  States — the  Mexican  Central  to 
El  Paso,  Texas,  with  a  branch  from  San  Luis  Potosi  to  the  port  of 
Tampico,  and  another  from  Irapuato  to  Guadalajara,  which  has  re- 
cently been  extended  to  Ameca,  towards  the  Pacific  ;  and  the  Mexican 
National  to  Laredo,  Texas,  with  several  branches.  Anotlier  trunk 
line  from  Eagle  Pass  to  Torreon  and  Durango,  which  it  is  intended 
shall  finally  reach  the  Pacific,  has  also  been  built  by  Mr.  C.  P.  Hunt- 
ington and  his  associates.  There  is  besides  a  line  from  Nogales  to 
Guaymas,  built  and  owned  by  the  Atchison,  Topeka,  and  Santa  F6 


ii6  6eoorapbical  IRotes  on  /IDejico. 

Company  ;  and  these  four  lines  connect  us  with  the  main  systems  of 
the  United  States,  our  lines  being  in  fact  extensions  of  the  United 
States  railway  system. 

We  have  now  two  lines  from  the  City  of  Mexico  to  Veracruz,  the 
old  Veracruz  road  passing  by  Orizaba,  and  the  Interoceanic,  which 
runs  from  Veracruz  by  Jalapa  and  the  City  of  Mexico  and  is  intended 
to  reach  the  Pacific.  All  of  our  roads,  excepting  the  one  built  by  Mr. 
Huntington,  have  had  large  subsidies  paid  by  the  Mexican  Govern- 
ment, and  in  one  case,  that  of  the  Veracruz  railroad,  the  subsidy  paid 
was  $560,000  per  year,  for  twenty-eight  years,  or  about  $57,471  per 
English  mile,  although  the  average  subsidy  per  mile,  according  to 
President  Diaz's  report,  dated  November  30,  1896,  is  $14,380. 

The  Tehuantepec  railway,  running  from  Coatzacoalcos  on  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico  to  Salina  Cruz  on  the  Pacific,  about  one  hundred  and  thirty 
miles  in  length,  has  been  built  at  great  expense  and  at  a  great  sacrifice 
by  the  Mexican  Government.  I  published  in  the  Engineering  Maga- 
zine for  March,  1894,'  an  article  stating  the  different  efforts  made  by 
the  Mexican  Government  to  have  that  road  built,  and  the  advantages 
that  we  expected  from  it  as  a  highway  of  trade  between  the  Atlantic 
and  the  Pacific.  The  Mexican  Government  has  recently  made  a  con- 
tract with  Messrs.  E.  Weetman,  Pearson  &  Son,  of  London,  for  the 
building  of  good  harbors  at  both  ends  of  the  road,  and  when  that  is 
accomplished  we  expect  that  a  great  deal  of  eastern  trade  will  pass 
through  Tehuantepec. 

With  the  exception  of  the  Tehuantepec  road,  we  have  not  yet  any 
road  running  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  although  several  are  in 
process  of  construction.  The  descent  of  the  mountains  is  on  the  Pa- 
cific slope  a  great  deal  more  difficult  than  on  the  Gulf  coast,  where  the 
large  centres  of  population  are  located  near  the  Gulf,  and  this  explains 
why  none  of  the  roads  have  so  far  been  able  to  reach  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

Our  railway  system  extends  now,  in  the  direction  of  Guatemala,  as 
far  as  the  city  of  Oaxaca,  where  we  are  only  about  five  hundred  miles 
away  from  our  frontier  with  Guatemala.  In  other  directions,  our  sys- 
tem reaches  the  principal  cities  and  commercial  and  mining  centres  of 
the  country. 

The  total  mileage  of  railway  in  1895  was  6989^  English  miles. 
President  Diaz,  in  his  above  mentioned  report  gives,  the  total  mileage 
of  railways  in  Mexico  as  11,469  kilometres  or  7126  miles  ;  and  in  his 
message  to  Congress  on  April  i,  1897,  he  stated  that  the  railway  mile- 
age had  been  increased  by  238  kilometres  550  metres,  finished  and 
received  by  the  Government,  and  248  kilometres  built,  but  not  yet  re- 
ceived officially,  making  a  total  mileage  of  11,955  kilometres  550 
metres,  or  7.429  miles. 

'  This  paper  will  appear  in  this  volume. 


1RaUwai26.  117 

President  Diazs  Railway  Policy. — President  Diaz  deserves  a  great 
deal  of  credit  for  his  efforts  to  promote  in  Mexico,  material  improve- 
ments, and  especially  in  railroad  building.  When  he  came  into  power, 
in  1877,  public  opinion  was  very  much  divided  as  to  the  policy  of 
allowing  citizens  of  the  United  States  to  develop  the  resources  of  the 
country  by  building  railroads,  working  mines,  etc.  Our  experience  of 
what  took  place  in  consequence  of  the  liberal  grants  given  by  Mexico 
to  Texan  colonists  made  many  fear  that  a  repetition  of  that  liberal 
policy  might  endanger  the  future  of  the  country  by  giving  a  foothold 
in  it  to  citizens  of  the  United  States  who  might  afterward,  if  circum- 
stances favored  them,  attempt  to  repeat  the  case  of  Texas.  President 
Lerdo  de  Tejada  seemed  to  share  such  fears  judging  by  his  policy  in 
this  regard.  But  President  Diaz,  as  a  broad-minded  and  patriotic 
statesman,  believed  that  the  best  interest  of  the  country  required  its 
material  development,  and  that  it  would  not  be  advisible  to  discrimi- 
nate against  citizens  of  the  United  States,  as  that  country  was  more 
interested  than  any  other,  on  account  of  its  contiguity  to  Mexico, 
in  developing  the  resources  of  our  country  by  building  an  extensive 
system  of  railways,  and  would,  therefore,  be  more  ready  than  any 
other  to  assist  in  building  them.  He  trusted,  at  the  same  time,  that 
when  the  resources  of  the  country  should  be  more  fully  developed,  it 
would  become  so  strong  as  to  be  beyond  reach  of  the  temptation  by 
foreign  states  or  individuals.  The  results  of  the  work  done  in  Mexico 
so  far  show  that  General  Diaz  acted  wisely,  and  proved  himself  equal 
to  the  task  before  him. 

Many  in  Mexico,  and  myself  among  the  number,  thought  that,  as 
the  railroads  were  such  lucrative  enterprises,  especially  in  a  country 
endowed  with  so  many  natural  elements  of  wealth  as  Mexico,  it  would 
not  be  judicious  to  give  their  promoters  any  pecuniary  assistance,  in 
the  shape  of  subsidies  or  otherwise,  the  more  so  as  the  finances  of  the 
country  were  then  in  a  critical  condition,  and  it  would  not  be  wise  to 
increase  its  burdens  by  large  pecuniary  subsidies  in  aid  of  private  en- 
terprises. My  opinion  in  this  case  was  based  mainly  on  what  I  had 
seen  in  the  United  States,  namely  :  that  long  lines  of  railways  are  built 
in  this  country  without  any  pecuniary  assistance  from  the  Govern- 
ment, and  that  when  the  Government  subsidized  any  one  line  it  be- 
came a  source  of  great  dissatisfaction  and  very  unpleasant  questions, 
which  are  yet  unsettled.  We  feared  also  that  such  large  subsidies  as 
were  asked  by  the  railway  promoters  would  amount  in  the  end  to  so 
large  a  sum  as  to  make  it  impossible  for  Mexico  to  pay  it,  discrediting 
the  country.  But  in  this  case  General  Diaz's  view  seems  to  have  been 
the  right  one,  in  so  far  as  that  it  afforded  a  great  inducement  for  the 
immediate  building  of  large  trunk  lines  of  railways,  which,  without 
subsidy,  might  have  been  delayed  for  several  years.     He  thought  it 


ii8  (Beoorapbical  Botes  on  /lOejico. 

worth  while  to  spend  large  sums  of  money  for  the  purpose  of  having 
railways  built  without  delay,  rather  than  trust  to  the  fluctuations  of 
confidence  and  credit  in  the  foreign  exchanges,  that  would  enable  the 
prospective  companies  to  obtain  the  funds  necessary  to  build  their 
roads,  trusting,  at  the  same  time,  that  the  material  development  of  the 
country  promoted  by  the  railroads  would  yield  revenue  enough  to  pay 
all  the  subsidies  granted.  Fortunately  all  railroad  subsidies  contracted 
by  Mexico  have  been  punctually  paid,  and  their  amount  forms  now  a 
large  item  of  our  national  debt.  To  pay  some  of  them  the  mistake 
was  made  of  negotiating  a  sterling  loan  on  Europe,  to  pay  a  silver 
debt  ;  but  even  in  that  way  the  transaction  is  not  altogether  a  bad 
one. 

General  Diaz's  policy  was  to  give  a  railway  subsidy  to  anybody 
asking  for  it  without  investigating  the  responsibility  of  the  concern, 
with  the  idea  that  if  the  road  was  built  the  country  would  get  the 
benefit  of  the  same,  and  if  it  was  not  built  nothing  would  be  lost,  as 
there  was  in  all  grants,  a  clause  to  the  effect  that  if  no  building  was 
done  within  a  given  time,  the  grant  should  by  that  mere  fact  be  for- 
feited, the  forfeiture  to  be  declared  by  the  Administration. 

The  system  of  subsidizing  railways  has  a  great  many  drawbacks, 
but  at  the  same  time  commands  some  decided  advantages,  like  giving 
the  government  the  strict  supervision  over  the  roads  who  have  to  sub- 
mit to  it  for  its  approval,  tariffs  for  freights  and  passengers,  the  free 
carrying  of  the  mails,  the  duty  of  the  company  to  present  to  the 
government  a  yearly  statement  of  its  traffic,  receipts,  etc.,  and  other 
similar  advantages.  In  all  grants  to  subsidized  railroads  there  is  a 
stipulation  that  at  the  end  of  ninety-nine  years  the  road-bed  would 
revert  to  the  Mexican  government. 

President  Diaz's  Statistics  on  Mexican  Railways. — Before  I  close  this 
chapter  I  think  it  will  not  be  out  of  place  to  quote  some  remarks  of 
President  Diaz  concerning  our  Mexican  railroads,  which  occur  in  his 
above-mentioned  report. 


"  In  1875  we  had  578  kilometres  285  metres  of  railway,  in  1885  we  had  5915 
kilometres,  in  1886,  6018  kilometres,  in  November,  1888,  7940  kilometres,  in  June, 
1892,  10,233,  and  including  the  tramways  and  other  local  and  private  lines,  the 
amount  was  11,067  kilometres;  in  September,  1894,  we  had  11,100  kilometres;  in 
April,  1896,  11,165  kilometres,  and  now  we  have  11,469  kilometres.     .     .     . 

"  We  stand  first  in  railroad  building  of  all  the  Latin-American  countries.  Dur- 
ing the  years  1877  to  1892  Mexico  built  more  railroads  than  any  other  Latin-American 
State,  being  11,165  kilometres  ;  the  Argentine  Republic  takes  the  second  place,  with 
8108  kilometres,  and  Brazil  the  third,  with  6193  kilometres,  built  during  the  years 
mentioned.  The  average  number  of  kilometres  built  per  annum  in  Mexico  during  this 
period  wa.s  689,  the  maximum  having  been  reached  in 


IRailwags.  119 

1881-82 1938  kilometres 

1882-83 1727 

1887-88. 1217 

1889       1263 

The  number  of  passengers  carried  in 

1876 4,281,327 

1890 19.531-395 

1893 22,781,343 

1895 24,269,895 

The  freight  handled  in 

1876 132,915  tons 

1890 2,734,430  " 

1893 3,798,360  " 

1895 4,117.511  " 

The  gross  receipts  in 

1876 $2,564,870 

1890 21,019,960 

1893 26, 121 ,624 

1895 28,758,450 

"  The  subsidies  paid  for  railroads  up  to  December,  1892,  averaged  $8935  per  kilo- 
metre of  road  built  and  in  operation  at  that  date.  This  average  is  much  less  than  that 
of  the  subsidies  paid  by  other  Latin-American  countries,  the  Republic  of  Chili  having 
averaged  $17,635  per  kilometre,  and  the  Argentine  Republic  $31,396. 

"  The  railroad  system  of  the  Republic  has  given  the  capital  direct  and  rapid  con- 
nection with  our  principal  states.  Throughout  the  length  of  the  central  plateau  to  the 
frontier,  Mexico  City  is  connected  with  the  capitals  of  the  states  of  Queretaro,  Ciuana- 
juato,  Jalisco,  Aguascalientes,  Zacatecas,  Chihuahua,  and  San  Luis  Potosi  by  the 
Mexican  Central  Railway,  and  with  Durango  by  the  Mexican  International  ;  with 
the  states  of  Mexico,  Guanajuato,  Michoacan,  San  Luis  Potosi,  Coahuila  and  Nuevo 
Leon  by  the  Mexican  National  ;  with  the  cities  of  Puebla,  Orizaba,  Cordoba,  Vera- 
cruz, and  Jalapa  by  the  Mexican  Railway  and  by  the  Interoceanic,  and  with  Tehuacan 
and  Oaxaca  by  the  Mexican  Southern  from  Puebla.  Three  lines  connect  the  capital 
with  the  northern  frontier  ;  the  Central,  which  terminates  in  Ciudad  Juarez  ;  the 
National,  which  runs  to  Nuevo  Laredo  ;  and  the  Liternational,  which,  from  its  junction 
with  the  Central  at  Torreon,  runs  to  Piedras  Negras.  And  as  to  our  various  ports 
Guaymas  is  connected  with  Nogale  on  the  northern  frontier  ;  Manzanillo  with  Coliina  ; 
Matamoros  with  Reynosa  and  San  Miguel  ;  Tanijiico  with  San  Luis  Potosi  and  Mon- 
terrey ;  Veracruz  with  Jalapa  and  Mexico  ;  and  the  first  really  Interoceanic  railway  of 
the  Republic  across  the  Isthmus  of  the  Tehuantepec,  united  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific 
oceans  by  connecting  the  port  of  Coatzacoalcos,  on  the  gulf,  with  the  port  of  Salina  Cruz 
on  the  Pacific  coast.  Southward  from  the  capital  of  the  Republic  the  Interoceanic 
traverses  the  State  of  Morelos,  and  the  Mexico,  Cuernavaca  and  Pacific  Railway  has 
its  line  located  to  the  City  of  Cuernavaca  and  is  pushing  on  through  the  state  of  Guer- 
rero to  the  port  of  Acapulco.  In  the  peninsula  of  Yucatan,  the  lines  connecting 
Campeche  and  Merida  are  nearly  finished  ;  while  the  port  of  Progreso  has  rail  com- 
municalion  with  Merida." 

Financial  Condition  of  Mexican  Railwa\s. — Our  railrciails  are  doing 
remarkably  well,  and  their  traffic,  especially  domestic,  is  daily  increas- 


I20 


aeoorapbical  Botes  on  {Hbciico, 


ing  and  grows  in  much  larger  proportion  than  the  foreign,  or  inter- 
national traffic  ;  and  they  are  paying  the  interest  on  their  debt,  which 
is  due  and  paid  in  gold,  notwithstanding  that  they  collect  their 
freights  in  silver,  which  has  been  for  several  years  at  a  great  discount, 
losing  at  the  present  rate  of  exchange  about  one  hundred  per  cent,  in 
the  operation  ;  but  their  business  is  such  that  they  can  afford  to  suffer 
that  loss. 

In  the  statistical  section  of  this  paper  will  be  found  a  list  of  our 
railroads,  their  mileage,  earnings,  and  several  other  data,  showing  that 
they  are  in  a  prosperous  condition,  all  of  which  will  be  of  interest  to 
those  who  desire  to  have  a  more  intimate  acquaintance  with  the  railway 
system  of  Mexico.  I  will  only  insert  here  the  following  statement  of 
the  annual  building  and  earnings  of  the  Mexican  railways,  sup- 
plementing it  with  a  comparative  statement  showing  the  tonnage 
moved  by  the  principal  railway  lines,  for  the  ten  years  ending  Decem- 
ber 31,  1896,  which  shows  a  great  increase  in  their  business,  and  con- 
sequently in  their  earnings. 

ANNUAL    BUILDINGS    AND    EARNINGS    OF    MEXICAN    RAILWAYS. 


MILKS    OF   ROADS    BUILT. 

ANNUAL   EARNINGS. 

Each  year. 

Total. 

1871 

5,393 

47,087 

2,265 

3.739 

40,743 

91,950 

120,328 

429,858 

1,204,118 

1,073,404 

282,523 

73,614 

49.099 

323,084 

359,306 

364,699 
418,001 
414,052 
417,791 
458,539 
550,488 
670,817 
1,100,675 
2,304,792 

$2,097,104.55 

t87J. 

2,665,496.18 

l87r,              

2,799,696.13 

1876 

2,563,241.00 

1877 

3,213,434.17 

1S78 

3,400,799.89 

1870 

3,828,718.65 

1880 

4,504,135.39 

i88i     

5,679,193.37 

1882     

Q.88i.7iQ.';i 

1883             

3,378,196            1          12,102,583.34 

1884       .  .            

3,660,719                      11,089,136.39 

1885 

3,734,332                 io.6';6,'?';i.42 

1886 

3,783,432 
d.io6.';i6 

11,373,667.63 

1887     

13,310,218.79 

1888 

756, ';22         i            4,863,060 

16.121,267.70 

i88g         

390,650                     5,253,096                 18,788,142.29 

1800 

784,744         I            6,037,752                20,919,287.14 

1891 

495,015                     6,532,711          1       23,762,172.87 

1892           

352,171         1            6.88a.8d2         1       2';, 363.022.29 

t8qt     

14,829 
118,810 

6,870,015 
6,888,811 

25,359,244.06 

1804 

XTelearapba. 


COMPARATIVE    STATEMENT,    SHOWING    APPROXIMATE    TONNAGE   MOVED 

BY    THE    UNDERMENTIONED    RAILWAYS    FOR    THE    TEN    YEARS 

ENDED    DECEMBER    31,    1896. 

{Compiled  from,  published  reports  and  information  furnished  by  the  re- 
spective railway  companies?) 


YKAR. 

CENTRAL 
RAILWAY. 

NATIONAL 
RAILWAY. 

INTKROCEANIC 
RAILWAY. 

MEXICAN 
RAILWAY. 

TOTAL. 

Tons. 

Tons. 

Tons. 

Tons. 

Tons. 

1887 

1888 

1889 

1890 

I89I 

1892 

1893 

1894 

1895 

1896 

346,898 
477,530 

Inc.  34.4 

540,479 
Inc.  13. 1 

609,382 
Inc.  12.7 

867,657 
Inc.  42.3 

1,091,785 
Inc.  25.8 
860,187 

Dec.  21.2 
898,484 
Inc.  4.4 
1,047,038 
Inc.  16.5 

1,231,025 
Inc.  17.5 

77,935 
372,800 

Inc.  378.3 

428,314 
Inc.  14.8 

472,045 

Inc.  10.2 
502,856 
Inc.  7.3 

588,505 
Inc.  17. 

552,123 
Dec.  6.S 

558,382 
Inc.  i.i 

636,193 
Inc.  13.9 

782,106 
Inc.  22.9 

141,090 
197,231 

Inc.  39.7 
186,222 

Dec.  5.5 
281,769 

Inc.  51.3 
277,866 

Dec.  1.3 

365,191 
Inc.  31.4 

380,805 
Inc.  4.3 

444,191 
Inc.  16.6 

464,976 
Inc.  4.4 

479,744 
Inc.  3.1 

273,194 

318,893 

Inc.  16.7 

354,321 
Inc.  II. I 

384,584 
Inc.  8.2 

409,185 

Inc.    .6 
367,980 
Dec.  10. 

385,923 
Inc.  4.8 

433,637 
Inc.  12.3 

453.289 
Inc.  4.5 

756,330 
Inc.  66.8 

839,117 
1,366,454 
Inc.  62.7 

1,509,336 
Inc.  10.4 

1.747,780 
Inc.  15.7 

2,057,564 
Inc.  17.7 

2,413,461 
Inc.  17.3 

2,179,038 
Dec.  9.7 

2,334,694 
Inc.  7.1 

2,6oi.4q6 

Inc.  II. 4 

3,249,205 
Inc.  24.8 

7.970,465 

4,971,259 

3,219,085 

4,137,336 

20,298,145 

(S.) 


A.  Blake. 


City  of  Mexico,  May  19,  1897. 


TELEGRAPHS. 

We  have  quite  a  number  of  miles  of  telegraph  lines  in  Mexico,  and 
our  service  is  now  as  good  as  that  of  any  other  country.  The  first  tele- 
graph line  built  and  owned  in  Mexico  by  a  private  company,  liberally 
assisted  by  the  government,  extended  from  Veracruz  to  the  City  of 
Mexico.  On  November  5,  1851,  the  first  section  was  inaugurated  from 
the  City  of  Mexico  to  Nopalucan,  and  on  May  19,  1852,  to  Veracruz. 

In  1853  another  company  established  a  line  from  the  City  of  Mexico 
towards  the  north  to  Leon  in  the  State  of  Guanajuato,  and  in  1865  a 
line  was  finished  to  San  Luis  Potosi. 

In  1868  and  1869  a  private  company,  called  the  "  Jalisco  Company  " 
established  the  line  between  the  City  of  Mexico  and  Guadalajara,  which 
was  soon  afterwards  extended  to  Manzanillo  and  San  Bias.  After  the 
restoration  of  the  Republic  in  1867,  the  Mexican  government  began  to 


122  6eoGrapbical  IRotes  on  /iDejico. 

build  lines  to  tlie  itrincipal  centres  of  population  of  the  country,  and  in 
1890  it  bouglit  the  Jalisco  line,  and  in  1894  the  Veracruz. 

From  1869  to  1876  the  States  of  Michoacan,  Oaxaca,  and  Zacate- 
cas  established  several  lines  in  their  respective  jurisdictions.  When 
General  Diaz  became  President  in  1876,  the  National  Telegra])hic 
Lines  only  had  7927  kilometres. 

In  1885  the  Federal  Goverment  transferred  to  the  States,  without 
any  cost,  all  the  telegraphic  lines  which  were  considered  of  local  inter- 
est, keeping  only  such  as  could  be  called  trunk  lines. 

In  1893  we  had  37,880  English  miles  of  telegraph  lines,  of  which 
24,840  belonged  to  the  Federal  Government,  the  remainder  belonging 
in  about  equal  parts  to  the  States,  private  companies  and  railways. 

The  following  statement,  which  I  take  from  t\\t  Anuario  Estadtstico 
de  la  Repiiblica  Mexica?io,  i8g^^  shows  the  telegraphic  lines  belonging 
to  the  Federal  Government,  to  the  States,  to  private  companies  and  to 
railroads  : 

Federal  Lines 43,416  k  780  m 

State  Lines 5,544      068 

Private  Company  Lines 4,73°      980 

Railroad  Lines 9,761      611 

General  Total 63,453  k  439 

On  November  30,  1896,  the  total  mileage  of  our  telegraph  lines  was, 
according  to  the  President's  report  of  that  date,  45,000  kilometres, 
27,962  English  miles,  and  that  amount  was  increased,  according  to 
the  President's  message  of  April  i,  1897,  to  45,259  kilometres,  28,123 
miles. 

In  1891  the  operations  of  the  various  lines  throughout  the  Republic 
involved  the  transmission  of  1,050,000  messages,  of  which  about  800,- 
000  were  private,  and  the  remainder  official.  The  receipts  from  this 
branch  of  the  public  service  amounted  to  $469,305  collected  at  767 
offices  ;  tlie  expenditure  included  for  repairs  an  average  of  $3  per 
kilometre,  and  for  salaries  a  total  of  $671,431. 

The  proceeds  of  the  Federal  telegraphic  lines  were,  according  to 
President  Diaz's  report  of  November  30,  1896,  as  follows  : 

Fiscal  Year,  1883-1884    $239,051 

"         "       1890-1891 462,076 

1893-1894 524,634 

"       1895-1896 537,308 

In  the  statistical  portion  of  this  paper  will  be  found  a  detail  state- 
ment of  the  earnings  and  expenses  of  the  national  telegraphic  lines  of 


postal  Service.  123 

Mexico  for  the  27  fiscal  years  which  elapsed  from  July  i,  1869,  to 
June  30,  1896,  and  such  data  as  it  is  possible  to  obtain  for  the  ten 
years  which  elapsed  from  July  i,  1869, to  June  30,  1879. 

Cables. — Up  to  1887  there  was  no  communication  between  Mexico 
and  foreign  countries.  In  1880  the  Mexican  Cable  Co.  built  their 
cables  from  Galveston  to  Tampico,  Veracruz  and  Coatzacoalcos,  on 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  a  telegraphic  line  from  Coatzacoalcos  to  Salina 
Cruz,  on  the  Pacific,  which  was  extended  to  Central  and  South  Amer- 
ica. Cables  had  been  laid  between  Jicalango  and  El  Carmen  and  be- 
tween the  rivers  Grijalva  and  Coatzacoalcos,  and  now  through  those 
cables  we  are  in  direct  communication  with  the  United  States  and 
Europe. 

POSTAL    SERVICE. 

Our  postal  service  has  improved  considerably  of  late.  It  was  until 
recently  quite  imperfect  on  account  of  the  difficult  and  expensive  ways 
of  communication.  It  used  to  be  slow  and  so  expensive  that  it  was 
almost  prohibitory,  and  up  to  1870  the  single  postage  of  a  letter,  weigh- 
ing one  quarter  an  ounce  was  25  cents,  and  double  for  any  distance  ex- 
ceeding sixty  miles.  After  Mexico  entered  into  the  Universal  Postal 
Union,  in  1870,  the  postage  of  letters  for  foreign  countries  was  reduced 
to  5  cents,  and  that  reduction  made  it  necessary  to  reduce  the  home 
postage  from  25  to  10  cents.  Recently  it  has  been  reduced  again  from 
ID  to  5  cents. 

There  were  in  the  whole  country,  in  1883,  one  head  post-office  at 
the  national  capital,  53  first-class  post-offices,  265  second  class,  for 
the  most  part  inefficient,  and  518  postal  agencies,  little  better  than  use- 
less. The  entire  service  as  it  was  being  rendered  at  837  stations.  The 
evils  resulting  from  the  very  high  postage  were  further  aggravated  by 
the  insecurity  of  the  mails.  The  revenue  of  the  postal  department  in 
that  year  amounted  to  $817,244. 

The  total  number  of  i)ost-offices  and  postal  agencies  in  1893  was 
1448,  and  the  mail  pouches  are  now  transported  on  railways  over  a  total 
distance  of  10,000  kilometres,  or  more  than  6000  miles.  Over  the  re- 
maining distances  in  the  interior  the  mails  are  conveyed  either  by 
stages  or  by  foot  or  mounted  carriers. 

President  Diaz  gives  in  his  report  of  November  30,  1896,  the  follow- 
ing statistics  about  our  postal  services  : 

Post  Offices.  Postal  .\gencies. 

^877 53 269 

1888 356 719 

1892 356 1430 

1895    469 1471 

1896 47 1 1500 


124  6eo(}rapbical  IRotes  on  /iDejico. 

President  Diaz  states  in  his  same  report  that  the  total  number  of 
pieces  distributed  by  our  mails  in  the  year  1878  was  5,169,892,  while 
in  the  year  1896  the  number  increased  to  24,000,000. 

For  the  purpose  of  communicating  with  foreign  countries,  especially 
before  railroads  were  finished,  the  Mexican  government  granted  large 
subsidies  to  steamship  companies,  running  especially  between  Mexican 
and  United  States  ports,  and  their  amount  increased  considerably  the 
expenses  of  our  post-office  department. 

In  the  statistical  part  of  this  paper  I  shall  insert  the  statement  of 
the  earnings  and  expenses  of  the  postal  service  in  Mexico,  in  the  twenty- 
seven  years  elapsed  from  July  i,  1869,  to  June  30,  1896. 

PUBLIC    LANDS. 

The  Spanish  government  considered  itself  the  owner  of  lands  in 
Mexico,  and  it  granted  them  to  private  parties  under  certain  very 
liberal  regulations.  The  Indians  having  been  the  original  owners,  and 
needing  the  lands  to  raise  their  food,  and  textiles  for  their  clothing,  could 
not  be  entirely  deprived  of  them,  and  a  large  portion  of  the  land  was 
left  to  each  municipality  to  be  held  generally  in  common  by  the 
inhabitants  of  the  same.  Large  tracts  of  land  remain,  however,  which 
had  not  been  granted  either  to  the  Indians  nor  to  the  Spanish  settlers, 
and  these  we  called  vacant  lands — Terrenos  Baldios.  The  Mexican 
government  succeeded  Spain  in  the  ownership  of  public  lands,  and 
with  a  view  to  make  them  available  for  colonization  an  easy  system  to 
dispose  of  them  at  a  comparatively  low  price  was  established. 

The  greatest  difficulty  was  to  find  the  public  lands,  as  they  had  never 
before  been  surveyed,  and  a  great  many  were  occupied  witliout  title  by 
private  parties.  As  such  survey  would  be  very  expensive,  the 
Mexican  government  devised  a  plan  of  contracting  that  work  with 
private  companies,  paying  them  with  one-third  of  the  land  measured, 
and  in  that  way  large  portions  of  the  public  lands  have  been  surveyed. 

It  appears  from  President  Diaz's  report  to  his  fellow-citizens,  dated 
November  30,  1896,  that  up  to  1888  private  companies  had  surveyed 
33,811,524,  hectares  of  public  lands,  for  which  they  received  in  pay- 
ment for  their  work  one-third  or  11,036,407  hectares.  In  the  four  years 
from  1889  to  1892,  16,820,141  hectares  of  public  lands  were  surveyed 
by  private  companies,  of  which  11,213,427  hectares  belonged  to  the 
government,  and  in  that  way  in  less  than  ten  years  it  was  possible  to 
survey  50,631,665  hectares.  Out  of  this  amount  the  government  sold 
to  private  parties  and  to  colonization  companies  1,607,493  hectares, 
and  to  private  companies  who  were  in  possession  of  public  lands  held 
by  them  without  any  title,  which  we  call  demacias,  4,222,991  hectares. 
At  the  same  time  the  government  has  been  trying  to  divide  the  lands 
held  in  common  by  the  Indian  towns  between  the  inhabitants  of  the 


flmmlaration. 


125 


same,  and  up  to  1888  it  had  distributed  in  that  manner  67,368  hectares 
among  2936  titles,  and  from  1889  to  1892  180,169  hectares  among 
4560  titles.  In  accordance  with  the  provisions  of  our  public  land 
laws  we  sold  to  private  parties,  who  pre-empted  the  lands  for  purchase, 
which  we  call  ''denu;uio,"  3,635,388  hectares  among  1504  titles,  and 
from  1889  to  1892  1,353,137  hectares  among  1218  titles.  From  July  i, 
189 1,  to  August  18,  1896,  9,677,689  hectares  of  land  were  surveyed,  of 
which  6,504,912  hectares  belong  to  the  government,  and  the  balance, 
3,172,777  hectares,  belong  to  private  companies. 

Every  year  the  Department  of  Fomento  publishes  under  authority 
of  law  a  price-list  of  public  lands,  which  have  different  prices  in  each 
state  and  are  sometimes  divided  into  three  classes  ;  the  first,  second, 
and  third  having  each  a  different  price.  The  following  is  the  official 
price  of  public  lands  fixed  by  the  Department  of  Fomento  for  the 
fiscal  year  1895-1896  : 


STATES 

PRICE 
PER    HECTARE 

STATES 

PRICE 
PER    HECTARE 

$2.25 
1.80 
1. 00 
2.25 
2.00 
1. 00 
1. 00 

3-35 
1. 10 
2.25 
2.25 

3-35 
2.25 
4.50 
1. 00 

Oaxaca 

$1.10 

3-35 
3-35 
2.25 
1. 10 

Puebla 

Coahuila                

(^ueretaro 

San  Luis  Potosi 

Siiialoa 

Souora 

1. 00 

Duraiigo 

'  Tabasco 

2.50 
1. 00 

Guanajuato 

Tlaxcala 

2.25 

2.75 
1.80 

Veracruz 

Jalisco 

1  Yucatan 

Mexico 

i  Zacatecas 

2.25 
5.60 

Michoacan 

District  federal 

Territore  de  Tepic 

Territory  of  Lower  Cal. . . 

2.00 

New  Leon 

0.65 

In  the  statistical  part  of  this  paper  I  shall  insert  some  data  about 
the  sales  of  public  lands  by  the  Mexican  government  from  1867  to  1895, 
and  a  statement  of  the  titles  issued  from  the  years  1877  to  1895. 


IMMIGRATION. 


It  has  always  been  the  aim  of  the  Mexican  government  from  the 
time  of  the  independence  of  the  country,  to  encourage  the  immigration 
of  foreigners,  because  Mexico  being  so  large  and  the  population  so 
scanty,  it  was  considered  a  necessity  to  i)romote  the  development  of 
the  country,  to  increase  the  population  by  inducing  the  settlement  of 
foreigners,  and  different  laws  have  been  issued  for  that  jjurpose. 

Since  the  restoration  of  the  Republic  new  laws  have  been  sanctioned 
to  encourage  colonization,  which  allow  colonists  and  the  companies 
bringing  them  free  importation  of  their  personal  goods  and  such  articles 


126  Geoorapbical  IRotes  on  /iDejico, 

as  they  may  need  for  their  subsistence  and  welfare  for  a  reasonable  term 
of  years,  exempting  them  at  the  same  time  from  all  kinds  of  taxes — 
federal,  state,  and  municipal, — excepting  only  tlie  stamp  tax,  and  also 
exempting  them  from  military  and  other  personal  service,  and  some- 
times even  going  so  far  as  to  give  a  bounty  for  each  colonist  brought  to 
the  country.  Under  such  laws  several  contracts  were  made  with  differ- 
ent companies,  and  32  colonies  have  been  planted  in  different  sections 
of  Mexico,  of  which  13  have  been  established  by  the  government  and 
19  by  private  parties.  In  1892  there  were  only  1266  families  with  a 
total  number  of  10,985  colonists.  On  the  whole,  the  efforts  made  and 
the  expenses  incurred  by  the  Mexican  government  in  the  establish- 
ment of  those  settlements  of  colonists,  have  had  but  unsatisfactory 
results,  but  they  have  paved  the  way  for  future  experiments  on  a  larger 
scale,  especially  if  undertaken  by  private  parties,  and  with  only  such 
assistance  from  the  government  as  can  be  rendered  by  liberal  legisla- 
tion. 

The  principle  obstacle  which  has  prevented  us  from  having  a  large 
immigration  is  our  low  wages.  Those  who  immigrate  are  generally 
poor  wage  earners,  who  want  to  better  their  condition,  and  they  could 
not  go  to  a  country  where  wages  are  a  great  deal  lower  than  in  the 
United  States,  or  even  in  Europe,  as  they  could  never  compete  with 
the  native  labor  of  our  Indians.  We  have  now  a  surplus  of  labor  and 
a  deficit  of  cajjital,  and  cannot  have  a  large  immigration  until  such 
conditions  are  changed. 

What  Mexico  needs  is  capital  to  develop  her  resources  and  give 
employment  to  labor,  and  then  immigration  will  flow  in  as  naturally  as 
water  seeks  its  level.  Mexican  credit  will  be  established,  so  far  as  im- 
migration is  concerned,  when  her  natural  resources  are  developed,  this 
being  the  only  safe  and  reliable  basis  of  such  credit,  and  this  will  never 
be  developed  until  those  who  have  capital  to  invest  are  ac(}uainted  with 
the  unparalleled  opportunities  for  safe  and  profitable  investment  in 
Mexico.  This  will  only  be  accom|)lished  by  plain,  blunt,  matter-of- 
fact  and  well-informed  press  agents,  who  lay  before  people  who  have 
money  to  invest  the  plain  facts  of  the  case. 

htvnii^ration  from  the  United  States. — I  have  often  been  asked  for 
my  opinion  of  the  chances  of  Americans  going  to  settle  in  Mexico,  and 
have  always  answered  that  while  Mexico  is  desirous  of  attracting  good 
settlers,  and  while  that  country  undoubtedly  offers  great  inducements 
to  foreign  settlers,  especially  to  those  having  some  means,  there  are 
serious  drawbacks  which  ought  to  be  pointed  out  to  the  prospective 
immigrant  from  the  United  States,  as  a  warning  against  a  possible 
failure  and  disappointment. 

The  comforts  of  life  in  the  rural  districts  of  Mexico,  where  a  settler 
from  this  country  has  the  best  chances,  are  scanty  compared  with  simi- 


Hinmioration.  127 

lar  districts  in  the  United  States.  The  difference  of  race,  language, 
religion,  and  education  between  a  young  man  brought  up  in  this  country 
and  the  small  Mexican  farmers,  are  enough  to  create  difficulties  at  first 
sight  insuperable  to  any  young  man  from  the  United  States  who  settles 
there.  If  he  establishes  himself  in  a  district  inhabited  only  by  Indians 
these  difficulties  are  considerably  increased.  If  the  settler  prefers  the 
hot  lands,  which  are  the  most  fertile  and  productive,  the  severity  of 
the  climate  is  such  as  to  challenge  the  courage  of  the  bravest.  The 
mosquitoes  of  several  varieties,  the  flies,  and  many  other  insects  are 
very  annoying,  besides  tlie  sickness  inherent  to  such  climate. 

The  question  of  labor  is  another  great  difficulty  in  the  way,  because, 
while  it  is  cheap  and  abundant  in  the  cold  regions,  it  is  generally  scarce 
and  unreliable  in  the  hot  lands. 

The  conditions  of  the  two  countries  are  so  very  different  that  the 
change  experienced  by  one  brought  up  in  this  country  who  goes  into 
Mexico,  is  very  apt  to  discourage  the  strongest  and  most  sanguine,  at 
least  in  the  beginning,  as  the  lapse  of  time  makes  anybody  adapt  him- 
self to  existing  conditions  and  to  appreciate  the  advantages  of  his 
new  home. 

The  land  question  is  also  a  serious  objection.  A  large  portion  of 
the  public  lands  have  already  been  disposed  of,  and  com[)aratively 
little  of  the  public  and  private  lands  have  been  surveyed,  and  cannot 
easily  be  had  in  small  lots.  The  large  land-holders  are  unwilling  to 
divide  their  estates,  and  the  Indians  holding  large  tracts  of  land  are 
very  reluctant  to  part  with  them  at  any  price. 

Coffee  raising  is  undoubtedly  one  of  the  most  profitable  undertak- 
ings in  Mexico,  but  at  the  same  time  it  has  serious  drawbacks.  It 
takes  from  tliree  to  four  years  before  the  trees  begin  to  yield,  and  the 
planter  must  be  provided  with  sufficient  means  to  defray  not  only  his 
personal  expenses,  but  also  those  of  the  plantation,  like  houses, 
machinery,  cultivation,  etc.,  without  receiving  any  proceeds  until  the 
third  or  fourth  year.  Besides,  if  he  makes  any  mistake  in  the  selec- 
tion of  his  land,  his  profits  will  be  considerably  reduced.  The  gen- 
eral impression  prevailing  in  Mexico  is  that  coffee  is  the  product  of  the 
hot  lands,  where  the  coffee  trees  need  shade  ;  but  a  plantation  in  such 
lands  would  cost  a  great  deal  more  money  to  make  and  to  keep,  and 
would  yield  smaller  profits  than  one  located  in  the  temperate  zone, 
that  is,  just  below  the  frost  line.' 

'  The  same  views  were  expressed  in  Mexico  to  the  State  Department  by  the 
United  States  Consuls,  and  even  published  in  the  Consular  Ni/'orts  for  August,  1894, 
vol.  xlv. ,  No.  167,  pp.  628,  629. 

"  Consular  advices  received  at  the  Department  of  .State  warn  Americans  about 
emijjrating  to  Mexico,  with  a  view  to  permanent  settlement,  with  insufficient  means  or 
without  informing  themselves  in  a  relialile  way  as  to  the  prospects  for  earning  liveli- 


128  ©eocjrapbical  IRotes  on  /IDejico. 

For  the  American  common  laborer  who  looks  to  his  day's  pay  for 
his  living,  Mexico  is  unquestionably  not  the  proper  place  to  go.  He 
cannot  compete  with  the  Mexican  laborer,  whose  usual  pay  is  from  38 
to  50  cents  a  day  in  silver,  and  he  boards  himself.  For  the  man  who 
has  no  means,  unless  he  is  especially  qualified  in  some  particular 
branch,  and  knows  something  of  the  language,  and  will  work  harder 
and  longer  hours,  it  is  no  place.  There  is  room  for  the  steady,  sober, 
industrious  mechanic  or  miner  or  tradesman  who  will  adapt  himself 
to  new  conditions  and  surroundings,  leave  all  social,  political,  and 
other  ambitions  behind  him,  and  who  will  attend  strictly  to  his  own 
business. 

Those  who  are  safest  in  going  to  Mexico  are  those  who  have  a 
little  capital,  say  from  $2000  in  gold  and  ui)ward,  which  will  give  them 
about  twice  that  amount  there;  w'ho  can  look  around  and  decide  what 
they  propose  to  do,  and  where  they  want  to  settle.  There  is  an  excel- 
lent field  for  the  small  general  farmer  of  the  New^  England  or  Middle 
States  type,  who  will  raise  a  little  of  everything.  Butter,  ])otatoes, 
hogs,  poultry,  corn,  vegetables,  and  small  grain  find  a  ready  sale  at 
good  prices.  I  have  seen  the  common  article  of  corn,  which  is  nearly 
always  a  sure  crop,  sell  at  from  $1  to  $1.25  per  bushel,  Mexican  money. 

It  is  always  best  for  the  mechanic  or  miner  to  first  secure  a  job 
before  going  to  Mexico,  and  work  for  wages  several  months,  and  in 
the  meantime  study  the  situation,  get  acquainted  with  the  language, 
the  customs,  and  the  people  before  going  it  alone. 

The  manner  of  living  there  and  the  customs  of  the  people  are 
totally  different  from  those  of  the  United  States.  Those  going  there 
will  have  to  work  harder  and  longer  hours  than  in  the  United  States, 
but  tliey  can  save  money.  Ten  years  ago  Americans  went  to  Mexico 
to  make  money  and  return  to  the  United  States  ;  to-day  they  go  to 
find  homes.  I  know  several  Americans  who  would  not  live  in  the 
United  States  again. 

The  climate  of  Mexico  ])ermits  a  man  to  work  every  day  in  the 
year.  The  cost  of  living  and  clothing  is  cheap,  and  a  dollar  in  Mexi- 
can money  can  be  made  to  go  as  far  there  as  a  dollar  in  American 
money  in  the  United  States,  and  a  dollar  there  is  easier  to  get. 

In  mining,  Mexico  offers  inducements  superior  to  any  other  coun- 

hoods.  While  there  are  undoubtedly  good  opportunities  in  Mexico  for  enterprise, 
frugality,  and  thrift,  it  is  like  other  countries,  a  land  of  varying  conditions,  and  it  often 
happens  that  disappointment  is  the  result  of  emigration  undertaken  upon  insufficient 
or  misleading  information,  or  without  resources,  which  are  always  necessary  for  success 
in  a  new  country.  Many  Americans  have  been  induced  by  alluring  statements  as  to 
the  cheapness  of  coffee  raising,  etc.,  to  emigrate  to  Mexico  within  the  past  year,  and 
some  have  lost  their  all  by  so  doing.  For  these  reasons  Consuls  desire'to  caution 
Americans  against  the  representations  of  speculators,  who  are  always  on  the  watch  for 
the  unwary." 


public  H)ebt,  129 

try  ;  and  whether  a  man  has  a  thousand  dollars  or  a  million  he  can  go 
there  and  make  money  if  he  exercises  ordinary  precaution  and  judg- 
ment, and  if  he  makes  up  his  mind  to  stand  the  discomforts  of  the 
country.  It  is  a  good  country  for  the  prospector,  too,  because  there 
are  no  seasons  against  him,  and  there  are  many  new  fields  entirely  un- 
touched; but  he  needs  money  enough  to  get  there  with  and  enable  him 
to  obtain  the  proper  kind  of  outfit,  and  time  to  familiarize  himself 
with  the  requirements  of  the  law  and  select  some  district  in  which  he 
wants  to  operate. 

For  the  small  capitalist,  or  for  a  small  syndicate,  there  is  no  finer 
field  for  the  organizing  of  small  legitimate  companies  for  the  purposes 
of  opening  and  working  old  abandoned  mines,  which  are  filled  with 
debris  or  water,  and  which  it  will  pay  to  clean  out  and  work,  and 
of  which  there  are  still  many  to  be  had.  In  times  gone  by  they  were 
abandoned  because  of  the  refractory  condition  of  the  ores,  or  lack  of 
machinery,  or  want  of  transportation,  all  of  which  conditions  have  been 
removed.  There  is  also  a  fine  opening  for  capital  for  the  exploration 
of  the  new  gold-fields  in  the  vicinity  of  Guadalupe  y  Calvo,  in  the 
range  between  Sonora  and  Chihuahua,  in  the  State  of  Guerrero,  and 
in  many  other  localities. 

There  are  in  various  parts  of  Mexico  educated,  experienced,  and 
thoroughly  reliable  Americans  to  be  found,  who  have  lived  a  long 
while  in  the  country,  and  know  the  language,  the  laws,  and  the  people, 
and  would  be  willing  to  give  reliable  information  to  young  Americans 
wishing  to  go  there. 

PUBLIC    DEBT. 

The  public  debt  of  Mexico  is  represented  by  bonds  drawing  differ- 
ent rates  of  interest,  some  payable  in  gold  and  others  in  silver.  In 
1825,  very  soon  after  our  independence,  we  contracted  two  loans  in 
London,  both  for  10,000,000  pounds  sterling,  which  we  mainly  used  for 
buying  war-ships  and  war  material.  On  account  of  the  disturbed  con- 
dition of  the  country,  the  interest  on  that  debt  could  not  be  paid  punc- 
tually, and  the  bonds  naturally  fell  to  a  very  low  nominal  price.  In 
1851,  after  the  war  with  the  United  States,  we  refunded  that  debt  in 
new  bonds,  the  interest  of  which  was  reduced  from  5  to  3  per  cent., 
which  we  expected  to  pay  punctually,  but  the  disturbed  condition  of 
the  country  made  it  impossible  for  us  to  do  it.  Finally,  in  1888,  the 
debt  was  readjusted  and  gold  bonds  bearing  6  per  cent,  interest  issued, 
and  as  we  have  paid  since  punctually  the  interest,  they  have  reached  par. 

We  had  issued  bonds  from  1849  to  1856  to  pay  claims  of  English, 
French,  and  Spanish  subjects  under  certain  conventions  signed  with 
those  countries,  and  such  bonds  were  exchanged  at  different  rates  for 
the  6  per  cent,  gold  bonds  of  our  foreign  debt. 

VOL.  1—9 


13©  (Beoorapbical  Botes  on  ffbc^ico. 

To  build  the  Tehuantepec  Railway  we  negotiated  in  London,  in 
1888,  another  gold  loan  for  3,000,000  pounds  sterling  at  5  per  cent, 
interest. 

The  subsidies  granted  to  railway  companies  were  payable  in  sil- 
ver, with  a  percentage  of  our  import  duties,  but  as  they  amounted  to 
a  considerable  sum  their  payment  reduced  the  revenue  considerably, 
and  the  Mexican  Government  contracted  in  London  in  1890  a  gold 
loan  at  6  per  cent,  interest,  with  which  it  paid  the  subsidies  due  up  to 
that  date  to  most  of  the  railway  companies. 

We  had  to  issue  besides  in  1850  what  we  call  domestic  or  interior 
bonds,  at  3  and  5  per  cent,  interest  in  silver,  and  we  had  other  indebt- 
edness of  several  kinds,  caused  by  loans  and  other  sources  when  the 
revenue  of  the  Government  was  not  enough  to  pay  its  expenses.  All 
such  debts  have  been  consolidated  into  new  bonds  of  3  and  5  per 
cent,  interest,  payable  in  silver.  Such  railway  subsidies  as  were  not 
paid  out  of  the  proceeds  of  the  loan  of  1890  have  been  paid  with  bonds 
drawing  5  per  cent,  interest,  paying  both  capital  and  interest  in  silver. 

It  is  very  onerous  for  Mexico  when  it  is  on  a  silver  basis  to  pay  in 
gold  the  interest  of  its  foreign  debt,  because  we  have  to  buy  gold  at 
current  prices,  and  it  costs  us  now  more  than  double  its  current  price. 
When  silver  was  about  50  cents  on  the  dollar,  as  compared  with  gold, 
6  per  cent,  interest  of  our  foreign  debt,  cost  us  12  per  cent.,  and  of 
course  the  further  silver  is  depreciated  the  greater  will  be  the  cost  of 
paying  the  interest  of  our  gold  debts. 

President  Diaz  gives  in  his  report  of  November  30,  1896,  the  follow- 
ing data  about  the  cost  to  the  Mexican  Treasury  of  buying  exchange 
to  place  in  London  the  funds  to  pay  us  the  gold  interest  on  our  foreign 
debt  : 

Fiscal  year  1888-1889 $    729,178.17 

"  1890-1891 2,314,477.77 

"    "   1891-1892 3,225,246.77 

"    "  1892-T893 5,101,223.57 

In  the  second  part  of  this  paper  I  will  give  a  detailed  statement 
showing  the  different  kinds  of  bonds  and  obligations  which  constitute 
the  Mexican  debt,  and  here  will  only  give  the  figures  of  the  total 
amount,  which  are  the  following  : 

Sterling  Mexican  debt $1 14,675,895.49 

Debt  payable  in  silver 88,549,111.80 

Total $203,225,007.29 

It  is  not  possible  to  fix  the  exact  amount  of  the  debt  of  Mexico, 
either  in  silver  or  gold,  because  of  the  daily  changes  in  the  price  of 


Banluno* 


131 


silver  ;  but  as  silver  is  the  currency  of  the  country,  when  the  Mexican 
dollar  is  worth  24  pence  in  London,  the  amount  of  our  debt  in  silver 
would  be  equal  to  our  sterling  debt,  that  is  :  $114,675,895.40  added  to 
our  debt  will  make  a  grand  total  in  Mexican  silver  of  $317,900,902.78. 


BANKING. 

Banking  in  Mexico  is  in  its  incipient  state.  The  National  Bank  of 
Mexico,  established  in  the  City  of  Mexico  in  1882,  with  its  branches 
in  the  principal  cities  of  the  country,  has  a  monopoly  for  the  issuing  of 
notes  in  the  capital  which  is  only  shared  by  such  banks  as  were  in  ex- 
istence before  the  National  Bank  of  Mexico  was  chartered,  like  the 
Bank  of  London,  Mexico,  and  South  America,  established  during  the 
French  intervention  in  Mexico  and  recently  remodelled  under  the 
name  of  the  Bank  of  London  and  Mexico.  The  Mortgage  Bank  of 
Mexico  enjoys  that  privilege  also. 

On  June  3,  1896,  a  general  banking  law  was  issued  by  the  Mexican 
Congress,  which  establishes  the  conditions  under  which  banking  insti- 
tutions can  be  organized  ;  but,  of  course,  that  does  not  affect  the  rights 
of  the  National  Bank  and  other  banks  in  the  City  of  Mexico  which 
had  been  chartered  before  the  date  of  that  law. 

Formerly,  owing  to  the  expense  and  dangers  of  transportation,  it 
was  difficult  to  transport  money  from  one  place  to  another,  and  there- 
fore exchange  between  cities  in  Mexico  was  very  high,  sometimes  even 
ten  per  cent,  from  one  city  to  another  in  the  country.  The  rate  has 
been  reduced  considerably  since  the  railroads  were  built,  but  it  is  still 
quite  high.  To  draw  money  from  the  City  of  Mexico  to  the  City  of 
Oaxaca,  for  instance,  and  vice  versa,  costs  now  one  per  cent,  each  way  ; 
when  money  is  required  to  be  sent  to  smaller  places  the  expenses  are 
much  higher,  as  it  is  necessary  to  send  a  man  to  the  nearest  town 
where  the  money  can  be  placed  by  the  banks,  and  pay  to  him  a  large 
commission — the  expenses  sometimes  reaching  ten  per  cent.  To  keep 
up  this  rate  of  exchange  the  National  Bank  makes  its  bills  payable  at 
a  certain  place  so  that  they  cannot  be  paid  at  any  other. 

Banking  is  very  profitalile  in  Mexico.  The  following  is  a  statement 
of  the  earnings  and  dividends  of  the  National  Bank  of  Mexico,  which 
began  with  a  cai)ital  of  $3,000,000,  increased  since  to  $6,000,000,  hav- 
ing now  a  reserve  fund  of  $5,500,000,  and  is  owned  almost  exclusively 
by  Mexicans,  being  the  fiscal  agent  of  the  Government  : 


1 89 1 

l8()2 

i8<)i 
lSq4 


NET  PROFITS. 


$1,813,623 
1,839,415 

2,355,4(14 
I, 'I'll, 801 
2,200,626 


DIVIDENDS. 


23  per  cent. 

23  "       " 
29    "       " 

24  "       " 
27    •'       " 


132 


Geograpbical  IRotcs  on  /IDcjico. 


The  following  is  a  statement,  from  official  sources,  of  the  earnings 
and  dividends  of  the  Bank  of  London  and  Mexico.  Up  to  1891  it 
had  a  capital  of  $1,500,000,  which  was  then  increased  to  $3,000,000  : 


NET  PROFITS. 


1889 
1S90 
189I 
1892 

1893 
1894 

1895 


$243,246 

569,351 
703,522 
789,967 
618,653 
603,178 
557,710 


DIVIDENDS    EARNED, 
PER  CENT. 


16 

36 

46 

26 

20J 

20 

184 


DIVIDENDS  DECLARED, 
PER  CENT. 


10 
20 
20 
16 
16 
14 
14 


Recently  the  capital  stock  of  this  bank  was  further  increased  to 
,^10,000,000,  without  any  expense  to  the  stockholders,  as  the  reserve 
fund,  which  amounted  to  about  $2,000,000,  was  used  to  complete  the 
new  capital,  and  was  issued  to  the  regular  stockholders  as  a  stock 
dividend.  The  balance  to  complete  the  $5,000,000  of  new  stock  was 
offered  to  the  public,  the  subscriptions  amounting  to  $22,000,000,  or 
$17,000,000  more  than  was  wanted. 

From  this  statement  it  will  be  seen  that  the  existing  banks  are 
prosperous  and  in  a  flourishing  condition,  but  the  demand  for  in- 
creased banking  facilities  is  such  that  new  banks  are  being  formed, 
and  the  operations  of  the  old  banks  increased  and  extended  in  various 
directions. 

PATENTS    AND    TRADE-MARKS, 

Patents. — On  June  7,  1890,  the  present  patent  law  of  Mexico  was 
issued,  and  its  provisions  are  very  similar  to  the  respective  laws  exist- 
ing in  this  country. 

Since  the  date  of  that  law  the  following  patents  have  been  issued 
by  our  Department  of  Fomento  : 


PATENTS. 

INCREASE. 

DIMINUTION 

63 

153 

90 

.... 

168 

15 

.... 

122 

46 

125 

3 

154 

29 



785 

1890 
I89I 
1892 

1893 
1894 

1895 


Trade-Marks. — On  November  28,  1889,  our  present  law  regulating 
trade-marks  was  |)romulgated,  and  since  then  the  following  trade- 
marks have  been  issued  by  the  Department  of  Fomento  : 


Sbippina. 


133 


1890 

1891 
1892 

1893 
1894 
1895 


TRADE-MARKS. 


97 
112 
161 

loS 
79 
91 

648 


15 
49 


DIMINUTION. 


53 
29 


SHIPPING. 

The  mercantile  marine  of  Mexico  in  1895  comprised  52  steamers 
and  222  sailing  vessels.  The  shipping  included  also  many  small  ves- 
sels engaged  in  the  coasting  trade. 

In  1893-94,  in  the  foreign  trade,  1237  vessels  of  1,314,625  tons 
entered,  and  1211  vessels  of  1,296,834  tons  cleared  the  ports  of  Mexico. 
In  the  coasting  trade  7721  of  1,623,371  tons  entered  and  7708  of 
1,592,754  tons  cleared.  In  1894-95,  in  the  foreign  and  coasting  trade, 
there  entered  9575  vessels  of  3,428,973  tons,  and  cleared  9557  of 
3,359,684  tons. 

In  the  statistical  portion  of  this  chapter  I  will  give  official  informa- 
tion about  the  number  of  vessels  and  their  tonnage,  which  have  entered 
and  cleared  from  Mexican  ports  in  recent  years,  the  nations  from  which 
they  came,  and  other  valuable  data. 

MONEY,  WEIGHTS,  AND  MEASURES. 

The  standard  of  value  is  silver.  There  is  no  paper  currency  except 
ordinary  bank  notes. 

The  silver  peso  or  dollar  of  100  centavos  is  the  unit  of  coin  in 
Mexico. 

The  silver  peso  weighs  27.073  grammes,  .902  fine,  and  thus  contains 
24.419  grammes  of  fine  silver. 

The  lo-pesos  gold-piece  weighs  27.0643  grammes,  .875  fine,  and 
thus  contains  23.6813  grammes  of  fine  gold. 

The  weights  and  measures  of  the  metric  system  were  introduced  in 
1856  ;  but  the  Indians  and  other  ignorant  people  use  the  old  Spanish 
measures.     The  principal  ones  are  these  : 

Weight. — I  libra=o.46  kilogramme,  1. 014  lbs.  avoirdupois. 

I  arroba=25  libras,  25.357  lbs.  avoirdupois. 
J^or  Gold  and  Silver. — i  marco  =  ^  libra,  4,608  granos. 

I  ochava=62  toniines. 

I  tomin=i2  granos. 

20granos=i  French  gramme. 
Length. — i  vara — 0.837  metre  =  2  ft.  i-^Q  English  inches. 

I  legua  comun  (i  common  league)  =  5,000  yards. 

I  legua  marina  (i  marine  league)  =  6,666|  yards. 


134  (Beoorapbical  motes  on  /IDejico. 

NON-OFFICIAL    PUBLICATIONS. 

The  following  is  a  partial  and  rather  incomplete  list  of  (principally 
English)  books  about  Mexico  : 

Abbott,  Gorham  D.,  Mexico  and  the  U?nted  States.     New  York,  1869. 

Bancroft,  H.   H.,  A  Popular  History  of  the  Mexican  People.     8.     London. 
Resources  and  Development  of  Alexico.     San  Francisco,  1894. 

Brocklehurst,  T.  U.,  Mexico  To-day.     London,  1S83. 

Burke,  U.  R.,  Life  of  Benito  yuarez.     8.     London,  1894. 

Castro,  Lorenzo,  The  Republic  of  Mexico  in  1882.     New  York,  1S82. 

Q\{.K&.'Hh\,V>.,  Ancient  Cities  of  the  New  World.     Tr.     8.      London. 

QYi%v KiAY.Vi,  '^iCYiV.'L,  Le  Mexique  ancien  et  jnoderne.     18.      Paris,  1886. 

CONKLING,  Howard,  Mexico  a^id  the  Mexicans.     New  York,  1S83. 

CONKLING,  A.  R.  Appletons  Gtiide  to  Mexico.     New  York,  1890. 

Crawford,  Cora  Hayward,  The  Land  of  the  Montezumas.     New  York,  i88g. 

CuBAS,    Antonio    Garcia,     Mexico,     its     Trade,    Industries,    and    Resources. 
Mexico,  1893, 

Flint,  H.  M.,  Mexico  under  Maximilian.      12.      Philadelphia,  1867. 

Gloner,  Prosper,  Les  Finances  des  Etats  Unis  Mexicains.     Bruxelles,  1895. 

GoocH,  F.  C,  Face  to  Face  with  the  Mexicans.     London,  1890. 

Griffin,  S.  B.,  Mexico  of  To-day.     New  York,  18S6. 

Hamilton,  Leonidas,  Border  States  of  Mexico.     Chicago,  18S2. 

Hamilton,  L.  L.  C,  I/amiltotts  Mexican  Handbook.     London,  1884. 

Janvier,  Thomas  A.,  The  Mexican  Guide.     New  York,  18S6. 

¥..07.n¥.YAK,'E.,  Report  on  the  Republic  of  Mexico.     London,  1S86. 

La  Bedolliere,  Emile  G.  de,  Histoire  de  la  guerre  du  Mexique.    4.    Paris,  1866. 

Lester,  C.  Edwards,  The  Mexican  Republic.     New  York,  1878. 

Noll,  Arthur  Howard,^  Short  History  of  Mexico.     Chicago,  1890. 

Ober,  F.  a.,  Travels  in  Mexico.     Boston,  U.  S.,  1884. 

Prescott,  W,  H.,  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Alexico.     8.     London. 

Ratzel,  Fried.,  A  us  Mexico,  Reiseskizzen  aus  den  Jahren  1874-ys.     Breslau, 
1878. 

Rice,  John  N.,  Mexico,  Our  Neighbor.     New  York.     (No  date.) 

ROUTIER,  G.,  Le  Mexique  de  nos  Jours.      Paris,  1895. 

Schroeder,  Seaton,   The  Fall  of  Maximilian  s  Empire  as  seen  from  a  United 
States  Gunboat.     New  York,  18S7. 

ScoBEL,  A.,  "  Die  Verkehrswege  Mexicos  und  ihre  wirtschaftliche  Bedeutung." 
In  Deutsche  Geographische  Blatter.      Band  X,  Heft  i.      Bremen,  1887. 

Hirough    the   Land  of  the   Aztecs ;    or,    Life   and    Travel  in    Mexico.      By  s. 
"  Gringo."     London,  1892. 

Wells,  David  A.,  A  Study  of  Mexico.     New  York,  1887. 


PART  11. 

STATISTICS 


135 


II.     STATISTICS. 

I  do  not  know  of  any  publication  in  which  the  latest  statistical  in- 
formation about  Mexico  is  compiled  in  a  concise  and  complete  form. 
One  which  perhaps  is  the  fullest,  published  in  Berlin  by  Messrs. 
Puttkammer  &  Muhlbrecht,  entitled  I.cs  Finances  des  Etats-  Unis  Mexi- 
cains,  written  by  Mr.  Prosper  Gloner,  contains  a  great  deal  more 
statistical  information  than  others,  and  is  of  later  date. 

It  has  required  a  great  deal  of  work,  energy,  and  time  on  my  part 
to  collect  the  data  contained  in  this  paper,  most  of  which  is  of  an 
official  character,  and  I  am  sure  it  is  the  most  complete  ever  published, 
I  having  tried  to  make  it  very  concise,  so  as  to  take  the  smallest 
space  possible. 

REVENUES    AND    EXPENSES. 

The  financial  question  was  for  many  years  the  leading  and  the 
most  difficult  one  in  Mexico,  because  the  urgent  needs  of  the  Treasury, 
especially  on  account  of  the  disturbed  condition  of  the  country,  made 
public  expenses  considerably  exceed  the  revenue,  and  this  condition 
did  not  allow  of  a  thorough  overhauling  and  settlement  of  the  finances, 
nor  did  it  contribute  to  establish  the  credit  of  the  Government  ;  but 
peace  having  prevailed  since  1877,  a  great  improvement  has  taken  place 
in  the  financial  condition  of  Mexico  ;  the  revenue  has  increased  con- 
siderably, and  it  has  finally  reached  an  amount  amply  sufficient  to  pay 
all  our  expenses.  In  fact,  at  the  end  of  the  fiscal  year,  ended  June 
30,  1896,  we  had  for  the  first  time  in  the  history  of  Mexico  since  its 
independence,  a  surplus  which  amounted  to  ;|6, 000,000.  The  obnoxious 
tax  which  we  inherited  from  tlie  Spanish,  called  alcabalas^  or  interstate 
duties  on  domestic  and  forei^Mi  comTnerce,  was  a  great  drawback  to 
internal  trade,  was  finally  abolished  on  July  i,  1896  ;  and  the  country 
being  now  in  a  condition  when  radical  reforms  can  be  introduced 
without  serious  disturbances. 

Our  expenses  as  an  independent  nation  are  necessarily  large,  and 
as  a  comparatively  small  jxjrtion  of  our  population  are  really  producers- 

137 


138  statistical  IWotes  on  /IDejico. 

of  wealth,  upon  them  lies  the  whole  burden  of  such  expenses  ;  that  is, 
we  are  a  nation  of  from  twelve  to  fifteen  millions  of  inhabitants,  with 
a  very  large  territory  and  a  large  coast  on  both  oceans,  requiring  army, 
revenue,  light-house,  and  police  service,  and  other  expensive  institu- 
tions proportionate  to  such  extent  and  population,  when  the  portion 
which  contribute  to  such  expenses  is  only  about  one-fourth  or  one-third 
of  the  same. 

It  is  a  very  difificult  task  to  give  a  complete  and  correct  statement 
of  the  revenues  and  expenses  of  the  Mexican  Government  prior  to  the 
year  1867.  The  disturbed  condition  of  the  country  made  it  often 
quite  impossible  to  keep  any  account  at  all  :  such  was  the  case  especially 
from  1858  to  i860,  as  during  that  period  the  City  of  Mexico  and  a 
large  part  of  the  country  was  occupied  by  the  Church  party  under 
Miramon,  and  from  1863  to  1867  by  the  French  Intervention.  Be- 
sides that  cause  it  was  a  very  difficult  matter  for  us  to  keep  a  correct 
account  of  public  receipts  and  expenses,  in  some  way  for  lack  of  a  good 
system  of  book-keeping.  To  make  a  statement  of  the  revenues  and 
expenses  of  the  Mexican  Government  since  the  independence  of  the 
country  from  Spain,  I  had  to  rely  upon  the  reports  made  by  Secretaries 
of  the  Treasury,  which  are,  however,  lacking  for  many  years,  and  which 
contain  rather  an  estimate  than  an  account  of  the  revenues  and  ex- 
penses, and  I  have  made  in  that  way  the  statement  which  I  append 
under  No.  i,  which  embraces  the  revenues  and  expenses  from  the  year 
1808,  the  last  of  the  Spanish  rule  in  Mexico,  to  the  year  1867. 

The  forming  of  accounts  was  under  the  charge  of  the  Federal 
Treasury  of  Mexico,  and  the  Treasury  kept  its  accounts  with  a  very 
defective  system  of  book-keeping,  which  prevented  them  from  being 
correct.  To  remedy  that  difficulty,  after  the  restoration  of  the  Repub- 
lic in  1867,  a  bureau  of  accounts  was  established  in  the  Treasury  De- 
partment, but  its  accounts  were  seldom  correct,  because  it  did  not 
have  the  necessary  detailed  data  to  make  a  complete  account,  and,  as 
could  be  expected,  the  results  in  the  accounts  of  both  bureaus  differ 
widely. 

In  1880  the  Federal  Treasury  was  reorganized  with  a  large  number 
of  clerks  with  a  view  to  keep  a  full  and  correct  account  of  public 
moneys,  and  from  that  year  until  1888  their  accounts  began  to  be 
better  than  before.  In  1888  the  system  was  still  remodelled  and  im- 
proved, and  since  then  that  office  has  been  able  to  keep  correct  and 
complete  accounts  of  our  public  revenues  and  expenses. 

I  also  append  a  statement  No.  2  of  the  revenues  and  expenses 
of  the  Mexican  Treasury  from  July  i,  1867,  to  June  30,  1888.  The 
first  thirteen  years  in  that  statement  are  taken  from  the  data  furnished 
by  the  Bureau  of  Accounts  of  our  Treasury  Department.  The  account 
of  the  year    1 879-1 880  was   taken   from  the  account  of  the   Federal 


IRevenue  auD  Bjpeuses. 


139 


Treasury,  and  the  data  for  the  year  1880-1881  from  the  accounts  pub- 
lished by  the  Liquidating  Bureau  established  by  the  Mexican  Govern- 
ment to  close  the  old  accounts  and  open  the  new  ones  under  the  new 
system.  The  accounts  of  the  year  1888-1889,  which  appear  in  state- 
ment No.  3,  are  all  taken  from  the  Federal  Treasury  of  Mexico,  and 
are  complete  and  correct. 

I  also  append  a  statement  of  the  appropriations  approved  by  the 
Federal  Congress  during  the  fiscal  years  from  1868  to  1895.  The 
actual  expenses  never  exceeded  the  appropriations  and  the  revenue 
was  generally  below  them. 

NO.    I. — REVENUE    AND    EXPENSES    OF    THE    FEDERAL    GOVERNMENT    OF 
MEXICO    IN    1808    AND    FROM    1822    TO    JUNE    30,    1867. 


1808,  Colonial  period 

1822,  Independence  period. . . 

1823 

1824 

1825  to  Sept.  1st  

Sept.  I,  1825,  to  June  30,  1826 

1826-27 

1827-28 

1828-29 

1829-30 

1830-31 

1831-32 

1832-33 

1833-34 

1834-35 

1835-36 

1836-37 

1837-38 

1839 

1840 

1841 

1842 

1843 

1844 

1845 

1846 

1847 

C848  to  June  30.  1849 

1849-50 

1850-51 

1851-52 

1852-53 

1853-54 

1854-55 

1855-56 

1856-57 

1857-58 

1858-59 

1859-60 

1860-61 

1861-62 

1862-63 

1863-64 

1864-65 

1865-66 

1866-67 


$20,075, 

9.32S, 

5.249. 

15.254, 

7.903. 

14,770. 

17.017, 

13,644, 

14.593, 

14.103, 

18,392. 
17,582, 
20,563, 
21,124, 

18,353, 
26,382, 

17.327, 
25,018. 
29,136, 
21,227. 

23.995^ 
30,682. 

34,138. 
31.873 
24.159 
24,026 
26,154 
25,726 
18,281, 

U.955 
11,022, 
10,044 
19,028 

26,259, 

15,855: 
16,035 

15,529 

14.737 

14,306 

12,863 

15,500 

17,600 

7,000 

5.950 

5.057 

8,092 


362  25 
740  00 
858  96 
601  03 
163  42 
733  30 
016  59 
974  69 
307  69 
773  23 
134  96 
929  15 
360  77 
216  81 
283  00 
303  90 
706  15 
121  77 
536  64 
263  43 
766  52 
369  40 
581  72 
,019  47 
,050  04 
,938  36 
,222  84 
,737  23 
.835  38 
>535  73 
,291  17 
,2g8  40 
,975  00 
,970  45 
.597  47 
,609  81 
,887  47 
,763  76 
,675  23 
,500  00 
,000  00 
000  00 
000  00 
000  00 
500  00 
000  00 


EXPENSES. 


M3. 455, 377  00 
3,030,878  50 
15,165,876  05 
13,110,187  24 
13,112,200  65 
16,364,218  36 
12,982,092  86 
14,016,978  27 
13,728,491  39 
17,601,289  67 
16,937,384  67 
22,392,607  go 
19,934,490  42 
12,724,686  62 
17,766,262  81 
19,181,138  95 
26,588,305  03 
27,318,729  73 
21,235,097  67 
22,997,220  18 
30,639,711  00 

34,035,277  13 
31,260,225  87 
19,584,812  91 
27,845,487  28 
31,251,467  91 
19,742,876  48 
17,291,233  25 
14,477.369  06 
10,475,686  10 
16,287,532  90 
18,726,088  00 
23.396,074  75 
12,920,257  65 
12,977,265  90 
15,927.102  01 
16,005,536  45 
16,589,034  47 
12,750,500  00 
15,300,600  00 
17.595.690  00 
6,990,000  00 
5,945,000  00 
5,053,250  00 
8,085,200  CO 


140 


statistical  IRotes  on  /IDcjico. 


o 

C3 


s 
o 

H 

;z; 

M 

S 
^; 
PS 

> 
O 

o 

-<; 
u 

>< 

u 
X 
H 

o 


to  N  >-i   m  r^  in  cJ^oo  N  c^O  «nco  co 
0»-^'^ir>vr)>-<c<>-.00N0OC> 

< 

0 

CO   "^-co  00  CO    0  "H 

0  N  M  CO  I^CO  in 
>-i    0     0     M    t   >/1  t^ 

00   -+'!fij-jvO   M    w    o»r^co  xooo 
1^0  CO   1^  0    C>0    0  -t  1^  0  ^   fO  w 
oocnco  wcooocw   r^O   'J-oo  ino  m 

>0  r»  >n  c)  CO  0  vC 
CO  vO  ■-  N  r^co  0 
t^QO    u-)0    C^  c<->  rj 

i-^  c)   in  in  vO   ►-I   m'  0   c<    0   f  1   0  CO    0> 
rocHN   int«-)-rN   '-I    0    -t  OvO    m  in 

„     «     N.     M     M     M     N 

•~    i-i    CO  000    -tvC    NO    too    >-i    'S- 

^ 

1)  -o 


C^O  CO  m  fO  CO  C) 


oo  C^'TC^M  r^O  O"  m 
t-ih-  t^r^r~i-.oo  "  inoo 
T'^infi   c<^oo   -t-+Pi   '-' 

O   u~i^o  CO  CO    O    f»   O    "-I    "+ 


coO'^i^NvO  t^in 


O  O  00  invO  "^  N 
vO  O  inO~5*^C<oo  m 
MvO   -^vO   ininO   m 


CO  0>w  tOO^r^MCO  coinooo  i-i  ■+  OvC  00  N  rf 
O  Tt-r^w  00  i^u-jh-i  »nt^c>0^0  Nco  C^o  m 
N   mOO   inw   i^Om   moo   i-<coo   n   cnw    cT-m 

r-^  o'  "Oo'  C>o"  -t  CO  o'co'  w'  c<  in  ei*  rf  t-^  rf  cTvO 
O  3D  M  mO  CO  r^co  N  C^  c<i  O^  CT>co  i—  O  O  O  m 
00   O  mincOM   O   1-1   'too   -to   in  in  t^  ■^1-1   e<   O 


CO  't 
c*~j  ir 
in  c< 


O  incoo  O  c^OO  to^^  t<^ci  t^vO  mr^O  '-'  f^ 
COC*  r^C)  roa>c<-)-t  00  vO>-ivDi-ivOO-tM«n 
i^  en  r^vO  CO   (:>i^ini-i   cnf<  c^Ttc*   mo   c>Oi-i 


O   in 

mo 
r^  t 


cot^Oi-iNl^O'-''tN>-coooini^inMi^Tj- 


r-»0  ' 
4^ 


>-<  r^  O  ro  rn  -t  t~» 
t<-  o  00  en  r^  CO 
r^oo    o  c<   O   coo 

cooo  r--0  fj"  C>  O^ 
00  CO  C^  CO  CO  Tt  CO 
N   »tO  O   CO  0<  O 

o'  CO  cT  ei  cTcT  ^f 


X  13 

W  5 


1-1  w  O  -t  C>0  O  00  coco  -t  inco  N  r-  o  o  M  i^  ^ 
co-t-t'troini-H  M  O  cofJO  O-tO^OO  ►-i  cot^ 
C^c^oOf^'-lC^c^coOl-'•-•OOco^^c>oO•^ 
Oco  cOinG^O  t^OCO  C)  wo  C>coO  inininMco 
O  i^  coco  CO  O  00  O  t^  w  coco  CO  0  CO  f^  fi  O  CO 
MOOfJr^Oinc^-t-  t-~co    O^O   «   c<   rtN    O^r^-t 

-t  COi. 


M  -to  -to  -tr^w  P>  inr^r^^coii  ln-tlnC^ln 
M  Ot^coco  i^t^O  -tvncoc>M  Oino  cooo  'I" 
corto   r^coO    O   int^ino    OO    O    OO    "^cc    inO 

in  O  ^00  N  r^woo  wO  com  C>0  O  w  O  O  O  C^ 
incj  r~-00  Moo  —  -tco  O  coco  o  in  m  O  co  MO 
cot^O   r^"+co  —  CO   r^O   -tMf^-tcovOO    0^"-i    C^ 


CO  00  i-i  M  cotino  r^oo  00  w  M  co-tmo  r^oo 
00  r^r^r^r^i^r^i^r^r^r^cocococococooococo 
cococococococooococococococooococococooooo 


2^ 


IRevenue  an&  Bipenses. 


141 


10 

M 

CO 

^ 

t/1 

M      (T 

0 

10 

0  m 

■«• 

>o 

•^  « 

0 

«»' 

«» 

ON 

H     fV-i 

m 

■*  0 

«D     M 

00 

<*>• 

O   O" 


t^   CO       M 


10   M      M 

"*COCO 

o  r^  -^ 


H  ■'t-co  I  m 


00   o  Tt- 
000   ro 


m  g  »-. 

"-•^  o.  t 

rC  o  d^ 

o  ip  « 

•^  CO 

4& 


^3    ^ 


roco  ^ 
00  ro  a» 


t^co 


cooo  m 

c^i  en  -^ 
o-oo  m 
«  o-co 


■*  rN.vo     o 


c>  ij->  -'f! 


a>  c  c 
>  rt  5 
t>  o  o 


(i:j2; 


1)    c    g 

S  So 


M  c  a 
>  «  g 
<o  o  o 


V  c  a 

>  ■«  o 
u  o  ° 


DCS 


>  5 

I 


142 


statistical  IRotes  on  /IDejico. 


00 


o 

CO 
VO 
00 


■>  t1 

^ 

0  vo  0 

^c  CO  m\c 

1  0   ^ 

00  -Tf  mvo  r^oc 

■<-■«■- 

>0  T   m  N 

K   1 

00   N  O   t^r^oro-i   oro  t^vo  O  oo   O   m  oo   ►-'   N   -^oo   m  «  cxi  vo  fO  o* 

coNfONMO-^N   u-)00   Moooo    roOx>    r^rOK^M    0*0  OO  "tf-  1^  rn  :> 
CO   rooc    :.   c^wroo   mioOO-rnC   O<n"^0   mm      co>c    -Ta-ts* 

.o 

J 

<^ 

< 

■*  -^  ooo  CO  "O  ■*  M  Ooo  00  »oco   t*.  *-•  n  IT)  co^o  0   rs.  i*".  o  r^  t^  '^  0 

tC 

ON  r>.roromM  o  moo  -^on  m  <-'  »i  no   ror^N^O   m  r^^o   m  - 

? 

NO  moo  o  o  o  "-  oo  oo  0  t^oo  >-<  n  c   r^co  o  m  cs  IT)  t^  yf  ri  m^o  *o_ 

.0. 

CO  oo  o'nn  m-*^-^ifto  nToo*"  m  »n  rC  o"  inoo"  «  ^'oo'vo'oo'oo  w'  -^  in 

^ 

-*  w  WNNN  N  wN  M  NM  N«  N  mp.mmmmmmm'4-'^'«^ 

«»- 

c^ 
<» 

VO  N  oo  N  N  N  «  "^oo  m  N  OO  m  N  moo  00  O  O  '^r^r-r-^tvts.c*  « 
00  O'<rmmmo«»o  -^roo  ^  o«-  m  -oooo  on  ■^mo  m»o  oo  m 

■<■ 

m 

Omvom  «  «N  (.,^0  irtN  0'^^  moo  n  Tj-mTj-in'j  m«  •-  moo  m 

•s 

!5 

**»  m  0  Q  0  N  <;   **-oo  -^  1-co  *c  m  r-  u-j^o   mM  omON  oco  ^oo 

O  O  m^O  ^O    vorx)    t^NvO    t^mOO    ■^mr-^'+r^'^w'O    O    -^0^0^0 

«3 

0. 

•a 

0    t^  m  •<)-  n-  N    N    --l-OO  00  oo    -d-O  CO    -"I-  N    N  00    OVO    N    O^  00    "^  OCO 

0. 

c 
n 

\n\o  ■«j--<i-'*iommO'Hco  ooo  ^  ^  mmm  moo  oo  '*■  m  moo  n  rs. 
■^  "^  T  "^^  "1. 1*^,  "2^1  °°^  ^  4.  ^^,  "^  "T.  ",  "1-  'O  '^  't  t^,^"^  ^  '^ 

t^ 

00  \0  00    CT  0    CT  d"  CT  cTncToO  00    OOO'OO'^OO  oo"  NM'mmN"«N    N    M    0 

0 

M 

4^                     M.MM«^-M                                                                              MN-M«M-*MH.MM 

r^ 

_^ 

^ 

■*oo  O  0  0   m-^ON  «\o  r^smmr^Moo  mco  i^-^oo-   m   o  m 
«  Ocooooo  t^o  t>.«-iVO  mmm  (^^  oo  e^ot^oON  oco^o  woo 

0 

a-o 

vON(NNNoorsO^  -^^o  o  omr^«-oo   ■<*-mt-«  mO  r^mw  mo 

M 

^  ^ 

NNON  N30   1-  t^rs.m-   -   ooo  hvvo  m  -^oo  o  moo  o  o  o  0  ts. 
t^  p>.  «  o  ovo  mo  ooo  -VO  mmN  t-c   -^mmmN  on  ■^m 

>.  >- 

<> 

-o 

S-!:! 

mo  N  mm  —  VO  ommM  mvo  moo  vo  roN  m'^oo  mN  ^^  o  Q 
^  tN.\o  ■^^■•J-(N  mr^m-  o  ovo  b*  -^^o  0  mvo  \o  m'-vo  mmoo 

M  00  mvo  »o  0  0  -  N  t^co  oo  m  M  »o  o  ooo  *o  »o  o_  m  m  -^co  m  o^ 

'0 

£3 

m-^'^'^-^m"*-'^'^"4-'«?m-»?'<t-'*-<f**-'"o'^-'f''-«^'-'"^'^N-^ 

fn 

<«■                                                                                                                                                     --MM-M^MNN 

1 

g^.- 

0.  N.O     - 

•rO-JS 

10  o-  w   r^ 

m 

r<i  ul  M    c 

3*^   O 

o  c.a 

000  «   ./-. 

.8* 

m  -^  CJ  -.J 

■*  ■.?  ro  -^ 

t^ 

o.s- 

«©■ 

«& 

li 

88r:i;?:^8  88^8  8  888888  JC^^'.^S^S.Sm^t 

^^     ! 

s 

N   0   "H   t-*   M   r^c*   m'^O   0   «   p^r^mOOoovON   0   "^*o  »o   •*  ■*  o 
moo  c^  -   •-  CO   t>.  moo   0   mNr^Nooo   r-N-   mmmw   omM   - 

« 

S 

0 

o  rt 

O  -   r^  ^  Tj-oo    r'o*   mo   mr--0vov0v0^oc    r-MM   -<j-mrf-;M   o_  -^vo 

N 

a. 

s-s 

cTvo"  tJ^mmrCrCmc5"'^N"od""*^»-*'t^'-'  ©""oo '''^'  m  m  o"  n"  •-"  n"  m 

tC 

< 

OO-^mmmN  (n   r^t^ts.   >j-  t^^o   mNmmo«\0   -^m   t^mN   m 

.£> 

N  0   mmmm-vo   0   t^f^oo  m-   mM  i-  mO  "*•  o  -^  mvo  ooo  »0 

0_ 

M 

n"  m  ■<?■  ■^  *»■  '"f  m  mvd^  vi  is  *^  mvo"  tC  -'^'oo  n  -^  m^o  rC 

C> 

» 

o  o 

«» 

<©• 

K'2  8;Sg:g;(g8ggv8gS8888c^?8K2§.|fv8:f5; 

tN. 

"O    _! 

^ 

s| 

0   m  rN.  t^  r^  t^oo  mmmmN  mo   mooovo   m   o  "^•-«  nvo  mN  T^ 

-*. 

'if  -^oo  N  N  N  o  m  m  M   mvo   >*-  n  t^  m  «   tv.oo  mO   r^r^mM  mN 

\cvo_m-^-^M   omomooo  moo  '*fmr>.mooo  n  -^  ovo   n  vo^oo 

o  ^ 

o"  iC  -4-  o  O  m  o'  cf  vcT  m'  0*^  m  -^f  n"  m  m  -^  N  m'oo  i-T  o  m  o  rC  -^f  tC 

.o 

'5   3 

00  m-^t^r^t-^OM  o  o-   o   r^mM  -^j-mmmON  momm-    -^ 

m  r^oo  oocccooo  ooon  >-«  i-r  mN  n   n  n  -^m-^m  mvo  vo  vo  m 

^3 

«>                                                            M-  «    M    m'  m'  kT  m"  m'  -    m'  -T  m'  -"  «    m'  m'  m' 

m 
«» 

O-^'^OOOOi/^NOOOO   moo  mt^oo   0   0   OOVOQOO 
ooo  «  mmmN  m-vo  -"i-mt^  mco  t^  r^  m   n  m  ooo  r^  t^  o  n  t^ 

»■ 

* 

0  ONvcvovo  M  m-   m  m^o  o  r^oo  t'^  mvo  o  n  ooo  ovo  m   m  - 

M 

_o 

00  o  -   "tf-  TOO  m  t-  mvo  ooo  o-   i^«   «   noo  n  n  r^omo-^ 

CO 

Ovo^m-^t-'co^i-^-^Oi-^-^iN  N\o   •-  mwvc  m.o   m-vcco  "-^.f^t^ 

t^ 

u 

m  rC  rCvo'vo   m  -*■  m  n  n  m'co  ■*■  n"  m  m  o  "-^  rCvo"vD'  moo  c5"  ■*  o  o" 

^ 

«  m  •*  N  N   t^  mvo  ovo  w  CO  t-^  m  mco  m  -*■  n  vo  o  m  r-^oo  vo  mvo 

c 

O  '^^  -^vo  so  t^ooo  N  m-^m-   nn  m-'fN  ^  m  mvO  -^f  m  -<»■  m 
—  —  MMWMH-wNWNNNmmmmmmmmmfowNNN 

00 

i 

8888888888888888  85  8.2  8  ?.^^^£  ^ 

s* 

OOQOOOOOQOOOQOOOONvOOmmt^moOiO 
Tj-  -ij-\5  vOvOvOvOVOvOvOvOVOVOvOOOCOOO^    N    moO    O  -  CO    t^^o  vo 

!? 

'S  rt 

in  m  -   -   M   m  moo  m  m  vo  vo  "^vo  n  mvo   t^  t^  o  r^vo  m  -^  m  m  o 

l< 

■^ocT  o"  o"  cT  o"o<r  S  ^  <>  mvcToo"  iCvo"  tC  tCco'  cC  ^.^  ^f  pT  n"oo  o  mvo" 
«  '<s-  m  m  mvo  -*  o  ooo  o  t^  n  m   mvo  r*s  »-.  m   m  m  mvo  m  o  m  m 

«  w  M  «  «  N  N  N  M  w  i-i  M  N  mmmm'^^'^'**-*-mmiom 

00^ 

H 

8  8  8  8  8  8  8  8  8  8  8  8  8  8  8  8  8  acg  8  5KS'g>8.8-&. 

t^ 

^ 

O  ovo  VDVOOO    ON    N    N    N    t-*t^r>.mmf>.  ooo    O  O  Ooo  00  CO  00    t^ 

N  0  o  o  a^"^  '^N  ON  ocooo  o  mvo  vo  mmoo  ooot^O  o  ^ 

r. 

.2 

!3 

■<• 

oo  m  0  O  0  -  moo  00  00  n  t^  m  o  ovo  o  n  vo  o  -^  moo  vo  oo  oo  oo 

1^ 

"O 

covooooooo  Om  n  n  n  m-^m  r^co  o  n  m  m  mvo  vo  'O  e^  t^.  tN.  t^. 

■*N  N  «  N  «  mmmmmmmmm'*-<i-'*-'«f'*'<f'^'*-«r'*'^'* 

>-> 

♦*                                                                                                                                    m' 

4» 

8  8^^§-S-§-S-5-5.^§.3.S-5.^§.a&if2'^i?g8gS. 

V 

.o 

'ft 

OmNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNM-vOCOOOtN.r>.t^t^ 

.0 

u 

CO  N   t^rs.t^r^r^r^t^r*.rs.fnmmmmmmm''»--*-^'^r^t-Hr^tN. 

M 

3 

00  m-   ►-  '-  «   •-  "-  M  -  m^Dcccocroooo  n  mooooooco  oooo 

O' 

> 

o 

NVOOOOOOOOOOOCOOOOOCOOOOOODOOOOCO    OO'CT'O^O'OO'O'O^O^ 

■«• 

^ 

a> 

m'r'»■'^■*'*•^■<»■^■*'fl•'*^-■^-4-■*'«••*'*'^^'*■*■♦'^■♦'^»^ 

O 

X 

«> 

f^ 

a< 

Pd 

8  88:8  8  8888  2  885 

SS 

!888::'^RS-S.S.g.'888 

4J 

00a^O00O^^0O^N«NC«Nw«■.^  moD  Cso  0  .O  00  oo  00 

00 

0 

r^  fnvO   O-O-vO  M   N   fOroNCO-*  r^.o   «   ^    c>  ^co   0   0   0  .o  .o  .o 

rt 

1^  1^  t^OO  0000C000O.0O0O«0C00000000000 

0. 

"1 

m 

<^                   ►T^r    m"    m"    t^s^t^t^t^t^j^t^t^j^t^t^ 

.0 

^ 

«*■- 

a>  6  -'  «  m  ■<■  .«.o  t^co  o.  d  M  «  t»i  4-  .no  i^co  o-o  <- 

«  A4.A 

J  u) 

\0   t^t^r^rvr^P^.^P«.r^  t^OD  OOOOOOOOCOODOOCOCO    c*a>oo^oo. 

<   OS 

OOroaOrocOCO'MOTMtW—rCM^C^raOTOOOOCOMTOOOMCOOOOO 

2 

£  '2 

TTVTTTTTTTTVTTTTI'TVTTTTTTTV 

00   a.  0   «   «   (^  ■*  .n^c    r^'o   o*  0   -   N  m  •*  ir-o   1^00  O"  0   .^   «   fO  -*• 

0 

tt  > 

voo   r^r>t^t^l^r^r^r^r^  r^no  -^0000000000:^000)   0.0*00^0. 

H 

0  0 

-  ' 

oa 

50 

5  a 

5  0 

D  a 

5  01 

3  C< 

0  a 

30 

r-£«« 

'-■i 

" 

""^ 

-""">' 

IRevenue  anD  B^penses.  143 

Sources  of  Revenue. — The  Federal  revenue  of  Mexico  consists  mainly 
of  three  sources  :  import  duties,  internal  revenue,  and  direct  taxes  in 
the  Federal  District.  Under  the  head  of  import  duties  we  collect  du- 
ties on  imports,  extra  import  duties  which  we  call  additional  duties, 
and  duties  on  exports. 

The  sources  of  revenue  of  the  Mexican  Federal  Treasury  during 
the  fiscal  year  1895- 1896,  were  : 

Imposts  on  foreign  trade $23,658,692  61 

Internal  revenue 20,447,096  42 

Direct  taxes  in  the  Federal  District  and 

Territories 3, 357, 61 1  81  , 

Public  services 1,81 1,045  3° 

Nominal i,955,3oi  94  ' 

Total $5 1,229,748  08 

Import  Duties. — Our  tariff  is  a  highly  protective  one,  as  we  have 
always  maintained  a  very  high  rate  of  import  duties,  almost  prohibitory 
for  a  large  portion  of  our  population,  which  under  such  a  system  are 
practically  excluded  from  the  use  of  foreign  commodities,  to  the  ma- 
terial detriment  of  the  fiscal  revenue,  the  public  wealth  at  large,  and 
the  advancement  of  the  masses  of  our  people.  The  causes  which  have 
induced  such  a  high  tariff  are  twofold  :  first,  that,  in  a  great  measure, 
protective  ideas  have  prevailed  ;  secondly,  and  especially,  the  need  of 
revenue,  and  the  idea  that  the  higher  the  rate  of  duties  the  larger  would 
be  the  revenue  collected.  A  new  source  of  protection  has  been  cre- 
ated by  the  depreciation  of  our  currency,  which  acts  as  a  powerful 
protection  to  our  home  commodities,  in  favor  of  our  manufacturers  to 
the  disadvantage  of  the  great  body  of  consumers. 

The  protective  policy  in  Mexico  has  been  so  deeply  rooted  that 
notwithstanding  that  I  lean  to  freer  trade,  and  that  I  have  been  three 
times  at  the  head  of  the  Treasury  Department,  and  once  for  five  years, 
I  never  was  able  to  modify  substantially  that  policy,  because  the  con- 
dition of  the  Treasury  was  so  precarious,  that  it  would  have  been  very 
rash  to  attempt  any  radical  change  on  the  face  of  a  great  reduction  of 
an  insufficient  revenue  which  would  have  brought  about  disastrous  re- 
sults. For  the  same  reason  I  was  unable  to  do  away  with  the  obnox- 
ious alcabala  tax. 

Our  present  tariff  is  divided  into  the  following  sections  :  ist,  animal 
industry  ;  2d,  agricultural  products  ;  3d,  metals  and  its  manufactures  ; 
4th,  fabrics  ;  5th,  chemicals,  oils,  and  paints  ;  6th,  wines,  liquors,  and 
fermented  drinks  ;  7th,  paper  ;  8th,  machinery  ;  9th,  carriages  ;  loth, 
arms  and  explosives,  and  iilh,  sundries. 


144 


Statistical  IRotes  on  /IDejico. 


Additional  Ii?iport  Duties. — The  additional  duties  collected  by  the 
Custom-houses  are  i  J  per  cent,  of  the  amount  of  the  import  duties, 
which  is  levied  for  the  respective  municipality  ;  2  per  cent,  of  the  same 
duties,  for  harbor  improvements  ;  and  2  per  cent,  in  revenue  stamps, 
making  in  all  5g  per  cent,  of  the  import  duties.  The  custom-houses 
collect  besides  the  import  duties,  tonnage  and  light-house  duties,  and 
pilot  fees. 

Export  Duties. — Our  export  duties  are  levied  upon  cabinet  and  dye- 
woods,  india  rubber,  cochineal,  coffee,  henequen,  ixtle,  indigo,  fequila, 
jalap,  tamarind,  tobacco,  mother-of-pearl,  orchilla,  vanilla,  zacaton, 
and  onyx. 

The  following  statement  shows  the  amount  of  export  duties  col- 
lected in  Mexico  from  the  fiscal  year  1881-1882  to  1894-1895,  ex- 
pressing the  commodities  in  which  they  were  collected  : 

STATEMENT    OF   THE   RECEIPTS    FROM  EXPORT  DUTIES  IN   MEXICO    FROM 
JULY    I,    1881,    TO    JUNE    30,    1895. 


FISCAL   YEAR. 


1881-1882 
1S82-1S83 
1SS3-1S84 
1884-1885 
18S5-1S86 
1S86-1S87 
1887-1888 
1888-1889 
I 889-1 890 
1S9O-189I 
189I-1892 
1892-1893 
1893-1S94 
I894-1895 


$122, 
144- 

1 79. 

161, 

107, 

106, 

114. 

81, 

98. 

86, 

96 

91 

1,045 

1,227 


462  24 

597  93 
439  97 
811  47 
484  80 
859  63 
S69  04 
S49  25 
386  12 
859  86 
560  48 
475  54 
105  44 
719  24 


COMMODITIES   TAXED. 


Orchilla,  wood. 


Orchilla,  wood,  henequen,  coffee. 
Orchilla,  wood,  henequen,  coffee,  skins, 
zacaton,  chewing  gum,  ixtle,  vanilla. 


Amoutit  of  Import  Duties. — It  is  very  difficult  to  give  a  correct  state- 
ment of  the  receipts  of  the  Mexican  custom-houses  before  the  year 
1875.  I  append,  however,  one  made  from  the  reports  of  the  Secre- 
taries of  the  Treasury  of  Mexico,  especially  those  of  July  25,  1839, 
and  September  16,  1870,  and  completed  from  the  years  1839-185 1, 
with  data  obtained  from  the  Comercio  exterior  de  Mexico^hy  D.  Miguel 
Lerdo  de  Tejada.  From  the  fiscal  year  1 875-1876,  the  Statistical 
Bureau  of  our  Treasury  Department  began  to  publish  detailed  and 
correct  statements  of  the  custom  receipts,  and  I  append  one  embracing 
the  fiscal  years  from  1875  to  1896  which  shows  how  largely  our  im- 
port duties  have  increased.  In  the  ten  years  elapsed  from  1878  to 
1888  the  increase  was  over  67  per  cent,  as  compared  with  the  corre- 


IRevenue  anD  Bjpenses*  145 

spending  period  from  1869-1879,  and  the  increase  in  the  last  seven 
years,  1889-1896,  was  16  per  cent,  as  compared  with  the  previous  ten 
years,  both  periods  making  an  increase  of  nearly  100  per  cent,  over  the 
first  ten  years  of  said  statement  : 

CUSTOMS    RECEIPTS    FROM    1823    TO    THE    FISCAL    YEAR    ENDING 
JUNE    20,    1875, 

1823.  From  April  ist  to  September  30  the  receipts  were 
$971,345  77,  which  for  a   year   of    12    months 

would  be $1,942,691  54 

1825.  From  the  ist  of  January  to  the  ist  of  August, 

1825,  the  receipts  were  $4,472,069  37,  which  for 

a  year  of  12  months  would  be 7,666,404  63 

1825-1826  From  the  ist  of  September,  1825,  to  June, 

1826,  $6,414,383  26,   which   for  a   year   of    12 

months  would  be 9,621,574  89 

1826-1827 7,828,208  44 

1827-1828 5,692,026  70 

1828-1829 6,497,288  93 

1829-1830 4,815,418  25 

1830-1831 8,287,082  92 

1831-1832 7,335,637  76 

1832-1833 7,538,525  47 

1833-^834 8,786,396  94 

1834-1835 8,920,408  28 

1835-1836 5,835,068  51 

1836-1837 4,377,579  52 

From  July  i,  1837,  to  December  31,  1838,  $4,258,411  10. 

Corresponding  to  one  year  of  12  months 2,83^,940  73 

1839 5,57 7,890  67 

1840 8,309,918  65 

1841 6,597,912  32 

1842 6,034,342  29 

1843 8,507,478  79 

1844 8,254,141  96 

1845 5,814,048  69 

1846 6,747,932  35 

1847 1,394,609  52 

From  January  i,  1848,  to  June  30,  1849,  ^8  months.. .  6,660,037  96 

From  July,  1849,  to  June,  1850 6,338,437  50 

1850-1851 5,337,068  62 

From  July  I,  1851,  to  June  30,  1852 6,108,835   26 

1852-1853,  according  to  the  calculations  of  M.  Haro  y 

Tamariz  average  from  the  preceding  five  years.  4,906,533   17 


VOL.  1 — 10 


146  Statistical  Botes  on  /iDcjico. 

1853-1854,  according  to  the  report  of  M.  Olazagarre 

(1S55) 8,399,208  93 

1854-1855,  according    to  the  report  of  M.  Lerdo  de 

Tejada  (1857) 8,096,208  85 

1855-1856,  according  to  the  report  makes  the  receipts 

for  the  first  six  months  amount  to  $3,379,761  35, 

which  for  the  year  is 6,759,522  70 

1856-1857,  average  for  the  six  years  previous 6,854,061  78 

1857-1858          "             "           "                "          6,854,061  78 

1858-1859          "             "           "                "          6,854,061  78 

1859-1860          "             "           "                "         6,854,061  78 

1860-1861           "             "           "                "          6,854,06178 

1861-1862          "             "           "                "          6,854,061  78 

1862-1863          "             "           "                "          6,854,061  78 

1863-1864          "             "           "                "         6,854,061  78 

1864-1865           "             "           "                "          6,854,061  78 

1865-1866          "             "           "                "          6,851,061  78 

1866-1867          "             "           "                "          6,851,061  78 

1867-1868,  according  to  the  amount  of  the  receipts. .  . .  9,566,360  99 

1868-1869           "                      "                    "             9,606,491  73 

1869-1870 7^824,525  57 

1870-1871 10,014,277  60 

1871-18,"   8,430,211  00 

1872-1873 11,833,117  52 

1873-1874 13,981,795  42 

1874-1875 11,821,533  49 

ii<  t  '^  "■  "•  '.f; '' 

Total $367,725,836  01 

Average  in  one  year $7,071,650  69 

Internal  Revem^e. — The  Federal  Treasury  of  Mexico  depended 
up  to  1867  mainly  upon  import  duties,  and  as  it  was  not  safe  to  have 
only  that  source  of  revenue,  when  I  occupied  for  the  first  time  the 
Treasury  Department,  I  introduced  a  system  of  internal  revenue 
through  the  use  of  stamps,  which  met  with  a  great  deal  of  opposition 
at  the  time,  but  which  has  finally  been  developed  very  largely,  yielding 
now  almost  as  much  as  the  import  duties.  The  receipts  during  the 
six  months  from  January  1st  to  June  30th,  1875,  amounted  to  $1,097,- 
668  28,  which  in  a  whole  year  would  make,  duplicating  it,  $2,195, 
336  56,  while  in  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1896,  the  receipts 
amounted  to  $18,078,952  54,  or  nearly  eight  times  as  much. 

We  have  had  since  1861  a  comparative  large  source  of  revenue 
called  Federal  Tax,  which  up  to  1892  was  25  per  cent,  of  all  the  reve- 
nues collected  by  the  States  and  Municipalities  in  Mexico.     That  rate 


IReveuue  auD  Expenses. 


147 


VO 

^ 

m  c 

m  m  r*^  M 

00 

100 

t^  r-*  rN 

1  1- 

c 

-  -^  c< 

■^oc 

1     >^ 

U1 

„• 

t-^  «  00  vo   t^oo  oooOM\Ofn-^0'nt-vOMoon-,  oooooooo|    ^    | 

^ 

h 

■*  in  0  -^^  vo  CO  «  t>-  0  ■<*•  rv.00  0  -   m  ■*■  -"f  vo  0  «  m  0  o-x)  mvc 

00 

f. 

00   N  00  10  tr  0    N    m  inco  ^d  ^o  00    m^    roo    Ooo    t^r^r^u-)  00   in  t^  |     m  | 

.S" 

H  t^  q_  -H   c>  M   m\o_  m^o  ^■^^"^f^",  ^'^^<>f^«'^,  o;'^':;'^ 

vo 

^ 

rCc<r  m"  f^  r^,cQ  0  t^co'oo"  ro  rn  in  d"  -t-^o"  «"  k-'  i-T  c?.  »o  ro  o^oo"  c>  o"  c 

r^ 

&* 

0  rn  in^o  t^  '^  -^vo  -o  ^  0*0   m  r-s  ro  m  w 'O^  m  m  inoo   (^  '^  a;oo  "^  j    ^  I 

0, 

00  cToToo  0  000  00'  pT  o>  m"  rn  tC  rCvd"  ■«?■  ro  10  r^  tC  rrco  00"  in  '■f  tC  m 

0- 

1- 

:i      s 

^^                        M                                 M               „MMMI-IMHMMN.M«MMHM« 

p) 

M 

Z 

«©• 

z 

ll 

\0«  inmo  oooM  w^o  (Minr>-'r%in'-'   tj-m   inwovo   roi>.  000  1/ 

^1    00     1 

0)       1 

1    bs 

00  0  00  00  0*00  ■*  o^vo  t^  m  moo  mM'-'OOt^'-'inooooi    ■*] 

00 

0 

S  2 

tN-NMcOO'-nt^^o   t^^  (^  w  t^^o  >OMooc>NqCT»Cfn'^Nt^       0 

p 

cu  a 

in  in  in  in  in  t^  t^^o  vd  t^'o  *o«ot^t^6^«  d  d^do*o^d'-'MO^^^|  00   1 

ol 

u 

V 

3 

0 

(J 

0 

1       1 

0  M  «  0  0  ^  t^  tv.00  inin^OOQM-^OO  rorn  mvo  O  moo  m  m  1   00    1 
ON  m  -^  ONoo  t^oi<N«N«nMvoMOMi-ioo«  moo  M  0  m\o  ts.  |    c^  | 

H 

-£ 

10 

voco   0  o-vDoo   M  roc.:'  -^mw  0   w  oo\roo  tN.00  o  t^  t^  N   moc 

0 

o\ 

^  3 

*t«   O-^orom'*  000  -om-^j-rj    t-%-rho    -    N    ro^O    m  m    0  m    '^  r^  |     ts.  1 

vo 

b 

3.t: 

fow^o   0   mO   '^O   '^■oo  m  0   "^^  ■<^'-   0   ^  '^   ■-   »-   -^(n   n-c>«H 

0 

c-o 

■)        vo 

t^ 

ovo  t^mt^M  ofnM  M   ij-i^-^ovo  0  -^ON  OM  r^ooN  w  cj 

« 

o< 

0_, 
4% 

<» 

xo  M  mt^fo-*-w  0  m^  0  «  ■*  tvvo  '«^NC^'^Mu-)c^'^^H«M■^J-|    a-i 

00 

£ 

vo   t^Mvo  mmrommw   t^co  0  ^  «   t^oo  o^m   hod  t^M  on  m\c 

CO 

M  rn  M   -^^oo  ro'O  r^  0   t^oo  n  1-   om«  mr^mt^o   «vo^o  m   01/ 

^        ^ 

t^ 

m  m  r^  0    -1-  "^00   t^  m  h-  <n   «    ro  r^  rooo   -    m   ^    m    ^00   t^  O-oo   O  1/ 

l-'l 

^ 

M 

10  0  t^  «   m  >-    t^vo  comMio'i-MNm  invo  \OMlOMrnmN■i^^l/ 

1      vo 

00 

< 

u 

Hi 

d"  '^  cT  '^  0^  tC  0  0  "t-  ro'd'  tCco"  tC  tCco"oo   0  -^  c^r  d"  N    tC  t^  w'  -.f  1    vd"   1 

ift 

f- 

Moovo  -^0  M  t^M   '^MD  invo  -<*•  m  CN   0   0   -^oo   t>.  in  m  -   m  000  ?i 

CO     , 

a* 

0 

K 

mco^  0_  M  rn  M_  1-^  en  ^  ^  t^\0_  -^  q_  t;vq_  h  m  «   f^  m  oco  moo  vo^  -^  1     0   1 

H 

Vi 

<:oOo-0'¥^oS<y'rnOc^  -^co  dNrCinintCodveTc^d"  tCvd"  c?  ro       ei 

in 

(A 

H                   MM                   mmmmmmmm^mWmNNMmmmCN 

0 

0 

<^ 

«» 

<© 

h^m'^  0  0  om«  mrs.rN»fnt^^^^N.^NO  m-'t-mN^ooo  -^m  moc 

vo    1 

■a- 

w   M   t^romomN  -^0*0  0  ■^■^O'  -^oo  "O   0  «  ^  00  -i-  mvo  '^  -^  [     m  ) 

-o 

M  0  0  Q  «  fo  (^  -t-vo  -^00  mmM   0-  -^oo  o«vo  0  0  m  0  0  h 
0  o\  ^   0   '<rt-H'^N   N   r^M  incN   r^mMOO  mvo   'i-oo  mvD   t^  m  \o  vc 

m 

CO 

o> 

<i 

m  «  m  t^  0  00  CO  00  vo_  -^vo  «  m  ■*  -^co   ■«*-qo  00  00  m  ro  m  ^r  m   moc 

1   °: 

0 

H 

d^  rn  •«?  m  m"  -^ko  o^d"  m  ^^Soo  «"  0  m"  rCvd"  >F  -"co  vd"\d'  m"  tC  tCcc 

'   1    vo    ' 

o- 

i^t^^^oo  m«  miHooyD   moovo  r^vo  0   O  m  co  000  0  0\  m  m  t^  1    ■*  ; 

■* 

«     -*  0  0  00  00    t>.  0  0  00    OCO    C^-^MMMMM                                         0«c 

vo 

«» 

f~  i 

«^ 

!  <©■ ! 

mc^O   N   0  N  mr^c^O  m-^mNvooo  '^m  mcc 
t>.'*t^ovo  movQv  ■'i-oo  vo  0  N  w  00  '^  mvo  ■«-  -^ 

m~' 

(^ 

.a" 

f        0 

« 

vo   0^    t^fi    t^r^OM    -^oov  ovo   0  0   m  0   0   H 

t^ 

m 

H 

m  m  «   t^  moo  c>  m  m  00  mvo   -^co   »nvo  t-^  m  vo  vc 

S 

•a 

1^00   -^  «   r^oo  m  xtco   •* 00  00  00   m  m  m -^  m_  moc 

(J- 

a* 

a 

0 

eTvo  '^00  rC  c>  -*  c>  M*"  rCvd"  '4-  hToo  vo'vo"  m"  tC  tCa 

M   (N.  r->  0  -^  t^vo  0   0  "  CO  CJ^oo  o-  0  m  «   h 

2: 

00 

(i 

B 
0 
0 

MMMMMHW                                                    0«C 

Ov 

0 

B. 

X 

M 

<©■                                                                                                                                                        M-M-H 

^ 

4» 

t^  rn  N  0  0  a  m  r^vo  1^  m  m  m  -«*- 

crt 

f4 

«  M   t^romom-^orot^O  om 

'<■ 

3  w 

M  ON  0  0  N  fn  m  t^vo  1^  0  -  t--  m 
0  0  -   0   Tj-  t^  ifoo  00   -r  Ti-  «  m  r^ 

VO 

m 

VO 

vo 

IDC*  u^t^ooooo   0  t^O   m  m^o  co 

o__ 

Ov 

0  3 

0  ro  ■*  m  M  ^vo  t^  0  ■-  \o  00  00   tN. 

tN.t-^M\ooo  m«  mo   r^oo  moo  m 
rt^ooooco  t^o  0  0000  t^  m  m 

vo 

u  « 

•«*- 

£E 

4» 

<» 

o-  0  '-  t^  m  m  1^00  «  omot^O  ots.Mxo  0^  m  mvo  m  (^vo  vc 

pn 

1/^ 

mmmmw  mt^o  Om  0  t>.m«  *->  w  0  mnoo  r^  ovo  ^^  m  0  •- 

m 

0  ■*  0  ^^  o-  N  c^  m  m  0  0  moo  m  >-  000  0  t^  ^  m  in^  0  o-^ 
00  m'o   0   0*0   ■*■<*-«   Omvoo   oO(>.«m  -^-o  m  n  m   w  r^  m  c 

h       M 

vo 

t^ 

% 

00  \o  N  m  m  N  000  c*  M  m«  o^  t^  t^  m  0  t^t^w  mcooo  o\  ^  •-•vc 

•* 

rt 
0 

o-Moo  Ooo  m  0  om  aoo  000  mt^m"  m  -^w  -^mmmo  -^u 

^           Ov 

m  M  •*co  M  t>..  m  m  m  t^oo  mmo-^-vO  "<^t>.o  mvo  -   -^vo   m  t 

m 

Tf 

vO_ 

tC  000  00"  0  Soo  CO  n"  0  h"  m  tCocT  tCinmtCc>o«d^d"tC  inoo  c 

vn 

^ 

4^                               M                                 M               MMMMMMMMMM««MMMM(S 

0 

<@' 

in 

<S 

00  0  moo  00  om-^Moovovo  '«^M  m  0  i^o  m  Th\o  0  >^vo  00  0  " 

■1        0 

^ 

S 

• 

t>.mt^O  m-<j-o  M  Nco^o  -^mmo  onoo  nog  t>.mt^M\o  o-^ci 

■«■ 

H 

'rt 

fTjvo  0  M   r^vo  vo  mw  mmm-^i^mHcoco  O  mmr^o  '*mo^ 

0 

1^ 

5 

G 

000000  ci  mo   mmt^  m^o  oo'oc^'N  a>o   •--   m-^mo   ^vo  oi   0   "^ 

pi- 

Q 

0 

m^JD    MN'4-MOHinOO'-tvOwLr)  tncO    m^O    O'CO    m  ^VD  \o  ^O    f 

^        t^ 

h 

^ 

0   M  CO  m  ts.  t>.vo  mvo  *o  vo  00  m  m  mo  -^t^Mvo  woooo  0   -^  m  u 
M  mvO  M                                       vo-*«MMM«m  t>.vo  vo  vo  m  t^cc 

")        0^ 

0 

K 

0_^ 

t^ 

0 

•0 

< 

fo  -^  m 

<> 

«» 

a. 

^ 

S 

<»■ 

^ 

M  0  00  0  mvo  N  •*  M  w  t^  m  m  oco  t^  mvo  t^  «  t^  tN.  «  t^  ovo  «- 
vo  0  t^«oo  0  t>vOvt^mmm«oo  «  mw  m  nm  m  «  mtv  mvo  c 

ro 

m 

^       « 

<j> 

\o  CO  0  moo  mvo  m  -   t>-  ■'j-vo  ■-•  0  ^^c^0  0m«  cr  ^  mvo  vo  0^  h 

^ 

00 

■<fvo  M  c^  m  m  m  ovo  vo^o  mvo   rjocooo  mM  t^m  '•j-vo  t^  «  «  h 

0 

d 

Ot^-^N-OvOM-*  inoo  ■*  0^  rs  m  m  00  «   t^oo  t^  m  «  o^  m  ^ 

q; 

•c 

rt 

H 

vo  '^vo  00  -^  Q   0  CO   t^  00  CO  CO  M   fON   Ov«cooo  N   looo  *->  o  moo  r 
m  ovo  -^mo  oovo  -   mvo   Q   t^ONt*'  mvo  mw  «  r^mmM   mc 
0   0   -TO  me*  mmmmr^tN.q_M   n  noo  «  oor^"-.  ood  mt^T 

00 

^       -* 

t       '7 

Ov 

■^  m  '*oo  0  d^oo  ocT  cT  0^  M  m  t^-oo  tC  m  >r  tCoo  00  i-T  0*"  o'vo*"  m  tC  •- 

vo' 

ro 

M                                 M               MWMMMMMMHM«M«MMM^ 

t^ 

<» 

■»• 

< 

2 

E 

3 
C 

c 
« 

■^ 

>. 

M 

t^ 

< 

p  M  M  m  Tj-  u-)vo  r^co  0  0   M   «  m  '«*•  m\o  r^oo  0  0   m  n  m  -^  mv£ 

u 

t>.t^(^r^t^t^t^r^t>.  rv.00  rY>crj00C0O0OTCO00CO     OC^C^OOCT'C 

c 

0 

2 

CO^COCOCOCOCOCO'XICOCOOOCOCOCOCO^OOOCOCOCOCOOOOCOCOO' 

bt 

rt 
u 

k 

lI'   '  '''_L'  iTTTTT  1  TTTTTTTTTTTT" 

ov  0  -   N  m  'J-  mv^   r^co  0  0  m  «  m  ■*  mvo   t^co  c^  0   -<  a   m  ■*  u 

n      "5 

vo  r>tN.tN.t>*t^r>.f^t^t^  tN.00  COO0C03OCOCO0OOO00  0  0  0  0  O'  c 

^       0 

> 

or    -     -     -     "     " 

3  a 

I  ^ 

H 

3  a 

% 

" 

3  OC 

>oc 

a 

a 

oc 

H 

•< 

10  «1 

Ov 
4» 

0    ov 

?oS- 
oo_co 

0-* 
t^  m 

rCvo' 

oo'oo 

M 

« 

vd 

1^ 

CO 

m 

vo 

5S 

00  "J 

mvo 
vd" 

mo. 
000 

00     M 

co_^  t 

8?. 
si 

doo 
oo_  0; 

l8 

as 

0-  « 
t;  0 

o'oo" 
lo  0- 

dvvd 

vo    M 

mvo 

vd  in 
mvo 

$10,046,705  98 
1,004,670  60 

$3,784,182  80 
378,418  28 

CO    M 
-<-vo 

".  0. 

tC  m" 

M  m 
r^  m 

mm 
10  o- 

l| 
46' 

00  5- 
il-vo 

M,  0. 

tC  m" 

v8^ 

4» 

ov  ■^^ 
m  C3\ 

o-  m 

invo| 

vd  d 
(^  in 
invd 

vo  - 

^X-vo 

m  m 

d-f 

00'  d 

ts.    M 

H    M 

4» 

m  0 
hv  m 

?? 

N  vo 

o'oo 

CO^vo 

ST? 
0  (^ 

t^  -<J- 

00  r-H 
t^  0 

4» 

M     t^ 

t^  m 
m  r^ 

rC  m 

mvd 

vo     IH 

o- 1^ 
1^  o« 

m  -< 
o«  '4- 
♦  vo 

d  m   ! 

^?   1 
m  d 
m  M 

>   r 

«    C 

'^ 
rt 

n  >■ 
^1 

t 

< 

J 

jr 

c 

'1 

c 

] 

> 
< 

) 

1 

c 

1 

1 

OC 

OC 

S 

> 
< 

' 

148 


statistical  IRotes  on  /IDejico, 


was  increased  in  1S93  from  25  to  ^^^  per  cent,  on  account  of  the 
deficit  caused  to  the  Federal  Treasury  by  the  depreciation  of  silver, 
and  that  tax  which  is  paid  in  Federal  stamps,  constitutes  a  very  large 
portion  of  our  internal  revenue  receipts. 

I  append  a  statement  of  our  internal  revenue  taxes  with  full  details. 

INTERNAL    REVENUE    RECEIPTS    FROM    JANUARY     I,     1875,    ^O    JUNE    30, 

1896. 


FISCAL    YEARS. 

GROSS 
RKCKIPTS. 

GROSS    RE- 
CEIPTS OF  THE 
FEDIRAL  TAX. 

TOTAL 
RECKIPTS. 

COLLECTION 
EXPENSES. 

NET 
RECEIPTS. 

From  January  i  to 
June  30,  1875.. . 

$328,631  26 

$769,037  02 

$1,097,668   28 

Per- 
centage. 

1875-1876 

$668,930  14 
728,192  71 
920,901  29 

763,879  23 

1,311,463  95 

.tx    »,.    re.     ..T 

$167,937   42 
120,334   94 
302,612   65 
300,490  02 
484,215   36 

9255 
4-567 
9.840 
10.006 
13.274 

$2,247,617   09 
2,513,664   43 
2,772,538    15 
2,702,656   58 
3,164,180  32 

2,154,249   51 
2,239,267    37 

2,336,431  73 

3,075,150  80 
3,003,146   60 

3,647,895  68 

Average    per    an- 
num in  five  years 

$878,673  46 

$1,956,275  93 

$2,834,949  39 

$275,118  08 

9.705 

$2,680,131    31 

1880-1881 

$1,037.73^  93 
1,429.655  61 
1,591,189  33 
1,919,461  99 
3,231,872  75 

$2,371,369  31 

2,775,149  84 
3,099,179  93 
2,912,967  08 
3,127,481  85 

$3,409,100  24!       $351,980  01 

10.325 

8.943 
9.000 
9.126 
7.690 

$3,057,120   23 
3,828,710    15 
4,270,237    22 
4,391,348    87 
5,870,310    71 

1881   1882 

1882  1883 

4,690,369  26 
4,832,429  07 
6,359,354  60 

420,132   04 
441,080    10 
489,043   89 

1883  1S84 

1884-1885 

Average    per    an- 
num m  five  years 

$1,841,982  12 

$2,857,229  60 

$4,699,211  72 

$415,666   27 

8.845 

$4,283,545  44 

1885-1886 

$2,761,886  56 
3,930,429  16 

$3,"5,759  85 
3.587,339  96 

$5,877,646  41 
7,517,769  12 
7,979,128  46 
8,788,405  11 
9,366,762  89 

$428,390   78 
638,011    29 

728,431    31 
771,601    95 
799,721    78 

7.288 
8.486 
9.000 
8.777 
8.538 

$5,449,255  63 
6,879,757  83 
7,250,697   15 
8,016,803  16 
9,567,041    11 

1886-1887 

1887-1888 

1888-1S89 

1889  1890 

5.575,067  62 

3,791,695  27 

Average    per    an- 
num in  five  years 

$4,406,097  17 

$3,499,845  23 

$7,905,942  40 

$673,237   42 

8.516 

$7,432,710  98 

$5,624,340  94 
5,402,495  76 
6,625,265  53 
9,164,063  10 
10,098,795  63 
12,519,676  93 

$3,865,650  49 
3,969,987  88 
4,431,022  65 
5,216,547  31 
5. 471, 173  92 
5,559,255  61 

$9,489,991  43 
9.372,483  64 
11,056,288  18 
14,380,610  41 
15,569,969  55 
18,078,932  54 

$853,834   28 
868,161    60 
945,076    71 
1,120,760   85 
1,146,419   41 
1,196,053    14 

8.955 
9.263 
8.548 
7.190 
7.363 
6.616 

$8,636,157  15 
8,504,322  04 

13.259.849  56 
14.423.550  14 
16,882,879  40 

1895-1896 

Average     in      six 

$8,239,106  31 

$4,752,272  98 

$12,991,379  29 

$1,021,717  67 

7.86s 

$11,969,661  63 

Total  in  21J  years. 

$85,397,032  94 

$70,849,428  66 

$156,246,461  60 

$12,950,384   83 

8.288 

$143,799,908  39 

Direct  Taxes. — The  third  source  of  revenue  of  the  Mexican  Govern- 
ment are  direct  taxes  collected  in  the  Federal  District,  which  includes 
the  City  of  Mexico.  They  are  levied  on  real-estate,  scientific  profes- 
sions, commercial  and  industrial  establishments,  and  work-shops.  The 
real-estate  for  the  purpose  of  this  tax  is  divided  into  rural  and  urban, 
the  former  paying  a  tax  of  12  per  cent,  on  its  rent  when  occupied,  and 
3  per  cent,  when  not  occupied,  and  the  latter  paying  8  per  thousand  of 
its  registered  value. 

Taxes  on  professions  vary  from  50  cents  to  $20.00  a  month.  The 
tax  on  commercial  and  industrial  establishments  is  regulated  by  law. 
The  commercial  establishments,  which  pay  license  taxes  are  commis- 


IRevenue  ant)  Bjpenses. 


149 


sion  agencies  of  all  kinds  :  banking  firms  ;  dry  goods,  groceries,  wines, 
furniture,  and  jewelry  stores  ;  insurance  companies  ;  restaurants,  hotels, 
and  boarding-houses.  Among  the  industrial  establishments  are  em- 
braced especially  railway,  telegraph  and  telephone  companies  ;  cotton, 
woollen,  and  silk  mills  ;  factories  of  all  kinds  ;  iron  smelters  ;  printing, 
engraving,  and  photographic  establishments  ;  coffee,  corn,  and  flour 
mills,  etc.,  etc. 

When  the  alcabalas  were  abolished  a  direct  tax  was  established  upon 
some  of  the  articles  which  paid  the  largest  sums,  namely  :  pulque, 
wheat  flour,  and  domestic  brandy  distilled  from  molasses. 

I  annex  a  statement  showing  the  proceeds  of  Direct  Taxes  in  the 
Federal  District  during  the  last  twenty-seven  fiscal  years. 

RECEIPTS    FROM    DIRECT    TAXES    IN     THE     FEDERAL    DISTRICT    DURING 
THE    TWENTY-SEVEN    FISCAL    YEARS   ENDING    JUNE    30,    1896. 


FISCAL   VHARS. 


GROSS  RECEIPTS. 


COLLKCTION 
EXPENSES. 


1869-187O 

1870-1871 

1871-1872 

1872-1873 

'873-1874 

1874-1875 

1875-1876 

1876-1877 

1877-1878 

1878-1879 

1879-1880 

1880-1881 

1881-1882 

1882-1883 

1883-1884 

1884-1885 

1885-1886 

1886-1887 

1887-1888 

1888-1889 

1889-1890 

1890-1S91 

1891-1892 

1892-1893 

1893-1894 

1894-1895 

1895-1896 

Totals  in  the  27  years 

Average  per  annum 

Totals  and  Annual   averages  of  the 

first  five  years 

Annual  average 

Total  of  the  second  five  years.. . . 
Annual  average 

Total  of  the  third  five  years 

Annual  average 

Total  of  the  fourth  five  years. . . . 
Annual  average 

Total  of  the  fifth  period  of  five  years 
Annual  average 

Total  of  the  sixth  period  of  two  years 
Annual  average 


$48s<45i  73 

502,146  64 

471,228  78 

477,654  75 

524,494  76 

531,149  09 

',350,705  56 

516,5x0  80 

538,300  09 

559,217  21 

592,688  44 

634,498  92 

674,973  66 

753,579  80 

830,010  26 

1,092,656  37 

1,023,349  52 

1,040,143  16 

1,074,489  54 
1,125,202  97 
1,213,458  49 
1,306,746  37 
1,369,225  30 
1,436,875  70 
1,445,270  81 

1,497,251  90 
1,620,480  35 


$24,687,760  97 
912,028  18 


$2,460,976  66 
492,195  33 

$3,495,882  75 
699,176  55 

$3,485,751  08 
684,55°  38 


$5,355,841   56 
1,071,168  31 

$6,77', 576  67 
1,354,315  33 

$3," 7,732  25 
1,558,866  13 


$55,481 

65 

11.42 

53,924 

28 

10.74 

50,034 

37 

10.62 

5',939 

OS 

9.90 

57,205 

b9 

10.90 

56,663  64 

10.67 

69,957 

24 

5.18 

47.685 

23 

9-23 

37,970 

00 

7.05 

51,160  08 

9-'5 

52,126 

21 

8.79 

52,260 

50 

8.23 

S3,i6i 

23 

7.87 

98,264 

24 

13.08 

100,937 

90 

12.16 

89,892 

38 

8.23 

91,464 

07 

8.97 

84,861 

27 

8.16 

121,011 

SO 

11.26 

97,635 

•4 

8.68 

100,134 

«7 

8.25 

103,740 

02 

7-35 

104,320 

34 

7.62 

115,817 

80 

8.06 

110,290 

73 

7-63 

108,255 

57 

7-36 

110,347 

'3 

6.81 

268,585  04 
53,717  01 

$263,436  19 
52,687  24 


$356,750  08 
71,350  02 


$484,864  36 
96,972  87 

$534,303  82 

106,860  76 


$218,602  70 
109,301  35 


PER- 
CENTAGE 
EXPENSES. 


8.6s 


NET   RECEIPTS. 


$429,970  08 

448, 22e  36 

421,194  41 

425,7'S  70 

467,289  07 

474,485  45 

1,280,748  32 

468,825  57 

500,330  09 

508,057  13 

540.562  23 

582,238  42 

621,812  43 

6S5,3'5  56 

729,072  36 

1,002,763  99 

931,885  45 

955,281  89 

953,478  04 

1,027,567  83 

1,113,323  62 

1,203,006  35 

1,264,904  96 

1,321,057  84 

1,334,980  08 

1,388,996  33 

',510,133  22 


7.89 


$22,561,218  78 
835,600  69 


$2,192,391  63 
438,478  32 

$3,232,446  56 
646,489  31 


$3,129,001  00 
625,800  20 


$2,899,129  55 
1.449,564  78 


'SO 


Statistical  IHotcs  on  /IDejico. 


On 
00 


O 
H 

00 
00 


o>oo   O   O   <^  •*   t^ooo-*  «^<»  ro  t-   t 

■^J-  U-)  -.J-  M    C4  -.r  t^oo    N    "^^i^  "^  "}  ^  ^    ' 

*"    *"  cf  rCoo'  -'  rCao  (^  o  d"  f*i  c?  c>  rC  ( 

I  'O    fO*o  CO  ^W   f^M   r^M    o-  o-  ^  O-  t 


\ri  ■^  I 


?,? 


on* 
•  rn  t^  {> 
7  ■f  O  tf,  m  \r,  ir, 

)    N   1/1  rn  0    rn  — 
)  00   o    "O  c-oo 


I  0   rnoo  CO 


M  m  r-  «  •«■  > 


■  fn  I 


1  C  0»  -T  M  NO   c*)  m  -^vo   *  ( 


OO    "    lOOO 
OC    M    t^sO 

Q  So  m 


IT)  t^  f 

00   i~  < 


O  <> 


O  00   't^  >o  CO   o   O"  -^ 

W    r^roOO>loiriO>n^ 


o>  ^  fn  tN. 


<  a>>o  o 


8  ? 

CI  00 

a-  « 


■*co  t^ 

O  VO   O  V 


00  m  -^vo  o  t*^  « 
m  coo  *«- 


HI  o.  o-vo  xo  m  tN.  ^  < 


■  ^<^  '^  "^  '^^  "^  ^^ 
i  -^vo  lo  tC  n"  cT^o 


CO     NO    m  . 


r^  00   •  VO 


iioforoo  ot^N  o  t>>oo  t^  c 


'^  o*  m 
o  o  r^oo 


'  m  coco  rn  o  O  CO  o  ^oo  oo  oo  ^  co  ► 


o^«\o  o  o*«  o-mo  o^H-  o*Q  tvtN.  ts.co  fn^o  ^  roco  oo 


OO    0»'^    m  «^  ■*  O 


^  O  O*^  Ooo   r- «  VO  r^  hsvo 


■>  \D  c  M  00  r^  o>  • 


m  o  o*  g*  m 


r^  *oo  m  o^  «  1^00  1^,000 
O  CO  m  m^o  m  «  ^  «  cv 


o>   o-      00 
00^   c      oo_ 


t^  coo 

O     M      M 

-^  0'  m  •-.  ( 


)  *0  00  ro  100 

J-  ir>0   M    ro  I 
4    irjoo    «    «  o 


to    Cm    •♦  m  00    l^vo    -^vO 

1  coo  moo  mvooovooooov 


t^  C^o  00  moo  mvo  tN.\o  t^« 


*  VO  c  c  i^  moo  *o 


«  VO 

CO  m 

^  00. 

CO  cT 


I  VO    Q    -    C-  I 


=  ^  9  - 

cvo  ■*  m  m  M  VO  N 
O  00  ^  «  m  c\o  c* 
o"  c  m"  cT  -^vo'  m  r 
C  'n  m  m  O  CO  VO  ' 

CN  ■*  "  N  -^  m  •■ 


»  c  t^»  -  K 


•^00  m  ■»*■'*  ► 


tN.-^ioO  ^i-miHooNO  b". 


'^    10    M       '.f 

IN.  pN.  -fl- 10  _ 
«  00  fj  (^  t^ 

'vrToo  c 


c  m  cvo  c  cvo  vo  c 


c  m  « 

M  oo>f 

00  t^  m  ^ 

O  VO  vo"o(r  d^  I 

vo  cm 

00  ■♦  r*  I 


vo  -n-  tN.vo  c  »o  o  c  1000  ■*  mvo  o  — 


moo  rs,  M  CO  O  O  00 


«  t^oo  00  m  «  c 


o  c  c  O  vo  m  c 


c  f^  o  vo    r*^vo  00  00  vo 


J  O  -^vo  vo  r>. 


O    '♦00    O    Cv  tN  ( 


00  1000 

_     ^     7    O  vo 

i^vo^  M  c  "^00^  o^  m  "^^o^  -^ 

cvo"  i^M'rTvo'mrCcd't^ 
.-    -  _  .-  ._ 1^  M  m 

t^  m  r*. 


M  \n  - 


I  mvo 


00    o   I  00 


\n  M 

vn 

mvr- 

moo 

M    r< 

m  moo 

X 

o>o 

•«•  1^00 

>o 

«' 

7^» 

M     0- 

N 

1^ 

•«• 

"^^  m  *  t^\C  00  vo 


1  mvo  «  M  c  -^ 
^oo  coo  tN.  t^ 


M   00  00     -* 


■  mvo  00  <*^^ 


00  coo  c  -voo 


■*  -^oo  ^  -^  c  m  c  r*. 
1  tovo  moo  o  c  CO  M 
woommcc-t^ 


c  tN  rn  mvo  m  i 


o  o 


O   cvo  00  vo 


CO    O    t^^O  00 


m  c  '«^ 

'  c  <yoo 
1  c  r^  -^  w"  q"vo  o 
■oooovOMm, 
'^-^H  M  M  rs^mtv 


00  m  -"J-  o  o  00  V 


m  o 


mmooo  i>.M  (shm  >-•  M  '^■miN  'i- 
1  '^co  w  Moooo  «  cc^«  «  moovo 
O  «  '^w  O  M  O  t^^f^"^,  *^0;CJ; 
tC  mvo'  mocTocT  «  m  ^  mvo'  moo"  cT 
tN.c«  M  mmmc-f  Coo  00  m  m 
M  iH  M  M  m  M  c  mvo  o  vo  vo  m  M 


■-00  00 


mvo 


m  c  M  00 
__  x>  m  m  m  -.  —      .  _ 

moo  coo  c  tN.  ■^  o  c 
CCD  m  M  cTvo  d"  m"  -^  n"  d" 
~     ■  M  c  c  ^*vo  m  m  moo 

m  m  «  M  M  M  00  -^vo 


00  ^  M  c  c  : 
00       


00    r*      vo 


moo  M  o  O  mr-*Ooo  mm  moo  m  ^  m  <*%  10 
^  m  M  «  *"  moo  M  r^-^ts-r^mmmt^mM 
O  c«  -^m-oovo  *^'^'N  C>'^'^  f;  -t-^^  « 
m  pToo^vo  *?  rC  m  tC  m  d^ocT  o  vo  c  m  'f  cvo 

~   —  ._       «  vo  m -^  c  "^-vo  mM  M  M  M 

«  c  «  **■  m  ^vo  m  M  ts.  c  « 


O  mvo 


*  vo    tN.  lAVO  CO    o 


r^  c  r>-  m'O 


m  «  M  m  I 


tN  O    t^vO  CO    C^   ■*  O 

«  -r  o  ^o  M  o  m  M 
m  "-T  c  coo  m  d^  c  O 

«    «    M    -^  -         —    - 


C  - 


rt  a.  5 

to .-?  o 

"<UUC 


o  3 


C>vo"  in 


C^ 


NO   M  00   ro 


r*  en  10     vo 


2"   «   I  >o 


ii  3  n 
:  -u  J  o 


o-^^-gdS   1^1 


Jiif  o  S  5-2  J  oJ3 


•<  « 


rt     H 


O    o 


IRevenue  an&  Bjpenses. 


151 


>\0  "O  v< 


t^mmw   10  ri   M   ■-r«   r-*-',  tN.r«",  fic^O    ^O   n  so   rn^  ao   r^  «  O*  O 
^  m  -"t  o  «  rooo  CO  CO  O   0  »o  w  ^00  Loov-  mr«.-oo  ^^o^^*       ~ 
\0  •♦  O  «  ""ICO  c*  t^i>N  rs.mmt^ir,-  mco   ■^*o  ct>  moo  m^o  ■ 
rn  r^vo"co'oo  10  n-  ^  m  h«.  ^  t^oo  c^  w^oo"  cvo"  eT  ro  m  —  so 


000 


l§ 


^00  t^  a*  o 
CO  M  00  in  M 


O  ^    '♦^    *A 


cnoo  \o  >-  «  ovo  o»vo  « 

<-    W    M    fO^^f^^  ^vO 

w  O;  O  q^  r^»0_  in  Ooo  «^ 
«  in  «  ^  inoo  *doo"  d"  ** 
ino>^M-mintx«ci  mms 
q_  "^  1-^  «  m  «  00  M  fooo 

CT  »H^  M^  m"  m" 


0-0 

^£>    r» 

«     0, 

<  ■*mo  in^^o^o** 


1  «  «  o  »o  00  m 


N  o*  Q  moo  o 


■  O  m  m  m  M 


)  M  00  ■*  r-s.  r>* 


■♦   m      FN 


«      ^       VO 


m  t^  o^ 

»A  -^  o'  —     _ 

m  ^  «  *o  m 


mM  e*^  c^  -^  irt  m  IT) 
■♦vo  m  N  mo  ■*  O 


O  o  ^vo  "O  tN.  mvo  o  mrN.«  tN.t^-^M  o»  o«co 
mw  o  iH^ONN  miN  -^  o^o  o\oo  00  m  i-  ©vxo 

■^\0  M  m  0  ^vo  mvo  m  r-vo  o*  <-•  o*  •*  O  0*00 

^vd  iCm^tCcrN"tCdcrc>^i' 

Q    , _ 


m  m  moo  o  ^o  p'vo  000  00  a«  m  t^. 


fn 

4* 

'^>5 


moo^  -^  - 

*    *"    '   4cb  -^vb  < 
M  «  m  M  eiNO  m  » 


o  o  e 


\o  -^^^yo  "-  Mvoco  oo^H. 


mo*  o  m  -*  o 

-    -  -    _        -_*,)  Miuit^iO   momcooo 

r^  -^  "TOO  "^  CO  ■*  »*■  m'O  m  ■*  Tfvo  •-■   o  tx  r^ 

vd  cfoo  00"  m-^M  rCi^iCw"J"  tCoo"  -^  d"  *^ 

--    _  o»  HI  Qo  •-•  '#•00  vo  m*o  HI  '^■oo  t*- o^  m  w  o 

«  t^mo  o»^woo  mm  m*o  m  «  m  i-t  o»\o  « 


OvO    M  00  VO 


M 

<o 

0 

e? 

ro 

M' 

M        -*  \0 


t>.vO  "^O  O  ^mOQ  M  m-^  mvo  00  m  m  »nvo  o^Ooo  r^O*0  -^m 
00  ^  o>  ■*  ^  t>.\0  00  o  u-iM  tN.mmN  o  mco  t-s.>-i  t>»o*r^ovc  O  n 
•^joo^w^r^mmo  *",  <^«,cr>'-'  t^**'-  0-1  i^-^oo  o^  o^  u^  ot  m  m 
'^  cf  (^  m"  ■^  <>\d  ci  m  o^^  O  mvd  d-oo  'f-^-^mmprcTM"  dvd 

'    "  *^  ■" M  rnm'*-^*-.  r-N  <-  mo  o^^H  t^oo  « 

>  0_  o»  •♦•  M  In.  m  m  mvo  m  m  m  m  00  m  m 


■^  mvo  tN.  r*  m  o  m  t>.  ^00 


«» 


tN.co  vo  r-N  t^ 


00  t^o  P'.rvOoo  O-  -^ 
\o  o^^^o  mmr^o  fn 
mo  00  ^  tN.  o  -^r  -  o 
tC  «  in  tC  M  m"  m  moo 
mO  mM*o  O  O  mm 
m  "  c*  o  o«oo  t^  m  M 


O  r^oo  tN.  o 


'.00  vo 


t^>o  ■♦  o  m  I 

.    r^  o   r 

rN  o  t^  O'  t>.  » 
m  'tf'  o*  m  u-jvo  M 
m  ov  OS  c  i"  CO  o 
O   •!  vo  '^  m  «  M 


o  t^  '^CO 


10 

m 

0 

t^ 

>o 

u-> 

«» 

VO  00  tf  t^  m 
00  r^  moo  00 

►-    t^  O^  -^oo^ 

d  tC  o"  "f  -' 


■*  mvo  mo  mo  O  00 
m  M  mco  m  o  o  o  t^ 

vo  o^o^N  -^-^--^-mm 
■n"  docT  rC  ^vd  dvd  M 

CO  -^mc*  O"-.  c>mm 

M    O    «    ts  0^  t^vo    fO  •- 


■  ^    ^  O^  t>.  O-  I 


001^  mvo  t^co  o 


ocio<>  d  m 


8M  00  00  m 
■*  *t!  "^  moo_^ 
00  d^  cT  «' 


o»  »n  «  moo  1 
00  CO  yt-  o-  <j 


^  ovo  o  ^  r^.  moo  r^  - 
Q  t^-^-^mmw  M   -f-.f 

0«ci»-«comrN,i-i  mvo 


'  vo  t^vo  o-oo  00  «  CO  ■* 


r^.  vo 


O  O'OO  vo  vo    M  vo 

in  M  CO  m  -n-  mvo 
O  ■^  f^'oo"  t^vd  m 
«  o*  m  o  ■*  «  m 
M  m  o  t^^  m  <- 


m  m  o»  ovvo  ■*•  M  vo  mo  »n 

«  N  -<-o\mmmM  o^O  « 

O;  q^  "^  O;  O    M_oo  00  N    c^  vo 

t-^ccT^  m"  m  pToo  00  d  -^  m" 

30  M  mo  O  ovmn.  m'rr'. 


O   vo       vo 


»  O"  ■*  coo  M 


«  m< 


vorN.o-^  mooovo  -* 

""KOO   OvOvCI    PvO»Ov 

^*f^o*t^^*0  o  cj 
o«oo  ov  •*  d  m  Q^  o  <>   ~ 
30  ^  o  O\vo  rx,vo  M  m  ^ 
aowmmwHi  - 


ts.  ^vS 


00     o       r«- 


vo  vo  Ov  ■ 
M  M  00  ( 
vo  -#■  •*  ' 


Ov   ■ 


»H  m  0*00  0*00 
«  c^  a-  o^  "-^ 
>  in  d  mvd  m 
1  M  -^vo  m  o 
•  •*■  ■♦vo  m  M  ' 


M  m  « vo 


■*•  M  mo  o  o  O" 


t**  w  Qv  o  «  rv  m  t>.\o  o» 

«  ■♦  Q  •*  "-.  moo  c»  CO  m 
vo  f  CT'  ♦  a>  o  r^  o^  t^ 

vd"^d  «   d  M   tC  doo    ^  rt 

mnm  «  mw  CT'-^o^M 
«  ♦  o  ♦vo  m      t^cxj  « 


8 

-  m 

«Jf 

'«■ 

t^ 

m 

(^ 

4» 

■«■ 

■3-gJ3 


3  p  ---.S-^ 

M  ri    O  "g  Ic  IS 


:  :J^«^  :  :  :g  :g  :  :dO;;  :  :  :&; 


H     -S 


15     H 


Q66s42SS^;Ofi,0'J5w5c«£-'HH>>N 


152 


statistical  Motes  on  /IDejico. 


On 
00 


00 
00 


■»>0    O  M 

M      f 

t  •  ^  10  c  g 

NVO 

0  OvVO    0    W 

hs   t^   0    h%   M 

-"J-OO    (^  0 

00 

I       H 

*8 

f^ 

N   .   ■■f  m  t-t  0   rH*o  in  •*  m  M   r^oo  r^  m  0  ^o  0  moo  0 

00 

1    c 

V  0 

Ov 

o'm  Iq  !?  ql  S 

"i   •   0  0  moo   r>.  0  «  00  CO  m  ^^'0  m  ooc   0  ij^oo  O  00 

V£ 

vo 

i 

K  rC  fo  f^  0  cc 

t  OD   M   0^  vo  moo   tN.  0   m  N  0  c>  m^  in  ui  000  >-« 

•■>•  1    r^    ■«• 

Ov  f»>  t~  w    -  VO 

.  «  0  000  M  «  m-^r^mt^-d-o  0  mmo  m«  m 

vo 

00 

0 

H 

(^  «     t^  1^  1/^  H 

■  ^  *i  s;  "2  °-  *^  ^,  ^^"I'S.  -^  t^  *9  t^  *0  ".  "^  t^-  ° 

■"1-    1      ov     -0- 

m 

O 

m   0 

T 

h 

c^   m 

4» 

<«' 

<«■ 

O   O*  O   !>•  -^ 

•  vo    .inc*t-i0"-i*ovON'O  t^oo  0  t-^   .  00    -  M  -^f           -^ 

"S.  1    g 

5«-  S.S  ■♦d 

c>vD  M  t>s  tN.vo  «  00  m  Tj-  moo  0 

ov 

m  0 

m 

■«•    S 

m 

H_  ■*  Ij  Tj-  « 

IvO 

00  M^  c>  0  mvo^  mvo  t^vo^  <^  0.  *^ 

m  « 

0 

Ov  1   vS 

.  ^, 

m  cT  cT  fom 

vo  ocT  m"  m"  ^  rnoo  '«?  cT  ■«?  m  tC  tC 

d; 

c 

m    m 

c^ 

s 

t^  -v  o*  r»  ^ 

00  M  ovOoo  m-*oooot^  invo 

■^ 

0-  - 

0 

c> 

0 

l-\0             M 

.      tN 

m  lo  M  '«^  M  -fl- CI  00       m -^  m  « 

ov   m 

p^ 

<^" 

f 

4» 

«^ 

Ml  M  ■♦  m  . 

•  CN  t^  '*^  m  0  m\o  0  CMn  1^  ■*  m      00  o>oo  n  m  -«-           0 

"^ 

1    •<»■   0 

r'^ 

CO  «  -  m  0 

.   M   r^  m  moo  -*  0   TO  00  co  ^   'i- 

m  0  M  •>!■  M  0 

Ov    1     Ov     M 

in  cjvo_  <o  M_  • 

•  '»t-oo  q;\o  \o^q^u-ir-M  a^m»-«_in 

OvVO    H    CJ    0    Ov               Ov 

•<»■  1    0 

ov 

0 

-4* 

«    Ovo    N    0 

'.  N  cT  in  cf  J^  o-^o  00"  in  ^  0  •*■  t^ 

-'  ■>?  I-'   M     «*00 

00 

m  1    m  1-1 

t^  »^  •'J-vO  « 

.vo  MOO  inot^inM   inin(>»mm 

r*  m  in  r^  0  m           O 

00 

T 

.\OMln•<J■c^m-^'^^w^*       m-^ 

M  N       mm*           M 

a 

^ 

m 

c 

m 

2" 

4» 

<»■ 

<©• 

OOO    ■♦  Ul  0    0 

.  -<^«  inm«  ooow  mO"-"  o»ootnio  \noo  ^  m 
h   •  0  000  m  -^vo  00  M  vo  m  in  1^  -^  i^oo  O^O  ^  m  m 

M 

^ 

vo 

ei 

00 

«>.  O    "I  00    m  •< 

tx 

1   o- 

T 

w_  o^  ^  in  M  ^ 

^    .   w,  t^  0^  "^  0^  0^  "^^  0   0^  w^  m  q_  1^  -*  C>  m  in  m  «   1^ 

r^ 

vo 

ov 

vo 

■^  tC\o  vo"  -f  c 

too  or^M-oco^o   tv.o*minN  t-^tN.  moo  vo  00  m  m 

t^ 

>    =8 

T 

2 

«5   M    O-  t^O    - 

h   .  lnc^mm^H■^^^^)rN.M   0^   ^N'»^^sln'<J-•^^'N\o  r*- 

M 

r^ 

^.m       ininc^m       m«t^       w-^wm'n        r^W"< 

00 

;                                                    w 

c 

m 

" 

4» 

«» 

<» 

moo  vo  ^5  o  >- 

^   .  <N  OS  -*  0  0  1^  000  CMHoo-oooooi-r^-^MOt^            « 

"^V"o 

M 

M 

«   m  m  M  «  00   t^oo  moo  0  «-   0  00  in  moo  00  m  n  t^            o> 

0 

M    ■«•^<2    ■«■  rn  0 

•  ?)_co  ^j_  M^  0^00  c>  r^\o  n  o-  m^o^oo^  ^  "2  ^  **.  ^^  ^ 

q-  1  vo 

0 

oo'vo'  pT  o'  «'  (N 

'    ;  cT  in  «  vo  vo  ^o  -^  0^  c>  0  in  d"  <>  -^vo'  0"  ■<?  o^  « 

0 

pivg 

t^  C*  (^  t^oo   « 

.  00  -   m  t^vo  0   m  m  M  vo  t^  ^  r^vo  ^^vo  mvo  "*  m 

- 

* 

0 

o 

m           1/ 

■).inMin-^wm       mMvo        w-^«hm        r^M-^ 

1     r>.    CN. 

m 

M 

:                                                  f' 

!<^ " 

2' 

«» 

1 

«»• 

-«••«■  «>o>o  c 

.«M«MmOoomM-«i-W"OMNvomi^o 

M 

M 

m 

vo 

m  o*  fn  M  o^vf 

>.                   Ov 

c 

m 

-1   .  0  w  ttvo  ot>.ina^«  M  0  mt^-^M  m^o  t--vo  ^ 

1          ■* 

r    ;vo  mM   ^N.'^^lnmm  '«^^o  t^  m  00  0  m  m  t^oo  00  -^           00 

vo 

CO 

T 

r^  o  0*0  ^o  ►■ 

.   in  0  N  ''J  "^  o>  m  -^00  int>*-^t^M  m  rn  ^  '^■1  -^i/ 

m  1    c 

^ 

e* 

l.vOwm-^MM          mnrvO          m-^-NmN         vOC*-^ 

m   T 

0 

^ 

I                                                                                       ^ 

<S   " 

^ 

<» 

<©• 

u^  m  0  m   •  c 

•  voor*.   -ou^o^-frnt^   •  cy<vc  vowo^o^^wo^           O 

■"  1  S. 

r^ 

o- 

m  TOO  CO    •  ■■ 

f    .  M  m  m 

OvVO  00     «     ■«-  t^CO     ■*  H 

c 

h   1    CO    vo 

t^  M  r-^  -<     .  r 

?   •  '^  t  o_ 

°,  '^  "t  "0  t  'J 

VO  m  Ov  m  cj  ■*  cjoo  o 

H 

!        C 

m"  <>vo"  n*  ;  -^ 

-  !  cf  c>oo 

fi\o  •»?  m  O"  ^ 
in  m  M  in  0  o 

00  vc'  «'  m  «'  m  m  <^  r-           r- 

^   1    CO      T 

vo 

o 

t^ 0- N  m  :« 

oc 

o 

1  ;  vo  M  m 

n  n  n  n  n  vo 

00    m 

«» 

M 

t^   m 

<^ 

0  00  w    •  r 
vo  »n  cnvo    •  ^i: 

r>     .  VOOO    M 

m  r^  moo  O  - 

m  Ovvo  vo     •  00  vo   0   0 

1              vo 

1^       M 

S 

0:^8  3;^, 

000  rn  M  vo 

ov  M    «    N 

VO    0    ov  Ov               M 

s        00     CO 

VO 

r,  «_  ^  ^vo_^  0^ 

^  t  "    " 

m  N  m  m           t~ 

t-    0 

00 

00  fn  »n  M    If 

:    cf  rn  0' 

vO     ■*   M     -*   0     Ov 

m  mocT  v? 

moo  m  Ov           Ov 

I           M      00 

Ov 

o* 

vo  00  m  m  .  p 

.   CT-  N    w 

00  0-  ■«-  M 

■«•  ■«•  m  c 

•* 

oc 

Ov   CO 

t>. 

oo 

vo    vo 

4» 

4» 

0 

ro  w  t^oo    •  ■^ 

t-   .   m  moo 

r^  -T  m  ovoo    • 

M    T  m  T 

vo  1-  M  m           0 

1        u 

1  00 

m 

u^  t^  fn  fo  .  c 
0  00  00  vo    •<. 

.  rovo  m 

CO  t^  '^   m  ov 

m  ovm  N 

m  Q  M  1/ 

I     s 

c 

n       !>   m 

•  «  ^_  >n 

vo  M  N  r^  r^ 

«  M  00  0 

r 

,     vo    « 

Ov 

N  CO  rf  t^   I  vc 

:  4  tCoo 

vo   0>  -"l-  >n  N 

t^  N  00  Ov            0 

1      00    0 

^ 

se 

^o  a*  m  '^   ,  c 

.  vo   "    - 

•«■  N   0   Qv  0 

0000    M     M 

-«•  «    OV  0 

0 

oo 

M            .    f 

r)  .  m  H  m 

«     «     M     M     M 

«     •«-  «     M 

«•-.-«- 

r^    m 

•^ 

^ 

fj 

vo'     « 

s 

<^ 

«» 

\o  m  0  »-<     •  I' 

r.    .    0    M    « 

C4    0  N    OvOO 

Ov  m  «  « 

Noo  0  m           0 

"c 

h      c>  m 

M 

0   C>  C^  «     •   P 

r)   .  ii-co  r> 

OVTl-  OV  «    0 

Q    t^OO    ov 

0  ■«■  5"  •«■           t~ 

oc 

S"  *6 

M    N    t^OO      •    P 

.    ro  r^  t- 

m  ro  0  00  - 

moo  0  ■■ 

f              00 

c 

V      q    0 

t^ 

cfvff  '^  c>   !  r 

N.   .>o  «  m 

m  moo'  0'  N 

m  0  vo  •* 

t^  t^  o<v: 

0 

»o  0%0N  ■*    .0 

-♦  m  0  00  0 

mvo  0  O'           m 

oc 

0    5" 

oo 

:  m  M  fo 

«    ■<■  N    M 

m  ti  m 

"i  0 

t^ 

^ 

«" 

vo"  cT 

i» 

«»' 

0  «  r*  c>.  •  p 

..   .   inoo  0- 

M  -T  o*  ■'^  fx 

0    I^vo    « 

m  N  t^  r^            m 

f-  -«■ 

00  n^  fo  p-i   ■   p> 

■   t^  0-0 

i^vo  m  M  t^ 

-.  0  t^u 

I 

00 

0>  rooO   «     •   t 

VO_^    (N_  M^VO     0__ 

N^  0__  m  m 

0   M   «   " 

3          t 

1    cjv   m 

»o 

oeT  cf  -*  f^    !   C 

I  0  »n  r^ 

mvo" 00"  o"  m 

S  rC  (>ocr 

ooo'vo'oo 

1  j    r,  CO 

vo' 

inoo  r^  m  .  c 

N  :oo  0  0 

m  «  ovvo  0 

M     0-  0     ov 

•«■  «  m  m           m 

vc 

1    « 

00 

00 

m  m  N 

00^  M     w 

<»    0 

t^ 

- 

4» 

m   H 

t^ 

1  «^ 

J» 

vO    -^  0»\0     • 

.r^-«-riOQ     -m-vONin 

mM  ■«-■«-           M 

T 

;      f 

m 

t^ 

h«.  t^*o  0   • 

.   -Tvo  000 

vo  vo    0^    r^ 

■  m  m 

-  •«•  m  m          00 

Ov     T 

m 

t-i  t^  in  m   • 

Ov  r^  T  T  T 

vo  Too  c 

VO' 

.         t^  vo 

•♦ 

!  ■*  O-  ■*  m  0 

00  mvo  m  CI 

.  0-  r^ 

0  0  vo  m          0 

c 

'     vb  vo 

oo 

lA'O  0  10  ! 

.     .   a-  <>  fn  t^  - 

vo  m  PI   -vi-  m 

.  moo 

m  o>  t^  ■*           m 

t^ 

^ 

:    .  in      fTno  M 

M   M  0. 

" 

7  t 

0_ 

** 

^ 

<»■ 

t^O    10  N      • 

-  H  mvo  mvo 

N  m  -^-vo  ov 

.   Tvo 

rxvo  00  c 

Ov 

I     1 

^  rooo    t^    • 

.  ■«■  •«•  «  N  0 

M     t^  000     N 

.  ■«-  r^ 

m  M  CO  o-          T 

0 

•  m  0  t^  r^  o> 

q^  r;oo  vo  in 

.  M  m 

«  0  moo           N 

^ 

;   m'  rT  w'oo'oo' 

mvo^co  -^  in 

•as 

(^vo  o'oc 

^ 

vo 

.    ceo    r'  OM^ 

00  m  <>  ov  m 

M  Q  ■>»•  m          « 

c^   m 

oo 

M 

.  m      m  *  M 

H 

«    m 

vo 

M 

4» 

«* 

VO 

.-■    ; 

>^  :  t) 

*; 

<5    ; 

0  : 

^  :H 

'1- 

0  • 

H 

•< 

j 

1    *  ^ 
:03c 

-  rt   c  1. 
3  1-  r:  ft 

j: 

c 

C     • 

0  : 

•  C 

rt  0  t 
S  2  [ 

c 
r 

g 

rritory  o 
,ower  Ca 

ia 

rritory  o 

fr 

c 

Q 

u 

■0 

c 

hon  0  0 X-i 

«Ji_  c  « 

c 

1 

<UC 

C 

UC 

;;^C^ 

;! 

■v^ 

«i 

ri 

ZCH 

'J- 

xc/ 

r 

r^> 

■> 

N 

t-i         H 

C^ 

1 

IRevenue  anC>  Bspcnses. 


153 


VO    -*  M*0    O  CO 

w   m  c>  '^  t>»  O 

N   "^  r^  o  o    (^ 
"T  T?  lA  (>  r^  tN. 


00   >-*0    fOw   O    '^tvn^ 


tN.  M  vo    O    M  xo    O 


O  N  "O    t>.  10  rO  ■*  f^OO  VO 


)  00  a«c6  so  « \o  oco  CO  CO  •-  a-  -^ 


•♦OO    t-v  M 


r**  '^  '*■ 


■*  •TOO  M  ►-  woc-o«  f*''^a' 
r*^vo  o  m  t^  'N  -r  c  <^  f^oo  mco 
-jinrnf  —   - 


VO    O  00  vO 


)  t>*oo  r^  -^^ 


O  o^  "*  »r>  H. 
^o  rn  ■*  O  10 


M  \o   N   m 


t>.  O-  O    t^  O  tN. 


-'l-  1000    t^  O    N 

tN.  N   ro  a>co   -^ 


-J  ■*  N    t^  t^  N    -^00  < 

-  ^o  1000  \o  ^   t^  in 


?  m\o  r«.  fo  o  r*^oo  ^  w 


M    O  t^  O  10  t^  I 


t^w   rOlnooo^o   €>' 


«    O  OS-*  N    M 
t^oo   ^^^o  00   M 


moo  O  t** 

M  vo  m  o^ 

00    tN.  M    N    N    '^ 


o  O  c>  ► 


mmomOoo  n  -^to. 


o  < 


\0   rn 

moo  i-  vo  ^  moo 
^  o  ■^vo^  o't^-^cJ^Nt^oo  o^otT  m  >-  00  o  00 
M   «  M  O.VD  00  fo  «  o  ^  tN»  r*  r^^  mvo  •*<-•* 


ro    m  MO 


t^  1-  10  m  o»  o 


t^  ro  o  "O  vo  o*  t^^o  c>M   irjt^mo  r«.M   Q  ■^—  o 

0ON*0MVOr0i-'«00'  t-v\0    N    C^  t^vC    C_  C>  fO 

cT  iH  vcT  tC  tC  i-T  10  cf  cT  N  ^""oo  "?  r-  m 


■"S-00  -r  > 


s: 


-^  w  m 
in  o  O 


00  c  r^  1^  o- 
O  t^  a-  N  M 
w  rn  ^  in  q_ 

in  M  ro  O  t-" 

W  M  «  H  \0 


j  «  »o  I  00 

O  CO    t^ 

"  «.  I  o^ 


00  «  CO  tT 


M  M  00  ro 
-*  o  rf  M 


O  ro  m  « 

0^  t^  rO  O^ 
M  «  \0_  <> 

M  cT  tC  o» 


m  Q  00  00 
in  5  m  r^ 
O  m  ro  m 

N  rT  a^co' 


vo  rN.00  »n 


M  m  M  vo  o 


^0'*^0  ro  in 
in\0  o  ro  m 
"*  >-  O  moo 
CO  (■'  rC  »n  pT 
CO  ro  O  t^  o^ 


«"  '^  tC  -^vo" 


o  -^-oo  ■* 


%o  00  00  »n 


»    N    t>.  Q 

'  00  o  t^ 


o  o^oo  r*. 

^O  incc  ^ 
rn  rCoo"vcr 


O    00        CO 


I  00   CO 

O  rn  H      ^ 


CO  -^vp 

-GO'S 


fO'O    r^co 


COO  m  r>*  M 


^0    0>  N    Q\  !>* 

00    •*  ro  O    O 
in  o^  00  00 


ro  in  I  00 

m  m  5 

oj  o  6 

^  «'     I  M 

v5  ov  ^ 

in  m"  I  <r 


o  O  vo  00 
t^  r«.  ^vo 

rC  tCvo  00 


;ii 


tJOU 


u>H.^g, 


o  — J2  3 


■-=.5  «^ 


"■'"'^iZIhS  **  '^  ^  "^  rt.5  O  ^  W—  4J 


CJUOQOOI 


u  6 
S  S  ^  C  (i  Ccn  tf5u3HE-'H>>'N 


H 
o 

£- 

o 

£  E.- 
c  vc. 


2"  2 

o   *« 


154  Statistical  H-lotes  on  /IDejico, 

STATE    AND    MUNICIPAL    FINANCES. 

The  best  way  in  which  I  can  give  tlie  state  and  municipal  revenues 
and  expenses  in  Mexico,  is  by  inserting  the  detail  amounts  of  the  last 
twelve  years  of  the  revenues  and  expenses  of  each  of  the  Mexican 
States,  and  a  similar  statement  of  the  revenues  and  expenses  of  the 
municipalities  of  each  State.  That  statement  gives  also  the  revenues 
and  expenses  of  the  City  of  Mexico,  which  have  increased  very  con- 
siderably of  late.  In  the  year  1867,  after  the  restoration  of  the  Re- 
public, they  only  amounted  to  about  $800,000,  while  in  the  year  1895, 
they  had  increased  to  $3,395,638.  (These  statements  are  on  pp.  150-153.) 

FOREIGN   TRADE. 

The  foreign  trade  of  Mexico  was  necessarily  very  small  before  the 
railway  era,  because  transportation  was  exceedingly  high  on  account 
of  the  broken  condition  of  the  country,  and  only  articles  of  great 
value  and  comparatively  small  weight  could  be  profitably  exported, 
while  the  price  of  foreign  commodities  became  very  high,  both  on  ac- 
count of  transportation  charges  and  high  import  duties.  Therefore, 
only  rich  people  could  afford  to  consume  foreign  commodities,  and 
the  exports  of  Mexico  were  practically  reduced  to  silver  and  gold, 
and  to  a  few  commodities  having  small  bulk  and  great  value. 

The  normal  cost  of  transportation  on  merchandise  from  the  City  of 
Mexico  to  Veracruz,  a  distance  of  one  hundred  Mexican  leagues  or 
263f  English  miles,  used  to  be,  before  the  railroad  connecting  both 
places  was  built,  $68.75  P^r  ton  of  2200  pounds,  or  more  than  26  cents 
per  mile  and  ton  ;  and  in  extraordinary  circumstances,  as  during  the 
French  Intervention  in  Mexico  from  1861  to  1867,  the  freight  was  as 
high  as  $330  per  ton,  or  over  $1.25  per  mile  and  ton.  Therefore,  no 
article  could  be  transported  unless  it  was  very  much  needed  and  it 
commanded  a  very  high  price.  The  result  was  that  not  only  the  for- 
eign but  also  the  domestic  trade  was  reduced  to  its  smallest  proportions, 
and  that  the  people  raised  just  enough  to  provide  for  the  wants  of 
themselves  and  their  inmiediate  neighbors.  A  fact  that  may  seem  in- 
credible is,  that  for  the  same  reasons,  among  the  farmers,  a  good  crop 
was  considered  a  great  misfortune. 

Since  the  railways  have  revolutionized  transportation,  our  products, 
especially  agricultural  commodities,  have  begun  to  be  sent  to  foreign 
markets,  and  their  exportation  is  increasing  considerably.  As  yet  the 
precious  metals,  especially  silver,  are  the  main  exports  from  Mexico, 
representing  during  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1896,  61  per  cent, 
of  our  total  annual  exports  ;  but  other  commodities  are  now  exported, 
and  they  are  in  a  fair  way  to  exceed,  before  long,  the  value  of  our  silver 
exports.  I  have  no  doubt  that  with  the  opening  of  our  railroads, 
if  our  exports  continue  to  increase  in  the  same  proportion  as  they  have 


jforcigu  XTra^e. 


155 


recently  done,  Mexico  will  be  able  to  supply  the  United  States  with 
most  of  the  tropical  products  now  consumed  and  not  yet  produced 
here,  and  even  with  others,  that  would  find  a  market  if  they  could  be 
cheaply  transported. 

The  same  difficulties  which  prevented  us  from  having  correct  ac- 
counts of  our  public  revenues  and  expenses,  and  which  I  have  stated 
in  speaking  on  that  subject,  made  it  very  difficult  for  many  years  to 
have  correct  statistics  of  our  imports  and  exports. 

Imports. — I  could  not  give  even  a  tentative  statement,  which  I 
could  vouchsafe,  of  our  total  imports  and  exports  from  182 1  to  1867, 
but  the  statement  of  the  receipts  of  our  custom-houses  from  1823  to 
1S75,  which  appears  on  page  145  gives  an  approximate  idea  of  our 
imports,  considering  that  the  receipts  amount  to  about  from  50  to  60 
per  cent,  of  the  value  of  the  imports. 

I  append  a  detailed  statement  of  the  imports  and  exports  in  Mexico 
during  the  years  1826,  1827,  and  1828,  and  the  total  imports  and  exports 
during  the  year  1825. 

From  the  fiscal  year  1872-1873  our  Statistical  Bureau  began  to 
make  its  reports,  and  I  have  concised  them  in  the  three  annexed  state- 
ments comprising  most  of  those  years,  up  to  the  fiscal  year  ended  June 
30,  1896.  The  commodities  are  divided  in  their  respective  classes  in 
accordance  with  the  different  schedules  of  the  tariffs  then  in  force. 

MEXICAN    IMPORTS    AND    EXPORTS    FROM    1826    TO    1828. 


MERCHANDISE. 

Imports. 

Linen 

Wool 

Silk 

Cotton 

Mixed 

Wines,  liquors,  groceries 

Haberdashery 

Medicines,  drugs,  and  perfumeries 

Books,  blank  and  printed,  paper 

China,  fine  and  ordinary,  crystal  and  glass, 

Furniture,  of  wood  and  metal 

Machines     and    instruments    for    mining 

science,  and  the  arts 

Furs 

Gold  and  silver 

Total  imports 

Exports. 

Gold  and  silver 

Cochineal 

Indigo,  vanilla,  jalap,  and  sarsaparilla   . . , 
Other  articles  of  indigenous  products 

Total  exports 


1826. 


^,384,715 

934,295 

1.432,578 

5,017,700 

122,968 

2,SS8,o66 

728,236 

90,779 

1,430,039 

264,424 

91,910 

f)3.499 
912 

444 


1827. 


^2,180,191 
493.760 
844.732 

6,913,126 
107,108 

2,867,320 
489,402 
55,100 
495,743 
311,074 
103,047 

22,816 

4,517 
1,080 


182S. 


$1,711,051 

245,901 

398,003 

3,417,766 

38,654 

3,244,498 

306,614 

20,260 

130,638 

332,819 

57,187 

44.123 
318 


515,450,565     $14,889,016       $9,947,832 
Total  imports  in  1825:  $19,093,716. 


$5,847,795 

1,356,730 

76,440 

367,164 

$7,648,129 


^9,669,428  j $12,387,288 

912,049  1,483,746 

1,076,528  ,         448,747 

513,769  I         169,005 


$12,171,774  '$14,488,786 


Total  exports  in  1825  :  $5,085,235. 


156 


Statistical  IRotes  on  /iDejico. 


00 
00 


00 


CO 

o     o 

-t    o 

sO 

M 

O 

CI 

o 

^ 

OO 

O 

1^        CO 

O        m 

CO 

-t 

c< 

PI 

CI 

PI 

O 

CO           1-1 

CO       c< 

m 

CI 

r^ 

-», 

-t 

p< 

PI 

a> 

M 

OS       CT> 

1 

-       vO 

CO 

1^ 

to 

o 

CO 

o> 

o 

't 

r^      1- 

Os          >- 

i-( 

H^ 

CI 

I^ 

•+ 

CO 

00 

"3 

^ 

O      vO 

M           O 

Cl 

in 

CO 

CO 

CO 

-r 

-1- 

CO 

o     o 

OO         1^ 

CO 

O 

I  ^ 

-r 

O 

OS 

CO 

N 

-r     o 

C)        O 

o_ 

CO 

d 

CO 

CI 

i-( 

o 

xn 

oo 

IT) 

M 

ci" 

-f 

CO 

«& 

OO 

:      ^ 

vO 

~N      ■+ 

00       Ti- 

O 

CI 

O 

OO 

PI 

CO 

so             O 

CO 

N      o 

ct       ■* 

-t 

r^ 

»^ 

CO 

CO 

CO 

M                  ON 

OO 

o 

«       in 

O       r^ 

~ 

-t 

o 

t 

sO 

o 

N               ■+ 

> 

>n 

a>    o 

m      -f 

CO 

in 

in 

CO 

CO 

sO 

't         oo 

tr> 

w          CO 

in       CI 

q^ 

M 

OS 

1^ 

in 

M 

so 

- 

4> 

CO 

CO       O 

t^       1-1 

p-t 

CO 

M 

Os 

Os 

sO 

CO            so 

in 

1-      i^ 

CO     CO 

so 

0^ 

■i- 

r- 

so 

o 

-+             OO 

'o 

M 

in       CO 

CO      CI 

i^ 

CO 

I^ 

-J- 

r^ 

PI 

so            t^ 

> 

O 

)-( 

1-1 

CO 

tH 

M 

m     1     CO 

•-• 

«» 

PI 

HH 

1  «©• 

o 

O        m 

sC      o 

sO 

<:^ 

M 

O 

in 

"+ 

ON 

OO 

f)        m 

-t     •- 

CI 

CO 

r^ 

sO 

M 

^ 

O 

O       vO 

in       in 

-+ 

CI 

1^ 

o 

O 

sO 

CO 

ui 

CO 

OS         >-l 

'-'        -t 

t 

in 

sO 

so 

r» 

CO 

4) 

in 

CO           f4 

CO       r^ 

CO 

o> 

M 

m 

qs 

PI 

m 

3 

Q 

O 

O        >n 

Os           Os 

CO 

in 

CO 

CO 

oo" 

00 

M 

c< 

OS         OS 

CO       CO 

CO 

CO 

sO 

-i- 

Os 

CO 

PI 

in 

CO 

-t     o 

M        in 

-  o_ 

hH 

t^ 

i-i 

OO 

CO_ 

m 

ci 

OO 

^» 

t-« 

1-4 

«©■ 

e« 

1-1        in 

CO       i^ 

m 

o 

m 

PI 

•t 

OS 

c 

1         « 

(U 

t-i 

c<        I^ 

CO            M 

in 

CO 

O 

M 

o 

r- 

sO 

OO 

CS 

o- 

C)         C) 

-t        CI 

M 

in 

„ 

CO 

PI 

■"i- 

cc 

CO 

> 

CO 

in       OS 

•1-        so 

in 

M 

CI 

k-4 

PI 

-t 

OS 

CO 

O        CI 

t 

r^ 

CO 

OO 

o 

sO 

J^ 

•t 

■s               -t 

4) 

c> 

CO     oo" 

-f       so 

in 

o' 

Q 

-f 

pT 

co" 

T-   1  c^ 

CJ 

r^ 

O      CO 

r^       O^ 

in 

"1- 

SO 

PI 

c 

1                OS 

'o 

CO 

r^      OS 

N         I^ 

O 

CI 

M 

CO 

1^    1    I- 

r* 

r^ 

m" 

M 

P) 

CO 

C 

«» 

M 

'"' 

«§■ 

o 

C<          0^ 

t      -i- 

o 

M 

■* 

I^ 

M 

1- 

PI 

-^ 

ej       a 

■n-     'T 

M 

*-t 

m 

o 

N 

oo 

•t 

S 

lo     CO 

CO         w 

CO 

o 

m 

M 

o 

PI 

in 

U5 

-t      t^ 

OS     so 

1-1 

CO 

Os 

SO 

o^ 

m 

OS 

t) 

t^ 

rf      O 

CO      sO 

r^ 

q^ 

CO 

t^ 

CO 

t^ 

3 

N 

O       r^ 

r^      m 

OO 

co" 

CO 

00 

HH 

to 

t-i 

8 

O       f- 

1^            M 

m 

rf 

N 

o 

t-( 

PI 

CO 

Q 

r^     CO 

C<       r^ 

o_ 

M 

CO 

HH 

o 

-t- 

!>■ 

vO 

cf 

IH 

PI 

CO 

«e- 

1-1 

1 

€& 

-1- 

r^ 

sO 

fl 

CO 

zr~ 

PI 

M 

o 

c 

1             sO 

3 

CO 

Tl-      r-. 

O       sO 

o 

CO 

CO 

o 

OO 

o 

u 

■>            in 

CO 

"73 

CO 

f 

N 

O        T 

PI 

o 

OS 

l_l 

M 

O 

OO 

CO 

M 

r^      CO 

o      o 

in 

1^ 

M 

00 

O 

o 

ON 

J> 

in       o^ 

in      o 

M 

t-- 

I^ 

sO 

^ 

■* 

C 

^            CI 

0) 

■<t 

CO       sO 

t^       1- 

-r 

sO 

o 

sO 

in 

vO" 

^             o 

o 

r- 

~       O 

CO      r^ 

CO 

in 

r^ 

N 

CO 

CO 

c 

00 

"o 

CO 

CO 

CO      M 

CO 

CO 

CO 

PI 

sO 

w 

1          n 

> 

OO 

yA 

M 

CO 

c 

i          CO 

c 

</^ 

CI 

(— 1 

1    ^' 

CO 

~S 

o 

e»      sO 

in 

8 

CO 

O^ 

CO 

in 

PI 

m 

OS         Tj- 

m       Os 

CO 

O 

PI 

CO 

O 

m 

CO 

Os          OS 

rf      so 

in 

<* 

N 

tH 

p) 

sO 

t^ 

l/J 

O 

in       CO 

O          M 

r^ 

m 

CO 

OO 

rt 

•+ 

M 

<u 

q_ 

in       CO 

O        i-i 

CO 

i~i 

CI 

i-i 

o> 

l-t 

3 

Q 

m' 

CO      sO 

c 

-r 

-t 

CI 

r^ 

1-1 

m 

so 

CO 

o 

C 

t^ 

N 

CO 

t^ 

CO 

t 

PI 

sO 

CO 

CT- 

o 

fJ 

O 

hA 

M 

sO 

t-< 

CO 

ao_ 

4 

ti 

i-( 

M 

CO 

T 

«9. 

«i 

m 

~C 

N 

r^      1^ 

m 

CO 

OO 

m 

OO 

M 

~r 

4J 

3 

"* 

r-     OO 

CO         CO 

-+ 

•r 

OO 

t^ 

m 

o 

'"' 

CO 

CO 

> 

CO 

in      CO 

in       CO 

N 

o 

Tt 

00 

t^ 

t^ 

00 

CI 

*"* 

OS     r^ 

C 

in 

sO 

0^ 

in 

O 

PI 

O 

M 

CT> 

in       CO 

O^      in 

1-1 

CI 

PI 

PI 

q^ 

ir 

>        q. 

4) 

o" 

CO            !-•' 

CI 

CO 

(5 

o' 

co' 

-f 

in 

O 

s            sO* 

U 

CO 

CO 

m 

t-l 

r^ 

CO 

f^ 

o 

m 

PI 

sO 

'o 

O 

o 

^       O 

sO 

N 

l-t 

^ 

m 

r 

M 

> 

r^ 

l_l 

1-1 

CO 

t-t 

1-1 

pi 

o 

c 

<» 

1  ^ 

•— ' 

1    4» 

>-, 

u 

<u 

2    ^ 

^ 

'•C     in 

c 
o 

1/1 

C3 

13 

U) 

"S    b/j 

c 
o 

o 
U 

Z 
c 

■J 

o 
o 
o 

X 

CJ 

"s 

O 

1) 

c 

o    c 

3    ■>, 

3    n 

5    »- 
U 

13 

o 

M 

CJ 

CO 

■rS 

1-       in 

o 

ri 

CO 

d> 

o 

1^' 

" 

Pk 

1 

jforeiGu  UraOe. 


157 


I 


10   i-   O  »5   r»  oco  p)   M  c<^  t^  -)■  O  i-i 

-  t^ -r  CT>  r^  r»  -i-co  o>0  ot^muio 

-  C»   -T  -r  U-)  ci   M   n  r^  iri  OoD   in  -)■  11 

f>  iri  c^  »n  O  f^  !-•  t^oo  r»oo   O  i-i  »n  O 


rj-OO  CO    M 

t  o^  C^  tn 

rfco  O    >- 
»n  -I-  c^  O^ 

>-•__  CO  0_  O^ 


►H  U-) 


CO  M  c\  o  uico  en  'f  c*^  O  mco  >-t  CO  -xi  Tt" 
U1I-IO0CO00    CJOO^C    u-iCO    i^-i-O    'tN 

CO  r>,w  xrt  o  c/{  -f  (^  t^\c  "finc^u-ir^M 
CO  r^oo  O^  ■*  -+  »n  coo  CO  CO  O  C>  "-I  CO  t^ 
e<\0<0   0»n«DO>HvOCJOr^       t>>>r>o 


t^  CO  m  U-) 

•1-0  CO  -r 

u->  o  CO  >- 
CO  m  t^  CO 
i-T       i-T  CO 


0>0^M  ►-<  11  r^Ti-co<3co  fjco  0^0  O 
cOtnOO    TW   MCO    OTC^   CI   -1-C<   O 

r^  iH  vO  00"  O  ^n\0  r^C^'TO^  tr)CD  O 
'I-  r^oo  r^  >-c  CO  -rco  m  m  n  to  O  m  -< 
Tt\0    O^corrr*       O         Mco        »ni-<i-i 


w 

C)    N    0 

00 

0^1- 

0 

ii    C>  C) 

\J~i 

>H     T)-00 

w 

W    t  CO 

)^ 

0  r^  in 

vO 

cm:m^ 

c«  0\0 

O  CO  O^O  >-<  CT>0  in  r^  CO  OO  CO  co  N  ^0 
COCO  r<  CO  C^tXi  O  i-i  c<  -t  (N  O  xC  mco  O 
MOO'-iOcot^cor^coi-'"   ocoinr^ 

o"  rf  ^  CO  -^  rf  CO  i-T  r-i  o'  o"  CO  in  co"  O^  CO 
O  CO  :^  w  CT'  O^  Oco  O  ci  —  Or-incO"-i 
in  invO  O  CO  coco  \0  co  in  m  vO  in  C4 
CO  r^         M  «^  M 


CO  On  O  O 

Tf  o  coo 

M     >-<   CO     O 

cf  Tt  r^  CO 

»n  M   cT'  O 
CO  -t\0    !-• 

>-i       I-T  cT 


O'+'tcooococi  o  o  >-"co  o  *rco 
«ncoi-i  O  r^C)  r^M  or^r^ininwvo 
VO  c-J  coCT>cicoco  r»o  o  t^inO^Oco 


in  CO  >-*  m 
e<  i-<  CO  CO 


CO  O^  t^  1-1  O  t^O  O  i^  -t-oo  -I-  1-  i-i 
incocoincocoo  M  <-i  r^cocoOco 
OnO  i^  CO  'J-  O         -"O       O   Cl         CO 


O  t^O  T 
M  O  O  CO 
O  ►-  -+  in 


CO  00  in 

•r  CO  M 

CO  in  1-1 

ci  o'o' 

CO  c^  in 

O  m  in 


cooi^coin-^ino  mo  inN  O 
r~inoo"r^C>»np)  coNcor^m 
o  00  CTi  0>  O  •*  ino  Tit  M  in  r^ 
wcococo        cowcoco        -^  -t 


rn 

p» 

•t 

on 

ft 

'-' 

0>co 

r^  r^O 

M 

r^ 

r^ 

m  r^ 

000 

CO 

^-* 

CO 

0 

m 

in 

in 

CO  M 

ON  C) 

l^ 

ON 

o  c  :£^ 


"o  "3    S   <u   u: 


o  c 


-    "^    '"  13    ■'"    rt    iJ  Jii    ^  •  = 

i  w'  -J  1?^  c«  <-;  X  -y.  U  O  -H  1-1 E-  —  r-,  O  •<       J^       Ci       - 


C  C    l* 

"^  «  ;^  Js 
o         o   '^ 

.2  •--  g  -n  2i  s  ^ 

I-  c    P.  O    =    ?^    3 


158 


Statistical  IFlotes  on  /IDcjico. 


CO  «  w  ^  o 


vo    t^vO    O"  t 


oo  o  o  rn 
tC  rooo^  O^ 
r^vo  00  ir> 


00 

o 

^ 

o 

<» 

-**0    '^'O  O    0\l  ^ 

d"  r^  cT  "-"cd"  ■<?  s(f 

i.^'O    W  CO    O    M     o 


m  0^  rn  o^oo 


M  CO    M  CO    '^  t>* 

^^T  loco  fo  -^  -^ 
m  N  o  M  -^  M 
O  ^   M   t>|.  iri  tN. 


ro  o*  H  ««• 


«  I    M       « 


r^  o  M  Ov  t>.    ^ 


t^O  O  « 
O  00  o*  M 
00^00^  t>.  w 

O    N    <>  a 

t^  o  «  « 
d  cnoo  O 


vo    C4    O    -^CO  00    t^ 

-    t^  «    O  OO  MM 

vO_  M    O   ■«»■  r^  t>.  O 

M  m  irj  w  u->  00  oo 

O  -■   N  O  o*  ro  !-• 


r^ 

0 

I^VO 

•f 

■*  lOVO 

so    M^O^O 
«  CO    0^00^ 

ocT  ci  o*  t^ 
o>oo  »n  o 

•-*_  '«•  '^  ro 
4^ 


o  rs  o 

^vo  ro  U1VO  o* 
■^  ^  rT  c^  ro  c? 
Is.  m  m  hv  lO  o 
M_  ro  t;  N  00  a 
M  m"  rn 


vo 


vooo  m  ^  ov  eni 
M  t^  O  M  U-)  op  ; 
■<^  m  N  M  (s)  ^  I 

rooo  lA  -^-vo"  c> 
»-  >o  "^  M  n  o  i 
i:>  q_  »o  rr,v5  t^ 


m  c^  moo  t^ 


00 


f.  In.  t^  «  5  un 

00  to  N 

<>  (>  ro  M  -^  M 
ro  'O   O  vo  vo 


rv  vo 


4^ 


-  >  o  o  ro;  (s.,   cc  vD  t^  rs.co   ^  «  i 

m  ov  m  oi  ts.   00  fo  moo  u^   "^  2 


vo  -J-  t^  c^  ' 


vo  o  ro  rn  t^  r^   vo 


vo  IA\0  O*  Ov 


o  t»*  O  oo 

_'  ro  rn  t^  r^ 
_^  q_  ace  '^vo 

rnvcToo"  O  ■*  ( 


vo^  rn  -rvo^l  m_ 
\0  *0  X)  t^  o 


t^  mvo  oo  o 


t^  fO   00  o 


O  o  oo  m,  ^ 

O  CO  CO  o  t^ 


-i  -  fO  O^i  '*■ 
T,  •*  «  0   0 


^  vo  O  t^OO 
M  -J-  M  vo  ro 
\0  M  ro  Ovoo_ 
vo  CO  «  oivd" 


o  vo  •<^vo 
oo  (7>  m  lO 


vo  00  ( 

en  rn^ 


I  '«*-    ^00 


•«»■  vo  o  o 


-   _  _    -O  00 

M  N  c  't-co  vo 

"^  0^  cT  rovo  rC 

ft-)vo  'o  fovo  oo 

1^  fo  M_  av  CT'c*:> 

M   i-T  -^ 


-*!       m  O  00  M 


%0   O  -^VO       ^O 


r^ 

M 

0 

o- 

•Z 

0 

1 

VO   t**  O    '^ 


o^oo  \n  a> 


vo  o^  o  oo  C*  M  I- 

lO  ro  lA  ir>  *n  i^  m 

tx  "^  PI  "^  tN.  vo  O 

in  c>  '*co  t-T  lA  N 

vo  CO  m  o  ■^  w  c^ 


•^       00         00 


1 

^  n  c  o  : 
e  S  u  >-  -  _: 


vo  O  t>^  o 
O   r^  -^  o 


r^vo  f*l  "^     oo 


O    O  ro  t^        u^ 


-5^  ho  y 


VO  to   C-  « 
m  ro  M   ts. 

(>  MOO  orT 


m  -^  o  M  vo  c 


•^  O  «  tn  ■* 
VO   ■*  N  o-co 
",  f^oo  O  vo  ^ 
■^  -^  tCoc  N 


tN.  t^  >-.  NO  vo  Ov 
•*-vO  t-_  H^VO  ts. 
■i^  -^VO    lO  m'  O 

ro  «  00  -*■  •«• 
oo  «  »o  o 


o  ovoo  •*  fo  m      o^i  lo 
vor^'*»o-^t^      mo 


H     VO    M-; 


^ 


so 


o  moo  vo  lo  r^ 

«    in  lO  « 

•«f  \o  m  ■"!? 

MOO 

W  vo  oo 


<o 


•s 


^  lh    V-'^  2 


c  ^  >  £ 


a  ~s  z^ 


<  fa  cr,  (/:  ?-  ^^     fa 


2  £='5 


jj:-  H 


in  -f  M 
to  o  f  1 


•t;  o 


•io  3  ^  cZ  w 


"t2  "^  *«,; 


«  5  =^  (i 

«>   5!    Iv  •'^ 


C: 

invo       ts.co  c>  M 


^foreign  tirade. 


15^ 


I  append  a  statement  which  shows  the  imports  and  exports  of 
Mexico  during  the  two  fiscal  years  1 894-1895  and  1 895-1896,  both  by- 
countries  and  by  custom-houses,  and  the  imports  and  duties  by  coun- 
tries in  the  fiscal  years  1888-1889  and  1889-1890. 

Exports. — It  would  be  difficult  to  make  a  correct  statement  of  our 
exports  previous  to  the  fiscal  year  1867-1868.  Their  amount  was  very 
small  for  reasons  already  given,  and  as  they  principally  consisted  in 
silver,  and  almost  all  the  silver  coined  was  exported  the  coinage  of 
which  we  have  exact  records,  can  be  taken  as  the  amount  of  exports, 
with  the  addition  of  from  30  to  40  per  cent.,  representing  the  silver 
both  in  coin  and  bullion  smuggled.  I  give  a  correct  statement  of  our 
exports  of  agricultural  commodities  from  the  fiscal  year  1877-1878  to 
1895-1896,  and  also  a  statement  of  our  exports  of  other  commodities 
from  the  fiscal  year  1886-1887  to  1895-1896,  which  shows  the  rapid 
pace  at  which  they  are  increasing. 

The  exports  from  Mexico  are  embraced  in  the  following  articles  : 

MINERALS.  ANIMAL  PRODUCTS.  FRUITS. 

Chapopote. 
Coal. 

Copper  in  bars. 
Gold  and  silver  coin. 
Gold  and  silver  bullion. 
Lead  in  pigs. 
Onyx. 
Opals 


ANIMAL  PRODUCTS. 
Bones. 
Cattle. 

Chihuahua  terriers. 
Donkeys. 
Goats. 
Hair,  horse. 
Hair,  rabbit. 
Heron  feathers. 


Ores  of  silver,  copper,  and    Hides,  raw  and  tanned, 
lead.  Hoofs. 

Horns. 
AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS.  Horses. 
Beans.  Mules. 

Bitter  almonds  and  various    Ox  grease. 


fruits,  kernels. 
Chick-peas. 
Cocoa. 
Coffee. 
Honey. 
India-rubber. 
Molasses. 

Piloncillo  (brown  sugar). 
Sugar,  all  grades. 

FIBRES. 

Henequen. 

Ixtle. 

Mallows  fibre. 

Pita. 

Ramie. 

Sotol. 

Wool. 


Bananas. 

Cocoanuts. 

Lemons. 

Limes. 

Oranges. 

Pine  apples. 

Walnuts,  Nuevo  Leon. 

Tamarind  pulp. 

FORESTRY. 

Cabinet  woods,  mahogany, 
moral,  lind-aloe,  tepe- 
guaje,  cedar,  sandal,  eb- 
ony, and  rosewood. 

Dye  woods,  brasil,  camphor, 
moral,  and  other  varieties 
of  logwood. 

Orchilla. 

SUNDRIES. 

Copal,   chick,    and    sundry 

resinous  substances. 
Jalap,   and  other  medicinal 

herbs. 
Mother  of  pearl  shells. 
Pearls. 
Wax,  artificial    flowers  and    Tortoise  shell  from  the  Gulf 

figures.  of  Cortez. 

Woollen  and  worsted  Mexi-    Vanilla. 

can    plaids     or    blankets    Zacaton    brush   and    broom 
(Zarapes).  grasses. 


Sheep. 

Skins   of   sheep  and  goat, 

dressed  and  undressed. 

MANUFACTURES. 

Cotton,  linen,  worsted  and 
silk  domestic  shawls  (re- 
bozos). 

Guadalajara  earthenware. 

Maguey,  brandy  (Tequila 
and  mescal. 

Preserved  sweet  meats. 

Rag  puppets  and  dolls. 

Rags  (all  sorts). 


i6o 


Statistical  1HotC5  on  /IDerico. 


H 
Pi 
O 
»< 
X 

u 
Q 

2: 

S  00 

Q 
Z  Q 

<  Z 

00     Cv 

M  00 

o  T 

CO      T(- 

00     Ch 
w  00 


OS 

M 

00 

>- 

00 

■-I 

1 

< 

00 

•J 

00 

W 

00 

rn 

w 

oi 

hC 

< 

H 

u 

> 

iJ 

t-^ 

^ 

rn 

< 

U 

o 

VI 

CO 

3 

b 

O 

K 

td 

K 

S 

H 

O 

Z 

r/5 

"^ 

1:3 

en 

u 

(H 

n 

z 

< 

jforeion  Urabe.  i6i 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  value  of  metals  and  commodities 
exported  from  Mexico  during  the  fiscal  year  1895-1896,  which  shows 
that  they  are  all  either  mineral  or  agricultural  products,  these  being 
only  raw  materials  :  The  commodities  are  placed  in  the  order  of  their 
relative  importance  in  value. 

METALS. 

Gold  ore $160,555 

Gold  coin    169,794 

Gold  bullion 20,377,663 

Silver  ore 10,885,479 

Silver  coin 5,246,418 

Silver  bullion 26,345,160 

Sulphate  of  silver 1,030,156 

Foreign  gold  and  silver  and  silver  in  other  combina- 
tions         623,371 

Total 164,838,596 

COMMODITIES. 

Coffee $8,103,302 

Henequen 6,763,821 

Cabinet  and  dye  woods 4,206,880 

Copper 3,909,485 

Lead 2,531,624 

Live  animals 3. 546, 770 

Hides  and  skins 2,331,999 

Chewing  gum 1,527,838 

Tobacco 1 ,461,090 

Vanilla 1,428,675 

Ixtle 690,862 

Zacaton — broom  root 616,492 

Chick-peas 352,737 

Coal 270, 1 76 

Marble 258,668 

Fruits 246, 1 50 

Sugar 169,662 

Horse  hair,  beans,  and  jalap 247,768 

All  others 1,514,307 

Total 40,178,306 

$105,016,902 

VOL.  I — II 


l62 


statistical  IHotcs  on  /IDcrico. 


o 

H 

00 

00 


00 


o 

H 

X 

/', 

Ci 

D 

D 

Q 

1 

U           _! 

O  00  r* 

■* 

« 

o»  r^  in  N 

o- 

00 

t^ 

2   N   n^  O-  « 

t^ 

ro 

S,  t^  «.o  C>  1    o 

in 

«3 

J  a;  5  S  ""n 

00  00  r^  M  iH 

t; 

O; 

■♦ 

\o\£r  M  in  M 

8' 

o' 

rn  M  ►T  rC  c 

.»• 

^ 

M  f*^  ■*  0  a 

♦ 

o-  «  -^-.o  « 

1 

CO 

* 

c>  ■♦  t^  to  q_      t^ 

"« 

J? 

0 

q. 

Q.^ 

s 

«» 

«» 

^ 

«» 

o>-      c 

<» 

W 

«e 

M 

O           N^ 

1 

•"t-CO   two   0 

u 

ro 

VO  M  m  «  ►- 

0 

N 

«  "xo  «  m  1  vo 

moo  «  m  "■ 

1       in 

N 

to 

f 

V 

00__         «  00 

0 

N 

m 

in 

3 

l2&^' 

f 

o> 

"'"      S  ""  1   ^ 

w 

N 

«* 

<iS 

<» 

,  «» 

m 

M 

> 

c« 

«^ 

c» 

^  =»• 

t 

O    rt 

^- 

M  fo  m  0  o     .o 

o> 

lO  00  00    OIC 

t» 

to 

CO 

ss- 

00 

N  ■♦.o  m  <^  1    t~ 

o. 

•Si 

S^  o.  S 

^\o_       rj  m  1    o. 

t^ 

■^ 

00 

E 

rO.O   ■»  4 

6- 

CO      oo'  - 

oo' 

iC 

00 

in 

^ 

r^  \r.\o   N 

00 

•|5 

00        m  M 

i  ^ 

1 

IH 

lomN  -  0 

■    m 

^ 

o.  -t  •*'£  u- 

!  ■«■ 

p. 

t^ 

8 

0 

lO 

1       o- 

p- 

V 

00^  o^.o_  loa 

00 

rn  q_  M  ■»  ►- 

q 

q; 

_3 

^  J"  rnoo"  f' 

cf 

0* 

in  *  cf  in.£ 

'    o 

•^ 

(^ 

tC 

"rt 

r^  in  tnvo  o 

p. 

0  O  m  N  ■«•  ;    « 

■«■ 

1^ 

0 

1    m 

<» 

M  »  H  H  n 

1^ 

M 

q 

M 

> 

<» 

«» 

«» 

«» 

•» 

«» 

w" 

«» 

h 

5 

K 

1 

o 

«oo  lO  in  o 

1   *~ 

00 

O.  (^  cnoo  H 

■♦ 

00 

m 

OO 

■is 

E 

0_  «  in  in  <^ 

M  00  mio  o.  1    M 

? 

O; 

o. 

t3 

cfvo"  i-'vo    ir 

CO 

<> 

•^  in  cT  inw 

t~. 

(^ 

c 

J5 

o  o  «r  ov  0 

-* 

00 

o 

u 

O-  t^  inoo   r^ 

o* 

o. 

m  '♦oo  c?*  '«•  1    «_ 

^ 

t; 

M  —  H.  M  e 

<> 

^^ 

cT  fs"  cT  cTio 

^ 

m 

tC 

ei" 

« 

0\  M  00  o»  c 

N          VO 

o 

M.O  o  «  c 
o  invSio  c 

t^  M     '■J-  «     C 

h     oo 

^ 

* 

VO 

o- 

o- 

^      .O 

m 

.o 

t^ 

ft> 

"t  t  "  "  " 

o- 

o 

1^ 

t^ 

« 

^ 

m"  -^  m"  rr,  ■. 

•<*• 

i 

M     t^lO     0     "N 

m 

1        2 

MVO     W     M     O 

0 

mo  min  M 

a 

0 

"S 

1       5 

rt 

P4  00    0    0*00 

oo 

Oj  q.  N  fn  T 

r       0 

00 

*-* 

o 

o 

C« 

V* 

4» 

«» 

«» 

^ 

M 

0 

«» 

¥> 

«» 

< 

0  r^mio  o 

C4 

« 

-  0  r-.  o.  M 

1^   N     W     0     -^ 

00 

m 

0 

ro 

N    ■♦S-M    f 

1       lO 

■8 

u 

|i 

i 

rt 

00  «  O  fna 

q^ 

o  rn  M^  Ma 

m 

•^ 

00 

Q 

cc"  c>  t^  m  M 
0  o  m  ■«-  i~ 

o. 

% 

m>o'  o^  6-  0 
ro>5  -  m  N 

^      & 

? 

<g 

00 

M 

S 

^15 

m  -    <>  t;  ir 

-    "^ 

n 

t»i«>vO   C  C 

^ 

►^ 

^ 

; 

"^ 

tl 

lo'  in  -f  -^  ^ 

'l^ 

in  i^'  in  *  " 

'i      in 

m 

m 

m 

1 

m  t^  M  fo  f*- 

o 

O 

c  moif 

1       ■«■ 

in 

fa 

lO 

. 

N  o  f*.  fO  o 

t^ 

rooo  o  -^ 

h       r^ 

o- 

m 

rs 

■<-  m  «  V3_ 

r; 

CJ> 

lO    (>00_  1/ 

J      e 

1^ 

c«^ 

«» 

3 

■f 

rC 

c> 

«» 

«» 

4»       '«■ 

4» 

«« 

m 

«» 

< 

8 

O 

m  o>  i^io  o 

.        ^ 

r«. 

•     C  M     t^  '^ 

to           M 

00 

m 

fii 

(J 

.o  Ko-vo  i 

«5 

foo  1-  ^ 

.      o> 

M 

•i* 

lOiO   N-  vo   M 

lO  >noo  h 

r^ 

t^ 

00 

E 

cC 

c> 

00 

1^ 

•a 

c5 

nl 

CO 

o 

•|i2 

r^ 

fO 

r^  (^  ■.^  m  0 

„ 

lO 

o.  -  «  «  a 

N       rt 

ig 

■* 

0    0*00    C4.£ 

.o 

0O.O  xioo  ■« 

f       o 

r-. 

o 

«■ 

t; 

m  M  M  m  1/ 

1       00_^ 

VC 

3 

O  yD  in  rn  N 

00 

tC 

vo'  "'  ■*  t^  f 

■«■ 

lO 

r«  Ooo  o.a 

«■«■■»«•.< 

lO 

oo 

u 

r^  M  M  V 

!     *°, 

> 

^\ 

<o 

m"             r* 

m" 

tC 

(^ 

o 
> 

Vf 

<jj 

<•/> 

*s 

«e 

<» 

1    o 

00 

«-»■■«■  moo 

M 

^ 

o 

0 

«3   N   in  M   rJ 

■>   1    00 

rrvo    in  «    c 

5 

o. 

«J 

•o 

.»  M   N   <>  r» 

«3_ 

cj  -  q  f;oo 

t^ 

CJ 

q; 

8   OOO   O  r 

1           M 

d 

tCg    oilCv£ 

ig^ 

o. 

00 

00 

I 

"«■ 

•♦ 

00 

g- 

B 

d 

V 

r: 

c 

P. 

3 

rt 

3 
B 

c 

V 

C 

V 

a 

a 

rt 

>. 

rt 

>s 

ri 

- 

!; 

a 

u 

p. 

V 

^     c 

-  in«: 

B 

M 

.E 

«j 

o-  o  6>  o-  c 

V 

K, 

tm 

bo 

bo 

" 

^    1^00    O-  ( 

"2 

^      o 

« 

T  T  T  7  " 

T        "^ 

rt 

4) 

"B 

« 

00  CO  CO  00  e 

> 

o>  ooo  c 

""       o 

> 

o 

> 

H 

< 

oc 

OC 

a 

H 

< 

H 

< 

^foreign  Tirade. 


163 


VO 

00 
00 


o 

O 
u 

y 
u 

O 

H 
oi 

O 

x; 


c3 


rv  mvovo  w 

0  >o  0  I 

i^  ■*        in 

1/1.-      "^ 

N    CT-  w     0    P 

fo  ro  r*«  tN.\5 

00   to  ■<■  10  « 

s 

<  C  0  0  c 

tv. 

vo' 

VOVO      0*   M      M 

VO    0"  fOOO  CO 

t^ 

'"1 
d 

<^ 

Ov 

< 

0  -r  01  r^  N 

i 

VO 

N  VO   ro  ?  S        N 

5 

0 

«  »^  »^  s  ;f 

2 

00' 

■too'  0'  ■<?  10       «' 

0' 

•^ 

^ 

h 

•t    W    M    W    « 

0 

«   «   CO  ro  t<- 

«» 

4e 

«» 

<s 

«> 

°o    3 

<& 

<» 

<» 

_ 

V£)    f^^^    N 

!- 

ro 

M   tN.  0  ro  ■«• 

1  ^ 

VO          VO 

1  >o 

< 

a: 
X 
H 
0 

u  E  0  « 

00  «  -^^  0 

0  00"  cf  rC  ov 
00  ^  ON  '^  0 

M       1     VO 

t^         fO 

0  ,    t>^ 

VO  •«■  OVOOO 
10  ■*  M   0    r^ 
to  ro  vooo"  ro 
VOOO    5"  M    0 
ro  O;  0_  M  00 

VO 

dv 

HS5-> 

0'  rovO    CT^  rn 

00 

>o 

n"vo"oo  m"  cf 

00           tC 

N 

« 

C   " 

^    M     «      M     w 

<tt 

<S 

<» 

^  ^ 

ft 

1  «^ 

I 

.     I^M     ?>« 

t^ 

■*  0   jp  ovo 

•*■ 

fO 

tN 

lovo  0  >i  r^ 

H     <>VO     0  M 

VO 

r^ 

to 

4J 

M  H  10  t^ 

00 

IV. 

_3 

n 
> 

«■  o'oo  0" 
mco  VO 

0 

0' 

«   ro  0   ro  t^ 

ro 
VO 

0 

VO 

vo' 

VO 

m  M  M 

r^ 

N          «    W    M 

o- 

VO 

e© 

«» 

4» 

«© 

«© 

^^ 

«^ 

«»' 

J 

< 
0 
u 

1 

1 

1 

1 

•    r^OO    «    «     1      irj 

0^ 

w  00    ■♦  M    t«. 

M           VO 

VO 

2"  lovo   ro        o> 

I^ 

N  VO  00  VO    Ov 

l» 

i°i 

«   VO  a  •-._      00 

'7 

<>  CJ  w    rj^  VO 

VO         ov 

n' 

ro 

0    VO  -^CO         00 

VO   r^  «   0  f^ 

•^        VO 

ov 

•<*■  to  Ht    -^ 

t^ 

o>  N  t;  M  "_ 

ro      VO 

O^ 

'pi 

to  VO  <> 
00   ■«■  ro 

1 

fO 

vooo   0  rovo 

??l^ 

0 

0' 

«  "  «  w  iS" 

1^ 

to 

t~  N  VO    0  VO 

ct 

00 

to 

0    t^  0»  N    « 

00 

w   M    1^  ro  1^ 

VO 

V 

3 

■«- 

tCvo'  cfvo'  C<" 

00 

c^ 

^ 

to 

NO    t^OO    «    M 

VO 

VO     M     ON   VO   M 

00     tNNO     0^00 

0 

t>  0-  ro  0   <> 

q_     ^o 

Ct 

> 

±     ^  1 

00 

„- 

pj- 

^^ 

<» 

4»        "   "   " 

<^ 

«^ 

M 

«» 

«» 

Q 

/ 

0 

0 

5: 

1           1 

> 

ts.   M     »    ^*  "^ 

fooo  0  m  0 

^ 

"«■ 

00    0    0"  10  m"    1    VO     1 

ro 

o» 

to 

to 
VO 

0 

, 

vo^  irj  N  m  N 

v^ 

0^ 

to  VO  CJ  <>  tv 

**• 

^ 

vO_ 

■aie 

.S"  1.10  '^^ 

VO 

(> 

0'  ro  ro  ■*  a 

rT 

vcT 

^^ 

kC 

0    ■*^0    f*^00 

O- 

00   ro  ro  ov  ro 

00          CT"    1 

r. 

0 

"    ^  *0  ^  ^ 

O) 

M.    M     «   VO     N 

|«& 

00  '"f  \d"  -^  c> 

■«r 

i 

c£,  •»•  m'  m'  0' 
rrf-vf*©  00    M 

10 

_3 

Pill 

0 
0' 

0    1   00  1^  0  moo 
0      10  M  v5  ..r  1^ 

d"  '    (s  vo"  fo  m'  (-T 

? 

\ 

M 

>o 

> 

t^o  a-  0  0 

t^  '    00    •*■  1^  to  t^ 

I 

00 

0>  0"0  00   c 

CO        00    t^>0  VO    o- 

t^ 

[/) 

■♦^ 

<f*   1                                     rf, 

4» 

11*1 

0 

<» 

«^ 

<»                            «© 

0 

f- 

z 

1 

1 

I       1       1 

" 

0>  0     «    O-  M 

M             VO 

ro  t^  -    t~.  « 

Ov      \o 

v8 

VO 

^9>«M»§  )r> 

00             t^    1 

VO  VO  ro-O    t^ 

t^       rs 

tv 

\o^  ^  r^vo  w 

«    VO  N  VO    N 

00^       in 

IN. 

ov 

< 

■lie 

0  "roo'  0  "f 
"  2.  t-  S?  2" 

>o' 

00 

^vg'vS'S'^ 

*«•        ^ 

& 

tC 

r;  Ovo   0   0 

V 

m  w  t^  M 

t"^         Ov 

Nt 

vS 

|Sa 

>o"^  (>  10  fo 
<c   ■»  m  •♦  VO 

i 

0' 

ii'ii 

i  "8 

to 

cK 

K 

«•    E    „•    e 

p   ?    s   = 

< 

m 

>•  s 

> 

>    b 

"    t    s    « 

«     0.    ii     0.    1 

< 

«:       a 

t^oo   00^         C        M         rtm-4>  i^vc         C        1/1         C        M 
000000^0*      "*        0         OOO-OO^      •—        ij       •«        V 

w 

cx>  00  00  cc  00       yj       bo     GO  00  00  00  00       ^       M      „,       6d 

h. 

^Uu  2  c  ii3;u  -3  t  3  s 

1 

s 

M 

s 

ii 

^ 

0 

> 

2I 

'<2 

'■s 

^  c 

' 

0 

> 

<       i 

0 

?|l 

164 


statistical  IRotes  on  ^cjico. 


0 

■ 

K  0 

1   0 

10 

0 

m  1     0 

^ 

1  f-.  I 

1  -^-QO      ,      0 

-<t   -^   \^ 

r  0  1     m 

oc 

■♦ 

0 

00 

•^  t^oo  fn  - 

r. 

r^  0  m  in  •♦  1    r^ 

N  VO   invO  00    1     -^ 

«    0    '«*-00    1    *o 

c 

00 

K 

r^  (>  -*  ■♦  r^  1    « 

■C  t  ^  N  >o 

oc    -    en  0_  t-   1     0 

0    1*^00  'O    1     \r\ 

" 

H 

n  m-o  -r  m  \    « 

-'  -   <>  ro  1/ 

1       VO 

vo'  fC  ■♦  cf  I^  1      « 

in  'n  »o  tN.       m 

0*00  00  «  r^  1    0 

r^vo  •«■  m  ■«■  1     0- 

O;  en  ^  M_  S 

1       t-^ 

^ 

fik 

oo_  0  in  m  M 

m 

<>  -n  en  r^oo 

V 

►- 

^  t*.  «  0^       c> 

".I  "1  II 

0 

0 

«'  m  ••■  lovo 

■^ 

invo'^o'  >n  ri  1   vo' 

^  «'  -r  in  -vr   i     en 

a  0"  «  t^      <:> 

0 

tn 

U  10 

-C,«M             - 

- 

D  H 

«» 

«*■ 

«» 

«» 

«» 

<» 

«» 

<» 

<»  1 «»  11 

u 

•J  £ 

' 

z 

?£ 

_^ 

*> 

1 

1 

1 

11 

D 

►  —  Jj     . 

CO  m  0  w 

VO 

■«•  0- 1^  -♦00 

0 

00  l^  m  M   M        « 

00  m  «oc 

)       n 

< 

«    «  00    m          M 

t^  t^  «  o-^c 

i~. 

^  0»  M   encx)         en 

m  en  ♦0   1  00 

•— > 

"■!!  5  rt  0 
?•  5  i> 

r^  -  0  o^      « 

Noo  n  rnc 

1       VO 

«  «  et  r 

n      00 

0 

V    C    U    L. 

t^in^d  in       M 

rn  o>  m  0-  ■*  1    in 
en 

VO  en  ■♦  t^  in       en 

«    C4    •^                       M 

%'^^'c 

■>     VO 

H 

++++     + 

l+l 1+1+ 

+++4- 1 

1  + 

+++ 

+ 

m  «>o  •*  f 

,       ■♦• 

0  0  f^oo  r^  1    ■«- 

«  vO    W    1^00     '      M 

0   ■«■  eno    1     I^ 

oc 

en    II 

c  c  >. 

»o 

v5  t^  M-o  0 

\0  00    r^  -f  c 

O-  -    er.  c 

>      m 

00 

—  cj  0 

P.  m  M>o  ^ 

^ 

-,  CT)  <>  inoo 

■* 

f^oo  f^  ^  q:  ,     "} 

VO   en  -    0         0 

CJV              K. 

M 

vo  N  0  -*  - 

M 

n"  rC  cTotT  C 

^ 

0  <^  CO  *n*c 

1     0 

c?  •;;  0"  -     •* 

mmvo  VO       en 

en       S 

00   -4-  ii    t^  u- 

t^  0   "■   «   " 

>       t^ 

fri  t^  1-  0     ■*          « 

l~      0 

M 
>< 

6 
u 
u 

«» 

w  en  •♦  moo 

«»' 

t  "^  t  '^      in 

rn     00 

•J 

< 

CO 

0 

H 

1 

•-> 

c  !2 

M  in  Noovo 

■«■ 

«    Q>0  0   0 
00    OnOO    ►-    <N 

(?v 

M   g   m  «   0    i     « 
envo  ■♦VO  M      00 

00    ♦  N    C>  1    VO 

VO    '    0     II 

M  0  000  00 

"Si^&S  Is 

c^ 

«  <>-►•,■' 

-J  M_^0_  C>  ' 

"",  'I  "i  <>vo  1  « 

CJ-   1    00      II 

►T  M  CO    tC  » 
i-t  00   D*  t^  "■ 

? 

in  cT  en  in  « 

*o  0  'O  •*  «s 

^      eg" 

VO  VO    M    v«-v£5     1      t^ 

&00   2   en  1     0 

0-  1     0     II 

•n  0 

M  M  m^ff 

)       m 

«  ■«■  tnmoe 

-r 

e^  Ov  0  0  " 

2        °. 

enc>  tn  c 

00 

V^4 

^J2 

"  "  " 

•^ 

H     H     »     X      1       M 

"■ 

»«      1 

CO     1 

Pi  ' 

< 

CI      • 

i-i  t^  tn  «  00 

^ 

»-  M  en  ^  ^ 

*              b". 

in  ■«-  Q   o-  u 

1        ■«■ 

Ov  Q  en  c 

,1    en 

■♦       VO 

ss" 

5-  o>  f^co  f 
0  0  »  t^  u- 

o> 

0*  «  r^  c*  f 
«  0  *o  r^  -fl 

■               0 

Sg"g.S,l<S 

■8     3-    1 

.ss 

cT  d"  •♦  m  T 

r^  a  -  0  t- 

-  VO   ~   0   - 

•        00 

I-^vo   0   r 

00 

M  t^  0  a-  N 

^0 

M-O    I^  0          IH 

VO 

S5 

M    M    CJ  N^  ■■ 

■       ° 

t^  m  N  vC  vc 

t>. 

rJDOOO    «    u 

2       in 

r~  t^vo  i-_^       en 

. 

-    N    «    N    « 

Cl 

hT  pT  N^  ^  c 

la" 

m'  en  ■Tvo  1/ 

i       ■* 

ocT  m"  cToo       6 

^\  *  ll 

>J 

Id 

1      >4 

-30 

«» 

«» 

«» 

4» 

«» 

<©• 

^fr"  " 

«»> 

^U  il 

<    1 

> 

' 

_l 

i 

1      0 

C   tn 

0>  ■«•  t^  t^  u- 

>      -«• 

0  OvO    i-i    1/ 

1       0 

VO  ►!  «  r»  C 

^  1    m 

c^ooooo      VO 

en       00 

-6 

(^  o->o  «  0 

O-  «  rv  -*  ►- 

°,  ?^,  'X  ' 

-J-  CJ-  ■«■  u 

■♦      « 

1 

1^  -^  noo  00 

^, 

00  t;  ci^-o  « 

CJ;  invo_^  in  i    ■«■ 

m      0 

j:  u 

r^  ■«->ovo  r- 

vo' 

VO  tC  -?  invc 

1     ei 

00'  en  avo'cc 

s 

^-0'  cJ'  r 

n      c^ 

h-      en 

H    ' 

bSbS 
*jt  0 

vo  m  m  0  ■< 

-     >o 

in  M   N  00   « 

2     ^. 

m  «^  8  VO  ( 

-t  1    0 

W  VO    MVC 

>       en 

0       VO 

00  vq^o  t;  •< 

o_ 

in  CT;00_  en  P 

inoo  in  •> 

r       en 

"-      "i 

^3 

♦oo  iCoo*  C 

00' 

00' VO  inoo  00 

t^ 

vo'  C?  0  -f  >- 

0" 

■f  oovo"  ■■ 

in 

M            0 

4       it 

0      ~ 

M 

0 

Z  ( 

e  c  >> 

00  t^vooo  a 

K    '      M 

en  M   en«   CI 

<i 

f~oo  HOC 

00  M  00  m  C 

ts. 

r-i><K(. 

0 

1         t^ 

\ooo  r^t^a 

'          0 

en  e^oo   ^s  -<: 

r        r^ 

00  «  en  f 

♦ 

vc 

t^ 

u.a  c 

t^  «  0  «  « 

m  ■«•  m  occ 

vO_  M   CJ  en  ei 

-«--0   m  c 

^     VO 

cr 

VO 

Q 
H 

5  3  s 

lO    -^  «   e^oc 

M  ^  t^  en  r 

00   M    c>  1 

' 

1-       00 

m  0*  oi  0  c 

(T-en  t-~«   •< 

VO   0  «   «   H 

■«• 

00  VO   IT  c 

VC 

0 

«  -  n  •(■vo 

\2 

in  -rio  m  r 

!** 

en  moo  CO  vc 
4» 

VO 

> 

m  •♦  envc 

<» 

vc 

m 

^ 

1 

B  ui' 

'Z  E 

m  0  8  i^  i~ 

^         0» 

m  o-  a  «  M 

0 

00   ■«■  0  VO   H 

VO 

0  *«  .. 

r>        m 

VO 

^ 

«    -«-  t^^  (-■.vc 

r^ 

t-~  N  rt  .. 

^      »-< 

1  ;    0 

«  t!''^''^  ° 

°  "0  t  'l'^ 

O; 

vO_  0  t;  !>  li 

in  ♦VO  « 

M^ 

c 

^       0 

tCoo  -^  cTa 

en  eo  o'vO    M 

0'  -i-  C>vo'  C 

tC  rC  M  1 

-       en 

r^ 

e 

vo  0  m  m  ■< 

m  «  Ox  -^oo 

t^  m  N  t^  1- 

«  -O    ■♦  u 

■c^ 

M^  m  w_  q^oe 

O; 

in  ■«-  -a-vo^^vc 

envO_  en  t- 

1  " 

h        0 

0 

Hi 

^13 

«■  M  «  m  •< 

r       « 

in  ensoio    n 

■>       ■* 

enin  tC  tCvc 

VO 

vo  in  -f  r 

"*  1    *^ 

a 

1        ■♦ 

41      • 

\o  m  «~  0  t 

en  0  o>Ooc 

en 

0  enm  f»c 
v5  0  ■«■  m  < 

m 

r-  H  t 

s         0 

■»        tv 

M    >> 

t^  r^ooo  0 

-0    «    0  W    W 

o^,?S 

m 

< 

S  0 

o_  m  m  m  M 

0  q_  t-.  w  \o 

C; 

.S  j» 

p« 

M  inoo*  CT  •■ 

0 

0  «  e<  000c 

0 

enoo"  '♦OC 

CJv  M  ei  vZ 

00 

r^NO  't-oo  r 

^  !    "^ 

"  <O00    «    Q 

en  1-  CJ  c>  c 

w   e^  a>  -<■  u 

■ 

M 

;= 

"^  u 

0  «  0  «  ^o 

;      vo_ 

«  00   en  q_  e> 

1        r-- 

00  t^  t^  r 

2 

•3" 

H 

_) 

4» 

«»> 

en  ■♦  en  «   r 
4» 

«»- 

vo'vo'  tC  tCvc 

VO 

00  VO*  rCvc 

i 

►          4» 

tj 

Cd 

> 

0 

7. 

a 

c  2 

0  o>rn  t^M 

-'<! 

o«  «  o»  moc 

„ 

r»  0  •«■  c>e 

-       00 

r~  «  00a 

» 

"S 

VO 

00  00  M  0  r- 

0  ^^  rx  o-  - 

-«■ 

♦  r%  i^  r-  1. 

>      0 

c 

Di 

"  ^ 

■-.  t  "C  t  ° 

"i. 

0  Qv  r*vo  f 

■.       VO^ 

OVO   0    C 

1       00 

0 

(>(»"■*«■« 

1  '^ 

000   rnvo  vc 

•*KO     m'  M     ^ 

tC 

J    8 

00   t  r-~>Oa 

lO   en  l^  0   e 

-1       VO 

m  0-  r^  en  f 

•     00 

< 

t^  en  en  r*  r 

rv          (7, 

■♦VO   -   r 

^ 

1 

-   mo   ■«->0 

Ot 

0  mio  0  c 

S  1    0' 

vooo  ov  envc 

■<■ 

ig^ftv^S 

^      vS 

■1      0 

b: 

^s5 

M  M  S  «  a 

m-*  •♦*  ei 

T      4 

en  en  en  m  u 

1          ■<■ 

1 

* 

0 
tn 

• 

1 

1 

c  c ;; 

■£>  0<-  mx 

00 

o.en«  0  H 

en 

M   0    t-  H.    U 

1           M 

ft?82 

VO 

00 

f-* 

—  rt  0 

♦  r-oo  M  H 

<o 

«  m  1^  li.  c 

o-  en  om-c 

C^ 

1    00 

%  1      l-s 

>^  \o  tn  m^c 

VO   0    1^00  oc 

M  in  t^  en  c 

VO   0_^  en  r 

?        °, 

0! 

VO 

-f  in  en  -  vc 

vo'  rT  -f  m" 

VO   ■♦  -   C 

-C 

vo' 

0 

Eh 

< 

3 

M  m  vn  «  H 

1  «» 

t^  t^  c^  r^  H 

00 

0    «    M 
H             H 

«» 

M    H     M     ^ 

4» 

v< 

VO 

(k: 

1 

1 

0 

a 

fn  fn  t^  0  Q 

<o 

0  '    ■     - 

0  e*  0  r..  el 

VO 

M     0     ♦  U 

1        t- 

1        en 

Ok 

■<•  0  •<--9-  S 

0 

f,- 

CT-vo  m  mor 

VO 

menm  c 

-        0 

00 

00 

0 

^  eS 

CO  M  ^0    M\C 

r>vo__  invo_^  c 

t^  en  ♦  c 

- 

X 

j:  2 

0  M  0  »no( 

ft 

6-    ;   - 

^  cf  «  c^  r 

^      A 

i>  0'  0  ^ 

en 

in 

b£ 

«    ♦HOC 

^       ♦ 

•50 

1       1^ 

M^oo   w-  ^   r* 

-       ^ 

M_  «   en 

m 

min  ♦»; 

^     •♦ 

c 

r.       0- 

fe 

^2 

m«'               H 

M 

M                             H 

"  1 

1 

^ 

0 

t 

(H 

2' 

;;■ 

ki 

i2 

~2 

u 
a 

V 

■•      0 

Z 
« 

s 
u 

K 

■< 

a 

n 
u 
>- 

E. 

C3 
V 

> 
a 

> 

m 

■♦ 

QO    0  0    -    f* 

en  •*  invo  ^ 

e 

00   CJ-  0   M   w 

c 

m  - 

»-  mvc 

t^  r^cooooc 

00  00  00  00  oc 

0000  CJ-  0  c 

OvC>  0  C 

S 

^ 

c 

f- 

000000  00  oc 

CO  00  CO  00  oc 

0000  00  00  oc 

CO  00  00  oc 

— 

u 

u 

V 

u 

v 

V 

< 

1    1    r    i    1 
tN.CO   (>  0   *• 

tc 

l^^M 

_co 

;Lci^ii 

00  ejo  00  0  c 

^to 

i3;.ii 

,      bit 

"C! 

_U) 

h, 

rv  r^  t^QO  oc 

'> 

% 

-    V 

O-  CJ-  c>  c 

*■     "> 

c 

V 

" 

"5 

"5 

» 

< 

cr 

cr 

OC 

a 

<; 

01 

oc 

oc 

or 

^ 

< 

or 

oc 

< 

H 

<s 

II 

T3C 


jr  4j  VO   en  e*   ; 

♦        o  •♦■«•■«•< 


^.:2s 


6: 


0-5  5 


u^         -S 


o  2 


e-c- 

S  P. 


ii  t)  «;  „ 

'o  o  *-  -  - 


^'SF- 


CO- 


of 

u    to  — 


V—  "^    O  ■-   - 

C     "    =    I,  ; 

o  v.S  •-  - 

,*5  =  3  >  - 
fa--  St; 
f  J'  ox  J 


•o  ~  "  s  I 

c  ^■o  o  J 

u  >-   el  »l  ? 

U  U    u  ^ 


I 


jfoieiQu  Era^e. 


165 


OS 
00 


o 

•— > 
o 

H 


00 
00 


l~ 

!J>8S 

^88 

8^8 

M  Ov  m 

0- 

3>         2." 

^So^^^^'cS-a^.^fS 

0 

CO               «e 

D   CTVO   -iI-  m  «  00  >o.  r^  0   N    o_^ 

1                t^ 

iC  ro  m  M  >n  «  t^  000   jco  00 

ro 

m      miot^mo>^'^f^c>r^»o 

■«•           t^^-            in-<-«*-^ 

00 

M 

^                                        VOVO    ■-•    0    " 

Ov 

» 

J_ 

«» 

:8828  : 

>o  t~.  0 

MOM 

00    «    ov 

VO"^' 

W                         '. 

t    «    •♦  0  CT»    • 

0  0  M  ■«•  r-og 

n 

0            ! 

•  00    CT*  t-"    M      • 

0  M   r^  m  i/^vo 

t^ 

00 

.   ro  m\o    N     • 

i          ': 
0* 

1    M    C    p7  ■^     \ 

cf.  m'  fH  c>  -»■  0' 

vo 

'.             vo   "     I 

«    KvO    t^00_^   N 

c^. 

00 

vo"  li       00    m' 

"9. 

ro 

:<»           : 

«©• 

:  8  8"S8  : 

0  00    0    t^  M  00 

t^vo  -^oo  •«■  m 

'r<1 

o"               '. 

: 0  *o  «  • 
:  ,S  8  >o  S  : 

«  CO    C>  •-■    M  00 

s. 

o- 

m  VDCO   t^vo   in 

Ov 

0  Ov  -vrco  vo  0 

!  M   ro  r>No"    '. 

M  0-  -vroo  ■*  rn 

0-          : 

M   m  o*    . 

Tf  1000  vo  o>  0 

H    N   0   ro  rooo 

vo 

00 

tC  m     vo' 

00 

« 

:«©•           : 

«» 

t^\o  0  "^  0    • 

N    10  0  fO  t^  ■* 

~st~ 

0    t^  N    C*    0  VO 

Ov 

6\ 

00  r^^  t^  "^   • 

l^  «    t^  t^  OvvO 

•* 

00             \ 

00    U-)  (M     0    "1     • 
t>.  O;  -^  >n  «     • 

■*vo  m  -too  in 

1                  ' 

C>  m"  iri  (^  f^    I 

•^  cf  vrT  (^  (^00 

in 

s      ; 

U-)  «  00    to  CN    Ov 

ro  c<     I 

M  vo  vo     N  vo     (^ 

r^ 

CO 

vo^  N          1^ 

00 

<» 

^ 

8    8  00   c<   8     ; 

m  rovo  «  e--  M 
CO  N  00  'N  o-m 

p^ 

00 

«    M  00    t^  ^ 

fo  w  t^  (^  m  C3V 

t^ 

00 

t^  0  t^  *  0 

m  u-i  "  0  0  vo 

00 

00  c^  M  oo_  m  r>. 

1                  '. 

M  00     m"   tCotT 

«  •*•  "  •'■CO  tj 

\o 

10       c<  -^  0 

U-)  0    •«•<»    N    « 

8, 

rr>M 

"      ; 

^ 

vo^vo"       m 

<«■ 

■«■  Q     t^  0  ■" 

c)  000  0  t^ 

t^vo  invo  000 

vo 

fovo  00  «  t^vo 

m 

r^ 

■.?•  0    0  VO  00 

♦  mo-roNVO 

N 

■fl-  0   N   0   "1 

00  m  m  0  00  0 

0 

00 

in  t>-  r^  moo  vn 

inoo  \n  ov  tC  in 
o-vo  in  in  tn  " 

0' 

m  m  CT  m  r^QO 

m 

"S 

in  M        rn 

ro 

«» 

«S 

8  8%v8ft 

r-voo  r-.  N  -"t  0    1   _<T) 

fOOOOO  vo  00   t^ 

00 

V3 

t^  0  ■*  o^oo 

N   r^  r^  rr.vo  « 

g 

00 

«  in  t^  p<  f^ 

ov  rft  invo    m  Qv 

0 

10  «^vo  tn  0 

1 

10  mio  0  vD 

;  vo  -^  c>  tC  a.vo" 

"S 

«          lO  O-  M 

.  in  M  vo  -«■  0  - 

0 

CO 

o_  c>  N  00  'I 

c> 

:<^ 

:     i^jT     „' 

s 

J00Q>O'^00rp  >i}tc   M   r-- 
S-^OO-o-womoOo^om 

Ov 

00* 

V.VO  vo    f^Ot^O    t-'OO    MOOVO    0 

0 

00                 " 

-.  vo  o__  •«:■«-  o_  inoo_  H_  N  H  oo_  "J; 

0_ 

7 

00  N  -^  C5  m"       r^  m*  -^ocT  n  n 

■f 

-V 

^  a^  CT'       o>oo  o>  t".  ro  --r 

1^ 

p^ 

" 

""  cT    " 

s 

« 

» 

<» 

g8  88S;S'g;K?S  : 

00   0- 

S. 

Ov« 

CO 

00 

u-ip    p    t^«vo   «^2    tQ 

invo 

to 

00 

00 

4  M  mcooooo  m  moo 

rooD 

1 

'^'^ii.iitit 

00    CT- 

ro 

m 

Ov  0 

t^ 

vo    M          N    CO  CJ 

00 

00 

""c? 

CO 

< 

» 

1 «» 

-  0    •  vo  en  0 

.  CMn  0 

^d^ 

1    0- 

•  *  : 

C3V  C«    0 

.  in  M  Ov 

N    N 

vo 

m 

\  \n   \ 

■2  '5'S 
VO  ro  0 

;  moo  m 

O-  « 

1     h^ 

00 

•    C4 

00 

■    °, 

°   °,  '^ 

•  vo_^  (>  in 

VO 

1 

00"  00*"  m" 

;  vo  rna 

,    -^  t^vo 

o-  0 

M     5   S 

.  M  tv  0 

vo 

CO 

:<» 

;        •«■  f' 

s 
» 

irs. 

3 

u 
0  J 

:  c 

.E  '"° 

0   w   " 

' 'c 

'8-5 

u 

< 

> 

.J 
U 

z 

u 

s 

3   3 
0   0   ^ 

^  bo  c*« 

0       _ 

0 

tC  CJO  «--■-;--; --    >    >    >    >    ;- — 

1.1.,-flOOOO  —  — — :— :—  3 

1 

<;< 

(a 

3COO 

Co 

17 

3WC 

ou 

5cr 

)-  <N  t-^  o  moo  m  ts.  10 


rN.^o  m  o  ► 
.  ..  -  .  o  moo  m  t 
-*  moo  o  ^  O  a*  > 


■*  moo  t^oo  m  o 
m  m  t^  m  «  m  ■^ 
w  ro  m  c^  O  ^^  -^ 
i-T  -^  0^00  ^o  r^  t^ 


OON  roM  mo  r-'-  noo  O  O  co 
C*-*  ONfotN  c*  t>»O^N  r^m  ovco  ** 


.0  N  mm'.i-o  m-*©  -^^ 

m  ■-*-'0  vo  00  «  vo  ►-  r^  Q  ' 
imr^M  f  woo  -^"^o  Q<^ 
1  moo  m  m^o  U3  t^  -  m  O  • 


«» 


\0  o 


m  O  »nvo  Q  O  moo  m  O 


'-00 

00  o^  O  t^  O  f^  m^  t^  O  ■*  O"'  moo 
00  t-H\o  H  00  ^  tN.  m  o  t^  SP°2.  t'j;:; 
«  «  t^  H  00  m  0_^  *^  "^  ^  ^  ^°° 

^^  M  o  o)  moo  •-.  M 

m       moo  CO 


m  H 


■^^N  r-0  mco  t^«^ 
■  -^  O  mvO  vo  -  M_  0_<>^ 
(N"c>mMmm«M"m 


CTw^OCIOO^Om^h 

-  O   H  vo  t-.  mvo   ■*  t^  O 
M  N  00  00  i-«  mm  r^v© 


.  6  m  h-oo  00  t^ 
Tf  t-.  tv-oo  m  o 

co'  m"  tC  <>  pT 
m  M  ■*  o 

M  M  VO 


8\0  vo    O    t^  O  00    Q    r*^0O    t*.  Q    I 
o  O'moo'O  o  O  m'O  O  i 

-*  c  •-■  moo  o  o  mvo  moo 
o  movO  mMO  t^m  tN.vo  O 
M   O  vo  vo   O       CO  o   -^vo   o%oo 


•♦OO    O  00 


m< 


5  do 


vo    O 

0*0  r*O00  t-^mO  O  t^ 
m  -^vO  r*  M  m,  M  vO  N  ON 
sCCT't^"^       mr^txO^c*^ 


O  00   N 


.  m  m  o  O  vo 

O    m  m  Ov  Ov 

I    N  00  vo    M^  Ov 

N^co  m  tC  in 
00  «       « vo 


3  o 


be 


M    O 
00   ■* 


mpQOOUOUOUOO 


i66 


Statistical  IRotcs  on  /IDejico. 


3.8S88 

a 

8 

8=5 

88a 

- 

? 

^ 

?. 

8 

J! 

mo  0  m  ♦  u- 
0  M  o  o  0  w 

s- 

CN 

8a88 

s 

Svas 

£-3 

1        ?     1 

o- 

TS"S.8.<§?8cS»8 

«'00«o-«-o>QiO'«-m-ON'n  moo  ■♦  m  m  m  uivo  oo  ■<■  >o           oo 
0'Q««-oor«omi-it~.«oo>nr»>--*m  looo  m   •«■  n  t»  o  ci 

00 

&-i5  N  r»*mor«iC3Mn>n'n«  >nm-«-  r.vo  momM  ro-  m  o 

m 

7 

»rt^o^c>tCd'<>M'inc>  iN.sd  ocr?ro»f^t^f*>«tsiofOfnt^6'«'^o*f^      »n  cf  oo  looo  ^ 

CO 

C3           w-^r-tflw           o« 

in  r»>0   •«•        w-«-«i-ivO'«-M10M   o>vo   m        t^  M   «               m 

o» 

(>                                                                    M 

en  M               lo                ■?      "                 "^ 

« 

VO                                                       M 

00 

4^ 

<A 

^8&?8888.S  : 

o  rv  t^  o*  c  ooo  oo»o  Ooovo  o  mO  t^o  ooooT^*oo^^ 

a 

M 

"«osocn«  **  o^o  ••■ 

O  0  o   -r  1^00  to  o  rx  •*  «  oo  iri^o  nN^u^MMm^i-i-ooir 
«oo  lAr^r^m-^^me^  rn>o  r^  o  oo  o  m  m  o  >^oo  m  »a»c  ^  ^o 

o 

00 

fS)  ♦  f;  r:  "^  °:  "0     "-  • 

sO  vo  1^00  *  »^  ►^  ^-  "^  '^       "^^^  "^  -^  c^  «  *n  «  r^oo  o  w  o  m  1^     ]      oo      | 

I 

m'«  co'  d^oo"  rC  rC      ml 

■i  <ioo'  -'oo  rT  t^  r^  rC  rC       lo  o'oo'  •*  m  tC  fC       m'  m  «  >o  m  o'  «' 

(4 

•<•      M  m      -  -       0    . 

w*^i/>I^OP*»Om          Nt^OOO"^    O^OO                 1^  «    M          M 

o 

t~                                ►• 

QO 

00 
4» 

tC                                             m" 

o 

4» 

?888888S.5r8 

0>na>c>minr~»'*QOOO<oincno-oooo>n'«-Qooo 
0  rs»o  •*•  M  IN.  mo  ooot^w^»n«»0'*«0'Ooo^oooc 

1  s 

g. 

t^  \n  in>o  m  ••■  o  t~  -   "■ 

w  o  -^o  r^.  in  u-»  0  en  o  -  ooo  o\t^win*o*oooa»a»wi/im      1       tn     1 

■»<ncirno«r^M>no 

00 

ooo_NMW«moOoo»-ro  r^oo  «•*•■*-        r^pna»ot^«xO 

i. 

rf«r«'in«moOM'oo'oo>oooMm-«-tviot^O>o        (~o>o-Oinoo«        •♦«o.iHioMif 

<0  "   "   "              00        »o    « 

a»  0  »o  a^oo  WW           o  r^  t^  o  w  t^^      m  o  w  «  *- 

rr«                    00                    vCmiommm^ 

o 

VO    M 

t^ 

oo 

tc 

S88KJ88888S 

>.oooo-ooM>oirnn6oi«00>OtnNin8'OMt^  •*«)  0  o 

1     ? 

(> 

MMmnOMO^Nr 

•  00  «  t>  ^  t^  r^co  n  mo  r^a««Of<>>-iOo  ooo  i/^m'O  mooo  •- 

♦ 

s 

t^K,  ►,  „  t-oft  •«-~vo 

,   .  v5  in  r^oo  in  o  -^  l/^  o  m  c^  0__  M^  5  oo  m  in  m  m  ooo  lO  t^  r^  ^ 

lO 

GO 

M  M  m  c>  ■*  m  8,  ■♦■o_  r» 

o 

1 

1^00    lO-^w'M'iocrfOi/ 

1   I  id"  N  «'oo  ■^m"'^w"o"       iC^i-*tC^o"«M"N"o"wfn«"      ic 
J  .        i^-o  in«MOHc(      vom  moo  «>nin      mSmmm 

m 

03 

r^  N       «            m       m  f 

o 

OO 

r* 

00            M       m                ♦Mm                         M 

«» 

:     >o 

in 

A 

•«■   • 

88:§88S>82 

•  ■♦o  •«•  ♦0  >o  «  8i  8 

m  m  ■«■  m  m  o  •• 
m  t^oo  m  m  m  •-• 

c*  mo  m  0  0  m      ,       tn 
mOfOt^r.O«             m 

CO 

^ 

^   .  e^  o  moo  mvo  f"»»o  m 

o  o  o  m  PI  t^  t^ 

go  o  ti  t^  o  m            "■ 
OO^oOMm           00 

VO 

-OmmMODnTONQ" 
•  «   -r-^pnmwo   oo 

m  1^  m  M  o  o  M 

«    O  00    1^  O  J    o 

mooo   OM^mO^O 

N    t^  -  v5    «    wO 

VO 

1 

O 

.moo-oo^ow 

M  m  o  03  00  •«■  m 

vo  m  -  o  c~      m      1       t~ 

1^ 

■«■ 

«  m*C  ^   tN'O  w  so 

oo-o  N  o  «  ■«•  m 

0     O     -     H 

o> 

00 

M     H 

M 

00 

«> 

:    lo' 

M 

4» 

00 

888888S;: 

.mOQOMOOinO 
•  vo  1-  0  00  m  •*'0  00  o 

(~.  m  «  0  -  g  m 
M   -woo  00>O>O   t~ 

o  mjo  m  - 
00  M  0  moo 

§ 

m 

:^ 

o 

o»  fn  fr  o  0  o  "»• 

-   t^oo   O  w   ON   -  »o   o 

m  t^  o  o  o  *-  ♦ 

g  m  m  m  N 
5.  o  m  m  w 

1/ 

>            t^ 

00 

•  r^N"rot>io-»mo 

O  0  -O   l^oD  og  - 

00 

>o 

w_  u-i  o    <^  «    «H_00_^ 

-   t^vc  *0    ■*  moo  00  VO   t^ 

«  m  o*  m  0  m 

o 

i 

oo 

•i-  rf  oo'  cJ  CJ-00    •* 

.  ^M   -^mofjoo  mo 

moo  o  M  «  Q  m 

C*             1^  1^  M  O    M 

O  m  o  0  m 

0   -«•  m  c^>o   -^  " 
o            11        m 

r^ 

M 

m           ♦       " 

M      M 

" 

«» 

'^• 

o 

s? 

8  f»  1^8  8  o  S  < 

-  m  0  -^-oo  00  o  rv  Q  O 
•  «  moo  m  «  m  <»■  0  o 

••■  g  ■♦  «  t»  m  M 
M  a  t^  m  o  r»  M 

O   O   <--00   Q 

m  m  o  ♦  o 

1 

t^ 

vd 

CO 

000->riOO>lMC 

•  mo  m  moo  o  N  «  o 

♦  oo   0   O   «   m^S. 

O  00  o>o  o 

(. 

*                   N 

.  C4  »   iy~  moo  00  r^  m  w 

t^  m^  m  o 

♦ 

oo 

-««•*M■^^oomM 

on    moo   O  M 

oo_  f;  O,*©  oo_^ 

m 

1 

00 

■*  O  Ov«   t~  0    m>c 

.    -^  O  O  M  00   o  m  ■♦>o 

m  m  m  «  m  moo 

m"  «  o'oo  m 

lO 

«   m  t^  o  "  !^  M 

00          ♦  M    M  00 

t^  m- 

t~ 

00 

o            «  X  m 

♦          o        ♦ 

1      o_ 

« 

cT 

oo' 

M 

<» 

N 

8^ 

f.  8  6  m 

omi^oornm-i-OQ 

■O  O  g  ♦  1^  0  m 
o  m  6  O  0   0  ti 

0  og  o  0  0  c 
m  r»  8  m  m  0  c 

s" 

u", 

n^ 

^  \r 

lO  0    "lOO 

mo  0  t^  M  r^vo  mvo  m 

oo  O  O    N    N    Ov 

m  ooo  m  r~  o>o 

N   O  r^  m  1^  ♦  ?■ 
r~>0  f.  0  CO  M  .. 

o 

%\ 

m  !n  0  « 

i^o   c  i-oo>0  mM  M  m 

01 

00 

o  t~-  •>•  o 

m  N  t^  mo  m  M  m  ^*  o 

t^  ♦  O  M   o  O   u 

2          o_ 

1 

M  00    -♦  •«• 

O  «  00  m  rvo  o  « lO  m 

o  M  ooo  m  -  ♦ 

m  ci  m  o  m  m  •- 

00  MOO  m  1^  m 

N       o  o~  00  « 

(^  0 

m 

•^ 

o  -                o 

m           ♦ 

<• 

00 

00 

s> 

m 

4» 

0 

ffS 

«  0  2'o;-' 

1-  o  «  m  o>o  o  0  -rio  m  g  mo  Mmooooooo  mo  Q  O  c 
)5om«t~000  ♦oo  5f^'«-oor>.oSoc<-«-m«ooc 

O 

0? 

moo 

8S-8'^,f 

CTM  00    O  P 

n  o  o  o  N  TO  mo  o  o  m  o  t^oo  o  o  t^mmmrio  m«  mc 
noco  MO  0  ommmo  ovo  t^-  mmt^w  m  moo  o  r^  o      o 
^  r^  0  0  r<  t;  ♦oo  "*  '^  T  *^  ■♦^  'O^'^'^^'^^'^T'I'?     ^ 

00 

00 

rx 

m  ^ 

1 

tC 

m'  o"       od   - 

m  mo  o  «  in  ♦o  m  Sc6       m  o  o"  **■♦      mmmmm      r 

T            >n 

rr, 

o 

*        r~ 

oot^0-*f^m          oo       rv«-w            t%m 

O 

00 

r«. 

►<_►•«■«■                 M            o 

« 

^S- 

00 

^s- 

88 

888^ 

•  Q  «  ■*<>  i~.«om>.ogmo-ooooO 

•  0  mo  mt^t^mw  ♦©  000  mM  m  ♦o  o 

Sor:g8ss>s 

s 

en 

■^ 

O    f. 

tN.  0  00  a» 

^0-«>~l^NOm«0^0*m-0«m'«- 

'S?S.8«H^"S 

■>          ♦ 

•o 

flOO 

-  0  w  OOO  oooo  mmf^mm  r^o  m  o  ^o  0 

00 

o  «  M  n  m      u 

1           ♦ 

*♦«"«' inMO      o*^       tC       g^tC  mo3 
MMom      om          ♦      om      « 

1 

.  ••  o 

N-  00       oo 

♦  oooo  M  M 

•♦ 

? 

«        r. 

t~  w 

« 

m  M       M       m                            o 

♦ 

oo 

J" 

m 

r^ 

«> 

4» 

H 

"3 

V 

41 

C 

o 

V 

c 

•c 

K 

c 

3 

h 

D 

> 

3 

A 

H 

2 

O 

J 

•o 

.2 

Si 

i 

O 

u 

■A 

H 

z 
o 
z 

n  : 

c 

;i 

'•  r 

;^ 

:  > 

'  c 
>  E 

<k2. 

t 
C 

•1 

b 
1 

c 
C 

J 

1 

•  E 

)    3 

3  >,  - 
50r 

c 
c 

4 

C 

c 

c 
c 

> 

c 

r 

o. 

T3 

S 

i. 

£ 

f 

u 

E 

Ui 

; 
t 

n 

'a 

c 

V 

3 

J. 

^ 

u 

c 

: 

c 
r 

c 
■  r 

c 

i 

« 
c 

(2 

IT 

1 

ft* 
ct 
CJ 

jforeign  UraC)e. 


167 


5 

8 

5;  "53 

a  8 

8 

S 

01     r»     J 

00      m     0      m     f 
m     m     tt     r^    NO 

In 

o> 

« 

00 

ro      CT*      M 

oc 

«        Q        0        1^       0     VO 

M 

■« 

(H 

m     0 

0 

0 

0 

0      6        "*•      « 

•+     m     in     ro 

t^     r- 

oc 

00    v5     q^     cj     cr    -o 

>o 

m 

NO 

•♦ 

Jl. 

§ 

r^     -"f     >-. 

j; 

00      m'     -f    \o'     >o 

8.  vg^   " 

NO 

i,. 

i, 

0. 

^ 

ON 

C7- 

NO 

00 

00 

00' 

NO 

« 

<» 

«» 

- 

<3 

8.  ^ 

>8^ 

5-  8    8 

CO       x 

c 

»       0       NO 

"^ 

8 

? 

00 

0 

,^ 

iri      0 

00 

oc 

m     0 

>o 

M 

NO 

H 

00 

tN         0 

-♦ 

cn 

<?• 

■«■«»« 

>o      ^ 

•< 

0 

■*       NO 

m      m 

s 

00 

00 

c 

4-     ■«■     t^     r*     r^     »n 

C4 

1 

o>     ■-> 

^ 

^     « 

in     ■«•     m     0*     w 

NC 

cn 

6 

>o 

fo     0 

n 

0 

«^         M 

§ 

a- 

M 

0 

r. 

u^ 

00 

cr 

« 

r^ 

« 

«» 

4» 

'    ob~ 

"0 

in      \r 

g 

0 

8 

ti     •*■     0 

NO 

in     0 

d 

*o 

""no" 

10         IT 

0 

00 

H 

t>      0\    lO 

« 

m     ■«•     « 

•♦ 

1 

m 

1^         t»>        (3V        H 

e*^      ■* 

n 

00 

NO 

0.        « 

00 

NO 

0^ 

OQ 

a 

rt>      li- 

0 

m     M 

O- 

00 

M 

6.     « 

£>        t 

« 

<» 

00 

5 

i, 

>c 

IT 

f' 

ce 

1         t^        M 

ON        NO 

no' 

0 

>o 

f     rt      ■«-     M 

m     « 

In 

00 

t- 

<> 

o> 

o- 

(^ 

■^ 

00 

4» 

i 

■«•" 

"« 

0 

in^^ 

<> 

0 

t>.     m     0 

in     m     M 

0 

t^ 

m 

•<r 

in    00 

G 

en     in 

Oi     >» 

0 

M 

C>         tN          t~.         0 

0 

S' 

■*• 

0      ■<■     00 

C 

0 

« 

1/. 

rr 

On      m      *♦       ^     NO 

0 

00 

s 

VO 

(-    00 

a 

IN       0 

r^     w 

NO 

10 

■^ 

00 

O; 

0 

1^         M 

oc 

<C 

t< 

1     ON     m     « 

0 

1 

tn 

ti          M 

0 

0 

»> 

NO 

1    c 

0 

00 

>o 

o^     « 

r^     (*l     ro     « 

Sn      &      t^ 

r^ 

CO 

« 

C 

o> 

c^ 

f* 

-^ 

M 

M 

»" 

N 

4» 

in 

"00 

<n       00 

QQ 

VO 

0 

0 

8 

m     NO    NO 

0 

in 

r* 

CO 

ti.    0 

0 

0 

IT 

u- 

m     0 

NO 

•»     m 

vO 

00 

M 

■*     0 

O. 

VO 

00 

r>i 

•«•   « 

CO 

>o 

fO 

0 

00 

0 

r^ 

VC 

Ov    KO 

r-       ^      On      " 

N 

0^ 

t^     m     ■* 

o_ 

ON     0     m    vo 

0 

IN. 

t^ 

d 

oc 

0 

C>        M 

in     w 

0" 

cS 

t^ 

o\ 

c 

0 

tn     « 

t^ 

00 

00_ 

^ 

CN 

00 

" 

«» 

4^ 

un 

"00 

m     ^ 

•<r    00 

ai     0 

8 

>     ■*    00 

m    00 

o» 

. 

fO 

CO     0     en 

n 

M 

1    0 

0 

ON     rn     0 

■* 

(^ 

t^ 

^ 

•♦     m 

r«    vo 

'tf-         M 

m     N 

»          M 

t^ 

fO        H 

m 

m    00 

0 

m     o>     o>     0 

0      CJ 

0 

N 

00 

t^         1/ 

J     ■«• 

0 

VO 

o< 

00 

Y      00 

NO 

r^      f* 

>     r^ 

j) 

tN. 

■" 

■  ^  :: 

4    o\ 

s,  ^ 

vb       fn      N      00       On      ■* 

M        0       fO       •♦     \0        3^ 

rn 

CO 

N 

►* 

00 

>o 

00 

« 

« 

VO 

M 

6- 

C 

in 

«» 

M 

«9 

^. 

1 

~8 

a 

a 

NC 

?  ?  s, 

r 

»o' 

cq 

^ 

t^     0 

1^ 

00 

00 

10           -Nj-           0 

N          M 

M 

NO 

00 

>o 

? 

0     00 

OS     t^     m 

r' 

a 

J     r^     tN     0 

0 

rn 

1 

VO 

f^     0     rn 

00 

CO 

fO     NO 

c 

s: 

t>. 

NO 

p 

Os 

■* 

00 

■^ 

^ 

"" 

vC 

t>. 

^ 

00 

" 

A 

s 

"S 

3-   ?    E 

00     00 

^  s 

a  R  ?  g 

8 

"S 

\rt 

0 

o>     « 

!?    ^ 

M 

^ 

1      r 

^        H 

w 

^C 

o>     ■«■ 

■4- 

C 

t^ 

>o 

C 

M 

oc 

ON 

o_ 

Sv     00 

o>  « 

0>     VO 

■>      NO 

c 

f.      00 

0_ 

In 

1 

m 

m     0. 

t-     c 

h     M 

m     M 

NO 

■♦ 

1     r^ 

n- 

NO 

■)         tN        M 

m     rN     « 

O- 

00 

t^ 

H 

tN.         IH 

00 

00 

«» 

0~ 

♦^^'O 

N        % 

M 

in     ♦     c 

in     S 

S      u 

■^      ^. 

NO 

M 

0 

W 

1      C 

r^     1/ 

1    %C 

0 

■«■ 

M 

•i- 

t^ 

1,     I     % 

v8 

-g-    !i 

N      NC 

-  s 

00 

^     r^    00      0 

in 

c 

c>     ■«■     c 

u 

J       On       On       M 

IN 

C4 

1 

1/1 

r^      t^      r 

n     t^ 

t~    0 

c 

?     r^     ■♦    00 

cT 

0 

m     ^ 

t-* 

0 

o>     M 

g 

•*      rn 

r^ 

••r 

00 

00 

M 

w 

4» 

s 

0      o> 

VC 

5 

5 

;  i 

R  .8 

NO           I 

3 

NO 
NO 

00 

♦ 

0    l' 

0>     VC 

m    vo 

«8 

< 

c 

"  1 

NO        r 
1       CJN       ^ 

,       Ng 

"5, 

!^ 

■* 

v: 

*  ■" 

1     fn     <n     ■<■ 

0 

0 

00 

■*     en     cjN     t^ 

00 

.     c- 

t>.     ♦     c 

^ 

00 

^ 

« 

-r 

CJ 

1^ 

M 

^ 

t^ 

Z 

n* 

«» 

<» 

TJ 

i 

CH 

0 

I 

0 

< 

0^ 

E 

u 

-a 

u 

■A 

■a 

0 
0 
•t 

t 
c 

§ 

0 

z 

3 
0 

< 
1 

t 

c 

J 

1     u 

c 
'c 

0     5      c 

:    c 

•     c 

a 

c 

f 

X 

s 

& 

.1 
5 

_ 
c 
c 

c 
2 

rt 

0 

i 

y 

n 

IS 

i 
'J 

r 

<    E^ 

<  e 

c 
'    E- 

t- 

> 

c 
> 

> 

N 

-8.   S:  1    S  II 

m     0 

^ 

IN 

<^     " 

<!^ 

M 

m 

^ 

n    1     m  II 

^ 

« 

«» 

1    ^\\ 

(n    NO     1     ON   II 

Q     00 

00 

■  8-  1  %  11 

JJ 

•g.  i  8;  II 

■*■ 

'O 

4» 

1    •*'  11 

0     <n    1     (M    II 

° 

1     en 

D     1      00      II 

"ft 

«> 

^ 

" 

tN           0 

1     00 

00 

?.  1    8n  II 

Nf 

ON    1     m   II 

X 

•»> 

1    <* 

NO 

N          m 

N 

r- 

S> 

.?.        ;. 

On 

nX 

f; 

rr 

c^ 

«»> 

«» 

I' 

1          m 

8 

NO 

t» 

T-     r» 

In 

NO 

o>     f 

m 

4» 

4» 

Sn      ^ 

8 

0 

■^ 

0 

4» 

«» 

0 

M 

« 

m     f 

1              NO 

■«■     « 

tn     f 

^               NO 

4» 

«» 

N?  ;g 

<n 

s          m 

1          c^     1 

00 

■Ji 

>     s-  1 

0  t 

4» 

^ 

r 

« 

Fi 

'Zt 

0 

2 

0 

E 

0 

H 

CL. 

U 

11 

1 68 


Statistical  IHotes  on  /iDcjico. 


oo"  o" 


s 


00 


00 

00 


S 


-o"  ^  in  rn 
rooo  O  00 
OO   ■«■  - 


«   ►Too 


S^^S 


"O  o 
•  r*  *^ 

\rt  in 
moo 


M    0    t>.  t-*  IN.  « 

VO   lO  0»  « 
t*.  M  oo 

oo"     *o  »o"  in 


•  rnco 


»0^  rno 


O  0  t>.oo*o  0 

O  O  «  O  O  Q 
■*  5_  M_  c>  q  m 
M  iJ"  ^r  <>  N  e^ 

lO        O  OD   « 


?^      2 


6  8  o>o  CMn  8 
O   0»  O  'O  00   rn  Q 


■■'S. 


00  m  M  g 
e*.  o.  o*  O 

ooco  n  Q 
«  5i>0  O 
t;  0  <>  ♦ 
•foo 


I  00  ^ 


•<-oo  O 

.  «  «  3 


i     JL, 


.  «o  c  o  o 


88 


■8. 


i«  ►*  to 

"S.8' 


\o  jS 


goo 

00  oo 


m  o  f^  I   « 
n  o  >^  I    Q 


oo  w^»o 


■  w    n 


3    =  "    rt  ,-:    =    r;    -5T3        -3  O 

-r.-X  5  rt  t-  V  i  5  b  2±'b-= 


8 
§' 

5  o  •  K  8 

n  M    'wo 

in   .  «  0 

•  »oo  m  <-. 
;  M  o  o  r^ 

;?".-.-. 

:     -  •'i 

•  NO  00    ui  0 
.  00    0_00_ 

^■1^:8 
:P,:8 

'.  t>-  ! 
.  00    . 

1 

0 
00_ 

:S, 

•1 

M 

•  «  00  0  6 

'  g  o  «  « 

•  >C  m-ooo 
■  o*  0  e^  N 
:  M*  cJ.>0  rn 

;  3  t~oo 

'.           " 

:'888 
:<g8K 

eg' 
•? 

4» 

8 

0 

8 

o' 

1^8 
"t  8_ 

oo  m 

.  o>  m  o>g 
•  00  rnoo  <a 

■  in  t^  O"  tv 

:.§  {en's 

:  >o*  <><o*  m' 

.  t^  r^  0 

;8 

;  0 

■o 
>o 
n 

to 
4» 

lO 

M 

4» 

:KP;a8 

•  r'.O   N   ■*■ 

•  N  in  N  o> 

.  00  00>O 

8 

•8 

:8 

0 
4» 

;88 

f^oo  M^  r^ 
m'  in  o'  ft" 
t^oo  «_ 

:88 
•I'D; 

•  00  *n 

in 
oo_ 

88 

M  00 

88 

0000  M  g 
Ht  r4  N  0 

^OO    fi 

oo  moo 
•r  t^  »-^ 

8 
0 

00 

en 

8 

0 

CO 

t^ioo  O 
n  >o  -  o 

00  in  r-.  0 

M   tv  ~    5 

i~..^  m* 
o'  «'  « 
M  ooo 
«  t^  in 

8 

1^ 

m 

8 

o- 
m 

«? 

«»  : 

S^8 

0  o  rv  1^  g  g  o 
n  oooooo  S^o  m 

lO   cf  ■♦  M          ♦ 
in  •-•  \Q             M 
m  t^  6_ 

1 
m 
00 

4» 

8 : 

0     ; 

0    • 

S  '. 

•>  : 

a. 

85-?S'8 

o  00  m«  «5 
0  M  %o   ■*(» 
«  o  r^*o  »0 

>o  K  o 

«        ; 

8 
8 

in 
4» 

2 

3 
C 
V 

o: 

c 

< 

1 

■c 

< 

£ 

3 

n 

.5 
u 

n 
X 

c 

n 
n 

s 

u 

o 

c 

> 

c 

£ 

t; 

o 

c 
'I 

■c 

o: 

1 
C 

r 

a 
C 

n 

•0 

C 
r 

H 

3 
■T3 
B 
0 

7 

1 

0 

iforeion  XTra^c. 


169 


•o 

) 

:8 

3S 

: 

5^8  1  ? 

:§§?• 

^co  0        0 
•  O'  in       M 

1 

mS' 

:  (o'  m  -' 

0 

.  «        r^ 

I  00 

m 

0 

m 

1      0 

:             o< 

>o' 

«» 

•  '^ 

<^ 

1     S-K. 

:8  8^ 

•    fO 

•      00 

0 
00 

mNO 

•    ''   ~t   o- 

•  m 

CO 

00  o> 

:8  a'? 

•'  (? 

:     ° 

i 

1' 

j-l 

•4, 

M 

•* 

tv 

«» 

'. « 

«> 

K8 

■.%P, 

['as 

5    "^^ 

1 

?l 

:8.^ 

•  ro  m 

:  ?'^ 

s    ? 

I 

0" 

:     o" 

:  ■*  ( 

f    00 

00 

t^ 

r^ 

00 

■^ 

I  o* 

00 

00 

;co' 

m 

«• 

<» 

tOlS 

rgs" 

^SS 

>  ro 

>  0 

00 

00 

■♦  r^ 

'•  \n  r^ 

•s^s 

CO 

>o  00 

00  VO 

T    t-^ 

VO    in 

t  ^ 

1 

f^ 

fO 

2 

0 

Pv 

00 

M 

ro 

00 

ro 

tC 

«» 

M 

4» 

0 

;8 

00 

vS- 

CO 
CO 

1^ 

:  S" 

:   0 

0 
in 

0 

1 

r^ 

:v8' 

5 

R 

f^ 

.    rn 

00 

«> 

m 

r^ 

£- 

Sg 

83- 

as 

? 

1^ 

(^  0 

0  0 

*  u 

1        h*. 

m  r. 

a>  IT) 

0  r 

M 

00  vO 

«  0 

inc 

"^ 

^ 

5) 

8 

\n 

^    ^. 

a 

0; 

MS 

00 

tn 

<* 

" 

«» 

>£• 

8 

s, 

?;g 

10 

00 

10 

1 

T^ 

10 

o> 

fO  0 

0 

^ 

00 

10 

Oi 

C^ 

00 

d\ 

<» 

10 

8 

OvO   60?  J 

"""T 

«? 

1/) 

0 

Q  moo  -^  0 
0  ■♦  iroo  ■/ 

^ 

■s 

fn 

m 

1         Oi 

r^ 

m  in      «  00 

t^ 

00 

m     00  L 

1     10 

t^ 

o* 

q. 

00 

00 

4» 

o> 

~%' 

88?- 

0 

2 

g 

0 

0  m  ■«• 
•♦  t^  •«• 

iS 

m 

00 

M  mvo 

M 

1 

CO 

0  PI  m   ■ 

« 

M 

rO 

MM-*. 

8 

55 

* 

t^   . 

00 

o- 

ro 

4* 

. 

in 

8S 

m  i 

« 

s 

K 

S^' 

?8 

tv 

r% 

N    N 

ro  f 

>       01 

I 

5' 

S  : 

a 

00 

s 

10 

o-  . 

tN. 

00 

M 

ro 

tC 

4» 

•d 

h 

z 

r) 

0 

!i 

p 

< 

z 

p 

X  ^ 

■c  «    ■ 

Q 

bA  (i 

c  2  n 

«^ 

g&: 

0 

•S'^'5 

0 

2 

z 
X 

-0 

•r 

c 
if 

1 

c 

> 

P8 

00  o 
o  o" 


s-sg 


in  o 

a,  M 


00    'O  LO  -*■ 

-r  ^  tC  ro 


ro^o   ro  t»* 


>  •*  fO 


ro  0   M   M 


\o  o-  t>.  m 

«  mo  O 


-o'vO 

0 

8 

0 

8 

Ovo 

w    ■* 

8Sv? 


M    moo 
>o'  fO  w' 


*00 


•8«2 


00  lO  «  00  o  ■*  ( 
O  r-  moo  ro  ^  ( 
<y  ^  '^'^  ^^ 
►•'00  o*  «       ■* 


o  m  «  'O  o 

Sin  o  r«  >• 


bi  «  ^.=  Ji 


?. 


S 


O  3 
in  t^ 


8^8d8 

00     1000     M     O 

rN.^o         O  00 


<r 


f«"0 

s  <«  c 


"^■0  3 


E  -  =  = 


170  5tatis5tical  1Hotc£>  on  /iDcjico. 

TRADE    UETWEEN    MEXICO    AM)    THE    UNITED    STATES.   . 

It  is  quite  dirticult  to  make  a  correct  statement  of  the  trade  between 
Mexico  and  the  United  States,  because  tlie  official  data  of  both  govern- 
ments never  used  to  agree,  especially  on  account  of  the  different  cur- 
rencies prevailing  in  the  two  countries.  As  we  have  the  silver  standard, 
all  our  public  accounts  are  kept  in  silver,  and  that  makes  our  exports 
appear  twice  as  large  in  value  as  they  really  are,  when  stated  in  the 
money  of  the  United  States,  while  we  give  our  imports  in  the  value  of  the 
country  from  whence  they  come,  that  is  their  gold  value.  That  fact, 
which  has  often  been  overlooked,  has  caused  the  prevailing  idea  that 
there  is  a  very  large  balance  of  trade  in  favor  of  Mexico,  because 
the  exports  of  United  States  commodities  in  Mexico  amount  to  a  given 
figure  a  year,  the  imports  to  this  country  of  Mexican  commodities 
amount  to  over  double  that  figure  ;  but  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that 
the  former  is  in  silver  while  the  latter  is  in  gold.  For  instance,  accord- 
ing to  the  Mexican  Bureau  of  Statistics  the  imports  into  Mexico  of 
merchandise  from  the  United  States  in  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30, 
1896,  amounted  to  §20,145,763,  while  the  exports  of  metals  and  com- 
modities from  Mexico  to  the  United  States  during  the  same  year 
amounted  to  $79,651,695,  the  proportion  being  almost  four  to  one  ;  but 
if  the  imports  are  doubled  as  they  ought  to  be,  because  the  Mexican 
currency  is  silver,  they  amount  to  $40,291,526,  and  if  the  exports  of 
Mexico  into  the  United  States,  calculated  also  in  silver,  are  reduced  to 
gold,  they  will  amount  to  one  half  or  $39,825,847.50. 

In  corroboration  of  this  statement  I  will  mention  the  fact  that  ac- 
cording to  the  data  of  the  Statistical  Bureau  of  the  United  States 
Treasury  Department,  the  exjjorts  to  Mexico  of  commodities  and  pre- 
cious metals  from  the  United  Slates  during  the  last  fiscal  year,  end- 
ing June  30,  1897,  amounted  to  $23,535,213  while  the  imports  into  the 
United  States  of  commodities  and  precious  metals  amounted  to  $30,- 
714,366.  Since  March  1S93,  however,  the  Statistical  Bureau  of  tlie 
United  States  Treasury  Department,  has  reduced  to  gold  the  silver 
value  of  the  Mexican  metals  and  commodities  im|)orted  in  this  coun- 
try, and  its  data  come  now  nearer  to  the  mark,  as  in  the  year  1S96  it 
gives  the  total  exports  of  merchandise  from  this  country  into  Mexico 
as  $19,450,256,  while  the  total  imports  of  merchandise  from  Mexico 
into  this  country  are  $17,456, 177. 

The  figures  of  our  exports  appear  very  large  in  the  Mexican  re- 
turns, because  our  merchandise  is  sold  in  gold  markets,  and  their  gold 
price  is  reduced  to  silver,  and  increased  in  the  same  proportion  in 
which  silver  depreciates.  It  is  not  therefore  the  amount  of  merclian- 
dise  which  has  increased  so  much,  as  that  the  price  has  been  swollen  in 
reducing  it  from  gold  to  silver.  In  that  regard  the  returns  from  the 
United  States  Statistical  Bureau  are  more  in  conformity  with  the  facts. 


Uva^c  witb  tbc  'anitc^  States.  171 

•  Another  cause  of  the  discrepancy  between  the  statistics  of  both 
countries  is  tliat  the  Statistii-al  Bureau  of  tlie  United  States  Treasury 
Department  had  not,  prior  to  March  3,  1893,  any  data  of  commodities 
exported  to  Mexico  by  way  of  tlie  frontier,  as  there  was  no  hiw 
which  provided  for  tlie  collection  of  such  data,  and  a  very  large 
portion  of  the  trade  between  the  two  countries  is  carried  on  by  the 
frontier,  especially  since  the  railroads  connecting  both  countries  were 
finished.'  That  deficiency  was  only  in  relation  to  the  exports,  as  the 
imports  were  duly  declared  for  the  payment  of  duties,  and  therefore 
the  statistics  of  the  United  States  necessarily  were  deficient  and  incom- 
plete about  the  exports  to  Mexico  of  United  States  commodities,  and 
that  accounts  in  a  great  measure  for  the  discrepancy  between  the 
official  data  published  by  both  governments,  and  for  the  great  dis- 
crepancy between  exports  and  imports  which  apjiear  in  the  statistics  of 
the  United  States  for  those  years. 

From  the  preceding  remarks  it  will  be  understood  why  there  is 
such  a  great  discrepancy  between  the  data  of  the  respective  Bureaus. 

It  is  very  difficult  to  make  a  correct  statement  of  the  trade  between 
the  two  countries  previous  to  the  organization  of  the  Bureau  of  Statistics 
of  the  United  States  ;  but  I  found  in  a  l)i)ok  published  in  Washington 
in  i860  by  Mr.  CarLos  Bultcrficld,  entitled  "  The  United  States  and 
Mexican  Mail  Steamship  Line  and  Statistics  of  Mexico,"  a  statement 
of  the  im|)orts  and  exports  between  Mexico  and  the  United  States  from 
1826  to  1858,  taken  as  he  states  from  official  data  of  the  United  States 
Treasury  Reports,  which  I  will  use. 

That  statement  is  complemented  by  two  tables  furnisiicd  to  me  by 
Hon.  Worthington  C.  Ford,  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Statistics  of  the 
Treasury  Department.  The  first  contains  a  statement  of  the  trade  be- 
tween the  United  States  and  Mexico,  during  the  forty-six  years  from 
1851  to  1897,  and  the  second  is  a  full  statement  of  that  trade,  includ- 
ing gold  and  silver  during  the  same  period.     (Pages  174  and  175.) 

I  have  prepared  besides  from  the  official  publications  of  the  Bureau 
of  Statistics  of  the  United  States  Treasury  Department,  a  detailed 
statement  of  the  commodities  imported  into  the  United  States  from 
Mexico,  and  exported  from  the  United  States  to   Mexico  during  the 

'  For  these  reasons  the  statements  of  the  Statistical  lUireau  of  tlie  United  States, 
previous  to  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  iS()2,  contained  the  following  foot-note  : 

"  In  the  absence  of  law  providing  for  the  collection  of  statistics  of  exports  to  ad- 
jacent foreign  territory  over  railways,  the  values  of  exports  to  Mexico,  from  18S3  to 
1893  inclusive,  have  been  considerably  under-stated.  Since  March,  1893,  there  has 
been  a  law  in  force  for  the  collection  of  exports  by  railways.  .\ccor<ling  to  ofiicial  in- 
formation from  Mexican  sources,  the  value  of  imports  into  that  country  from  the 
United  States  during  the  year  ending  June  30,  1888,  was  $19,264,673,  including  pre- 
cious metals  valued  at  $33,362.  Trior  to  1S66  the  figures  include  gold  and  silver  im- 
ported and  exported.     For  i366  and  subsequent  years,  merchandise  only." 


172 


statistical  IHotei?  on  /IDcrtco. 


years  1S5S  to  1897,  which  is  complete  so  far  as  the  records  of  this 
government  go,  and  contains  very  vahiablc  information. 

I  will  give  first  a  i)artial  statement  prejjared  by  the  liureau  of  Sta- 
tistics of  the  Mexican  Government  of  the  total  imports  to  Mexico  and 
the  imports  from  the  United  States  of  America  from  the  fiscal  year 
1872-1873  to  1S95-1896,  and  then  another  detailed  statement  prepared 
by  the  same  Bureau  of  tiie  total  exports  from  Mexico  and  the  exports 
to  the  United  States  of  America  from  the  fiscal  year  1877-1878  to 
1895-1896. 

From  said  data  it  will  be  seen  that  the  trade  of  Mexico  with  the 
United  States  is  increasing  very  rapidly,  notwithstanding  the  difficulty 
thrown  in  the  way  by  high  ]irotective  tariffs.  Only  a  few  years  ago,  as 
will  be  seen  by  the  appended  statement,  our  largest  trade  was  with  (ireat 
Britain,  the  United  States  occupying  the  second  place,  while  now  the 
United  States  occupies  the  first  place,  both  in  amount  of  our  exports 
and  imports." 

Value  of  exports  during  the  fiscal  year  1872-1873  with  their  desti- 
nation. 


Great  Ikitain..  .^ $12,479,547.75     Guaten^.ala  and  Honduras. 


United  States 11,366,530.76 

France 4,604,417.38 

Panama  (New  Grenada"). .  .  1,579,015.12 

Germany 802,643.83 

Spainand  the  Island  of  Cuba  752,891.91 


Italy. 

Belgium. 

Ecuador. 


80,999.52 

17,389.00 

4,784.fX) 

2, 931-75 


Total $31,691,151.02 


TOTAL    IMPORTS    TO    MEXICO    AND    IMPORTS    FROM    THE    UNITED   STATES 
FOR  THE   FISCAL  YEARS,   1872-1873    TO   1895-1896. 


IMPORTS  FROM  THE 
UNITED  STATES. 

TOTAL  IMPORTS. 

Value. 

Value. 

1872-187'^ 

$5,231,255 

_  5,946,614 

5,028,636 

5,045,531 

5,145,736 

22,669,421 

29,080,276 

26,235,963 

14,351,785 
15,130,367 
20,145,763 

$20,166,013 

l87'^-l874. 

23,282,299 

18,793,494 
11,893,342 
10,585,898 
40,024,894 
52,018,659 

43.413,131 
30,287,489 

1 87^-187*^ 

1884-1885   First  6  months 

1885-1SS6  First  6  months 

1888-1889 

1889-1890 

1802-1SQ-? 

180'^— i8q4 

i8q4.-i8q^ 

34,000,44.0 

i8')n-iS()6 

42,253,938 

Mexico,  November,  1896. 

'  This  statement  is  corroborated  by  the  following  extract  from  an  official  report 
addressed  to  Lord  .Salisbury  by  Mr.  Lionel  Garden,  British  Consul-General  at  the  City 
of  Mexico,  on  the  trade  of  .Mexico  during  the  year  1896  : 

"  The  great  increase  in  the  imports  of  American  goods  this  year  must  be  regarded 
by  British  merchants  and  manufacturers  as  another  warning  that  unless  they  soon  make 
a  serious  effort,  they  will  have  to  give  up  all  hope  of  profiting  by  the  increase  in  the 
Mexican  import  trade,  and  may  even  lose  part  of  the  very  limited  share  of  it  they  at 
present  enjoy." 


Urabe  witb  tbe  XHnite^  States. 


173 


TABLE  SHOWING  THE  TOTAL  EXPORTS  FROM  MEXICO  AND  THE  EXPORTS 
TO  THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA  FROM  THE  FISCAL  YEAR  1877- 
1878  TO  THE  YEAR   1895-1896. 


EXPORTS  TO  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

TOTAL  EXPORTS  FROM  MEXICO. 

Precious 
Metals. 

Commodities. 

Total. 

Precious 
Metals. 

Commodities. 

Total. 

I877-I878 

. .    $     8,664,052 

$     3,676,937 

$    12,340,989 

$   22,663,438 

$     6,622,223 

$     29,285,661 

I878-I879 

7,439,815 

4,741,724 

12,181,539 

21,528,938 

8,362,540 

29,891,478 

I879-I880 

6,848,231 

6,568.37s 

13,416,606 

22,086,418 

10,577,136 

32,r^3,5S4 

I880-I88I 

7,601,767 

6,556,424 

14,158,191 

19,354,704 

10,573,994 

29,928,698 

I88I-I882 

5.451,731 

8,309,131 

13,760,862 

17,063,767 

12,019,526 

29,083,293 

1882-1883 

9,036.773 

7.702,32s 

16,739,098 

29,628,658 

12,178,937 

41,807,595 

I883-I884 

12,822,241 

9,002,160 

21,824,401 

33.473,283 

13,252,213 

46,725,496 

I884-I885 

16,404,776 

9,448,285 

25,853,061 

33,774,051 

12,896,794 

46,670,845 

I885-I886 

15,496,336 

9,933,259 

25,429,595 

29,906,401 

13,741,316 

43,647,717 

I886-I887 

16,576,120 

11,152,595 

27,728,715 

33,560,503 

15,631,427 

49,i9',930 

I887-I888 

17,915,116 

13,144,511 

31,059,627 

31,006.188 

17,879,720 

48,885,908 

I888-I889 

23,647,920 

17,205,443 

40,853,363 

38,785,275 

21,373,148 

60,158,423 

1889-1890 

24,098,147 

18,924,294 

43,022,441 

38,621,290 

23,878,099 

62,499,389 

I890-I89I 

23,400,833 

21,582,253 

44,983,086 

36,256,372 

27,020,023 

63,276,395 

I89I-I892 

3",447,566 

19,485,099 

49,932,665 

49,137,304 

26,330,411 

75.467.715 

I892-I893 

40,113,882 

23,723,761 

63.837,643 

56,504,305 

31,004,916 

87,509,221 

I 893-1 894 

36,681,273 

23,978,970 

60,660,243 

46,484,360 

32,858,927 

79,343,287 

1894-1895 

38,852,843 

28,470,143 

67,322,986 

52,535,854 

38,319,099 

90,854,953 

I895-I896 

51,071,661 

28,580,034 

79,651,69s 

64,838,596 

40,178,306 

105,016,902 

Total. 

•  •     1392.571.083 

$272,185,723 

$664,756,806 

$677,209,705 

$374,698,755 

$1,051,908,460 

STATEMENT  TAKEN  FROM  THE  UNITED  STATES  TREASURY  REPORTS 
OF  THE  COMMERCIAL  TRANSACTIONS  BETWEEN  MEXICO  AND  THE 
UNITED    STATES    FROM     1 826    TO    1850. 


EXPORTS  FROM 

MEXICO   INTO 

THE 

UNITED    STATES. 


EXPORTS  FROM 

THE    UNITED 

STATES    INTO 

MEXICO. 


TOTAL    TRADE 

BETWEEN 

THE 

TWO   COUNTRIES. 


1826. 
1827. 
1828. 
1829. 
1830. 
183I. 
1832. 
1833- 
1834. 
1835. 
1836. 
1837. 
1838. 

1839. 
1840. 
1841. 
1842. 
1843. 
1844. 

1845- 
1846. 
1847. 
1848. 
1S49. 
1850. 


3,916,000 
5,232,000 
4,814,000 
5,026,761 

5,235,241 
5,167,000 
4,293,954 
5,459.818 
8,666,668 
9,490,446 
5,615,8x9 
5,654,002 
3.127,153 

5,5*^.707 
4,175,000 

3.4S4.957 
1,996,694 
2,782,406 
2,387,cx)0 
1,702,936 
1,836,621 
746,818 
1,581,247 
2,216,719 
2.135.336 


Total $102,245,303 

Average $4,o8(>,8i2 


6,281,000 
4,163,000 
2,886,000 
2,331.151 

4,837.458 
6,178,000 

3,467.541 
5,408,091 
5.265,053 
9,029,221 
6,040,635 
3,880,323 
2,787.362 
2,164,097 

2,515.341 
2,036,620 

1.534.493 
I. 471. 937 
1.794.S33 
1,152.331 
r ,  5  T I , I  So 
692,428 
4,058,446 
2,090,869 
2,012,827 


$85,610,237 
$3,424,409 


$  10,197,000 

9,395,000 

7,700,000 

7,357.912 

10,072,699 

11,345,000 

7.761,495 

10,867,909 

13,931,721 

18,519,667 

11.656,454 

9.534.325 

5.914,515 

7,664,804 

6,690,341 

5.521,577 

3.531,187 

4.254.343 

4,181,833 

2,855,267 

3,367,801 

1,439,246 

5.639.693 
4.307.588 
4,148,163 

$187,855,540 
$7,514,222 


174 


Statistical  IRotes  on  ^ejico. 


I 


STATEMENT  SHOWING  THE  COMMERCE  IN  MERCHANDISE  BETWEEN  THE 
UNITED  STATES  AND  MEXICO,  BY  YEARS  AND  DECADES,  FROM  1 85 1 
TO   1897. 


EXPORTS  FROM  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

IMPORTS  INTO  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

EXCE.SS  OF 

EXPORTS (-) 

JUNE  30. 

Domestic. 

Foreign. 

Total. 

Free. 

Dutiable. 

Total. 

OR 
IMPORTS  (+). 

1851 

$     1,014,690 

1     567,093 

$    1,581,783 

$       27,666 

$       693,120 

$        720,786 

$         -860,997 

1852 

1,406,372 

878,557 

2,284,929 

20, 564 

534,700 

555,264 

-1,729,665 

1853 

2,529,770 

1,029,054 

3,558,824 

4,148 

751,952 

756,100 

-  2,802,724 

1854 

2,091,870 

1,043,616 

3,135,486 

111,405 

826,451 

937.856 

-2,197,630 

1855 

2,253,368 

668,236 

2,921,604 

17,508 

887,242 

904,750 

—  2,016,854 

1856 

2,464,692 

1,237,097 

3,701.789 

79,966 

773,792 

853,758 

-  2,848,031 

1857 

3,017,640 

597,566 

3,615,206 

62,307 

964,566 

1,026,873 

-2,588,333 

1858 

2,782,852 

529,973 

3,312,825 

246,894 

861,607 

1,108,501 

-2,204,324 

1959 

2,252,162 

667,580 

2,919,742 

234,112 

1,009,972 

1,244,084 

-  1,675,658 

i860 

3,309,379 

2,015,334 

5,324,713 

586,016 

1,317,415 

1,903,431 

-3,421,282 

Total 
10  years. . 

$  23,122,795 

$  9,234,106 

$  32,356,901 

$  1,390,586 

$    8,620,817 

$  10,011,403 

$-22,345,498 

1861 

$     1,559,062 

1     651,364 

$    2,210,426 

1     253,703 

$       632,409 

$        886,112 

$    -1,324,314 

1862 

1,840,720 

340,454 

2,181,174 

289,011 

441,977 

730,988 

-1,450,186 

i86^ 

7,441,579 

1.579,045 

9,020,624 

446,070 

2,597,812 

3,043,882 

-5,976,742 

1864 

7,765,133 

1,505,464 

9,270,597 

385,037 

5,743,408 

6,128,44s 

-3,142,152 

1865 

13,819,972 

2,530,867 

16,350,839 

369,915 

5,850,959 

6,220,874 

-10,129,965 

1866 

3,701,599 

871,619 

4,573,218 

402,568 

1,323,524 

1,726,092 

-2,847,126 

1867 

4,823,614 

572,182 

5,395,796 

402,779 

669,157 

1,071,936 

—  4,323,860 

1868 

5,048,420 

1,392,919 

6,441,339 

482,228 

1,108,439 

1,590,667 

-4,850,672 

i86g 

3,835,699 

1,047,408 

4,883,107 

511,319 

1,824,845 

2,336,164 

-2,546,943 

1870 

4,544,745 

1,314,955 

5,859,700 

522,907 

2,192,758 

2,715,665 

-3,144,035 

10  years. . 

$   54.380,543 

$11,806,277 

$  66,186,820 

$  4,065,537 

$  22,385,288 

$  26,450,825 

$-39,735,995 

1871 

$     5,044,033 

i  2,568,080 

$    7,612,113 

976,117 

$    2,233,571 

$     3,209,688 

$  -4,402,425 

1872 

3,420,658 

2,122,931 

5,543,589 

1,156,257 

2,846.663 

4,002,920 

—  1,540,669 

1873 

3,941,019 

2,323,882 

6,264,901 

3,065,140 

1,211,025 

4,276,165 

-1,988,7:16 

4,016,148 
3,872,004 

1,930,691 
1,865,278 

5,946,839 
5,737,282 

3,026,661 
3,863,302 

1,319,703 
1,311,292 

4.346,364 
5,174,594 

-1,600,475 
-562,688 

1875 

1876 

4,700,978      1,499,594 

6,200,572 

3,920,633 

1,229,939 

5,150,572 

- 1,050,000 

1877 

4,503,802      1,389,692 

5,893,494 

3,756,191 

1,448,073 

5,204,264 

—  689,230 

187S 

5,811,429      1,649,275 

7,460,704 

3,723,281 

1,528,221 

5,251,502 

—  2,209,202 

1879 

5,400,380      1,351,864 

6,752,244 

3,981,402 

1,511,819 

5,493,221 

-  1,259,023 

i88o 

Total 
10 years. . 

6,065,974      1,800,519 

7,866,493 

4,852,659 

2,356,934 

7,209,593 

-  656,900 

$  46,776,425  ^18. 501  £o6 
$    9,198,077  s  1,973,161 

$  65,278,231 

$  32,321,643 

$  16,997,240 

$  49,318,883 

$-15,959,348 

i88i 

$  11,171,238 

$   5,643,176 

$    2,674,626 

$     8,317,802 

$   -2,853,436 

1882 

13,324,505 

2,158,077 

15,482,  =;82 

5,310,796 

3,151,103 

8,461,899 

—  7,020,683 

1883 

14,370,992 

2,216,628 

16,587,620 

4,211,328 

3,965,795 

8,177,123 

-  8,410,497 

1884 

11,089,603 

1,614,689 

12,704,292 

5,334,689 

3,681,797 

9,016,486 

-3,687,806 

1885 

7,370.599 

970,185 

8,340,784 

5,173,441 

4,093,580 

9,267,021 

-f926,237 

1886 

6,856,077 

881,546 

7,737,623 

6;8o8,757 

3,879,215 

10,687,972 

-  -2,950,349 
- -6,760,283 

1887 

7,267,129 

692,428 

7,959,557 

9,928,122 

4,791,718 

14,719,840 

i883 

9,242,188 

655,584 

9,897,772 

11,042,772 

6,287,117 

17,329,889 

--7,432,117 

1889 

10,886,288 

600,608 

11,486,896 

13,825,242 

7,428,359 

21,253,601 

--9,766,705 

i8go 

Total 
10  years . . 

12,666,108 

619,179 

13,285,287 

15,536,100 

7,154,815 

22,690,9x5 

-1-9,405,628 

$102,271,566 

112,382.085 

$114,653,651 

$  82,814,423 

$  47,108,125 

$129,922,548 

$-1-15,268,897 

1891 

$  14,199,080 

$     770,540 

$  14,969,620 

$  23,364,519 

$    3,931,473 

$  27,295,992 

$-1-12,326,372 

1892 

13.696,531 

597,468 

14,293,999 

23,702,496 

4,405,029 

28,107,525 

-1-13,813,526 

1893 

18,891,714 

676,920 

19,568,634 

27,145,469 

6,409,630 

33,555,099 

+13,986,465 

1894 

12,441,805 

400,344 

12,842,149 

21,560,011 

7,166,995 

28,727,006 

-fi5,884,857 

189: 

14,582,484 

423,422 

15,005,906 

12,903,789 

2,731,999 

15,635,788 

-i-629,882 

1896 

18,686,797 

763,459 

19,450,256 

13,819,698 

3,636,479 

17,456,177 

-  1,994,079 

I897-- 

Total 

7  years . . 

22,726,596 
$115,225,007 

694,468 

23,421,064 

13,990,017 

4,521,555 

18,511,572 

-4,909,492 

$  4,326,621 

$119,551,628 

$136,485,999 

$  32,803,160 

$169,289,159 

$+49,737,531 

Trea.:ury  Department,  Bureau  of  Statistics, 
September  4,  iSgy. 


WORTHINGTON  C.  FORD, 

Chief  of  Bureau. 


Ura&e  witb  tbe  XIlnite&  States. 


175 


STATEMENT  SHOWING  THE  TOTAL  COMMERCE  BETWEEN  THE  UNITED 
STATES  AND  MEXICO,  BY  YEARS  AND  DECADES  FROM  1 85 1  TO 
1897. 


EXPORTS    FROM   THE  UNITED  STATES. 

IMPORTS   INTO   THE   UNITED   STATES. 

EXCESS   OF 

EXPORTS   (  -  ) 

JUNE  30. 

Mer- 

Gold and 

Mer- 

Gold and 

OR 

chandise. 

Silver. 

Total. 

chandise. 

Silver. 

Total. 

IMPORTS  (+). 

1851 

$  1,581,783 

$    2,652 

$  1,584,435 

$     720,786 

$  1,083,993 

$  1,804,779 

$     4-220,344 

1852 

2,284,929 

3,255 

2,288,184 

555,264 

1.093,942 

1,649,206 

-638,978 

1853 

3,558,824 

1,734 

3,560,558 

756,100 

1,411,885 

2,167,985 

-  1,392,573 

1854 

3,135,486 

528 

3,136,014 

937,856 

2,525,334 

3,463,190 

+327,176 

1855 

2,921,604 

1,200 

2,922,804 

904,750 

1,978,080 

2,882,830 

-  39.974 

1856 

3,701,789 

450 

3,702,239 

853,758 

2,714,923 

3,568,681 

,  -133,558 

1857 

3,615,206 

3,615,206 

1,026,873 

4,958,984 

5,985,857 

+2,370,651 

1858 

3,31^,825 

3,000 

3,315,825 

1,108,501 

4,368,964 

5,477,46s 

+2,161,640 

1859 

2,919-742 

72,804 

2,992,546 

1,244,084 

4,095,890 

5,339,974 

+2,347,428 

i860 

Total 
10  years. . 

5,324,713 

29,360 

5,354,073 

1,903,431 

5,032,441 

6,935,872 

+1,581,799 

$32,356,901 

$114,983 

$32,471,884 

$10,011,403 

$29,264,436 

$39,275,839 

$+6,803,955 

1861 

$  2,210,426 

$        5,464 

$  2,215,890 

$     886,112 

$  2,803,101 

$  3,689,213 

$+1,473,323 

1862 

2,181,174 

2,181,174 

730,988 

1,953,864 

2,684,852 

+503,678 

1863 

9,020,624 

51,588 

9,072,212 

3,040,882 

1,485,702 

4,526,584 

-4,545,628 

1864 

9,270,597 

3,410,957 

12,681,554 

6,128,445 

1,755,946 

7,884,391 

-4,797.163 

1865 

16,350,839 

664,241 

17,015,080 

6,220,874 

1,133,299 

7,354,173 

-  9,660,907 

1866 

4,573,218 

15,000 

4,588,218 

1,726,092 

2,429,511 

4,155.603 

-432,615 

1867 

5,395,796 

56,452 

5,452,248 

1,071,936 

2,849,038 

3,920,974 

-1,531,274 

1868 

6,441,339 

12,924 

6,454,263 

1,590,667 

4,525,255 

6,115,922 

-338.341 

1869 

4,883,107 

2,000 

4,885,107 

2,336,164 

4,895,842 

7,232,006 

+2,346,899 

J870 

Total 
10  years. . 

5,859,700 

15,696 

5,875,396 

2,715,665 

10,383,366 

13,099,031 

+7,223,635 

$66,186,820 

$4,234,322 

$70,421,142 

$26,447,825 

$34,214,924 

$60,662,749 

$-9,758,393 

1871 

$  7,612,113 

$  38,500 

$  7,650,613 

$  3,209,688 

$14,301,475 

$  17,511,163 

$  +9,860,550 

1872 

5,543,589 

35,000 

5,578,589 

4,002,920 

4,504,204 

8,507,124 

+2,928,535 

1873 

6,264,901 

165,262 

6,430,163 

4,276,165 

12,154,060 

16,430,225 

+10,000,062 

1874 

5,946,839 

57,531 

6,004,370 

4,346,364 

8,893,541 

13,239,905 

+7,235,535 

1875 

5,737,282 

33,501 

5,770,783 

5,174,594 

6,460,389 

11,634,983 

+5,864,200 

1876 

6,200,572 

7,600 

6,208,172 

5,150,572 

7,355,181 

12,505,753 

+6,297,581 

1877 

5,893,494 

5,239 

5,898,733 

5,204,264 

10,240,319 

15,444,583 

+9,545,850 

1878 

7,460,704 

32,180 

7,492,884 

5,251,502 

8,394,146 

13,645,648 

+6,152,764 

'879 

6,752,244 

9,040 

6,761,284 

5,493,221 

8,554,598 

14,047,819 

+7,280,535 

1880 

7,866,493 

3,371 

7,869,864 

7,209,593 

9,115,824 

16,325,417 

+8,455,553 

Total 
10  years. . 

$65,278,231 

$387,224 

$65,665,455 

$49,318,883 

$89,973,737 

$139,292,620 

$+73,627,165 

i88i 

$  11,171,238 

$        1,500 

$  11,172,738 

$    8,317,802 

$    9,136,324 

$  17,454,126 

$    +6,281,388 

1882 

15,482,582 

18,446 

15,501,028 

8,461,899 

6,631,938 

15,093,837 

-407,191 

1883 

16,587,620 

96,964 

16,684,584 

8,177,123 

9,782,986 

17,960,109 

+1.275,525 

1884 

12,704,292 

335,635 

13,039,927 

9,016,486 

13,015,901 

22,032,387 

+8,992,460 

188s 

8,340,784 

79,406 

8,420,190 

9,267,021 

14,919,611 

24,186,632 

+15,766,442 

1886 

7,737,623 

110,035 

7,847,658 

10,687,972 

16,935,396 

27,623,368 

+19,775,710 

1887 

7,959,557 

279,812 

8,239,369 

14,719,840 

14,855,765 

29,575,605 

--21,336,236 

1888 

9,897,772 

319,408 

10,217,180 

17,329,889 

14,032,637 

31,362,526 

--21,145,346 

1889 

11,486,896 

176,616 

11,663,512 

21,253,601 

17,557,248 

38,810,849 

--27,M7,337 

i8go 

Total 
10  years. . 

13,285,287 

240,912 

13,526,199 

22,690,915 

18,155,809 
$135,023,615 

40,846,724 

+27,320,525 

$114,653,651 

$1,658,734 

$116,312,385 

$129,922,548 

$264,946,163 

$+148,633,778 

1891 

$  14,969,620 

$    227,734 

$  15,197,354 

$  27,295,992 

$  14,297,431 

$  41,593,423 

$  +26,396,069 

1892 

14,293,999 

168,584 

14,462,583 

28,107,525 

19,174,034 

47,281,559 

+32,818,976 

1893 

19,568,634 

473,942 

20,042,576 

33,555,099 

22,951,604 

56,506,703 

+36,464,127 

1894 

12,842,149 

708,932 

13,551,081 

28,727,006 

12,790,199 

41,517,205 

+27,966,124 

'89s 

15,005,906 

551,064 

15,556,970 

15,635,788 

9,644,160 

25,279,948 

+9.722,978 

1896 

19,450,256 

926,560 

20,376,816 

17,456,177 

29,166,241 

46,622,418 

+26,245,602 

1897 

Total 

7  years. . 

23,421,064 

114,149 

23,535,213 

18,511,572 

12,202,794 

30,714,366 

+7.i79,JS3 

$119,551,628 

$3,170,965 

$122,722,593 

$169,289,159 

$120,226,463 

$289,515,622 

$+166,793,029 

176 


Statistical  IRotes  on  /IDejico. 


S   00 

-     00 


O    00 


Vi     00 

w     - 


»1  .• 

s  P 

H  < 

O  K 


1  (3»  •*  O  00 
0   O  00   o> 


t  ro  ■^  mvo   -^vo    t^  2-  ►*  VO 


»A  **  «  m  «  -^^  m  o  M  m*o  fn 


I  f^  f;  f;  o_  "^ 


>  ooo 


X  ' 

fc  OS  : 
(0  a.  " 

5g: 


°G 


00  ■*■  O  r^  invo  00  fi  ^N.^o  m  m  i 
«,  ..—  ^.--ci^  O-vO  00  *  t^""©  0*09  " '  f^'^ 
00  00   fOOO  CO   m  ^  r*%  f*^  «   »O00   MOO   «   M    *<   o.*^^* 

w  «  fO  f^  ^  en  ^vo^vo  t^  O"  O  ^  t^  o*  i 


i/j  O  00  u^oo  00  o*  "tf-  moo  ^  <-t 


■*«^0^0  h^^forvirj^^O^  «^oo 
in  -^  m  ^  M  »ovo  O  <*>«  o*o«  ^O  r^ 
mco  ^  o  ■*  "^  o^^O  00  *^  ■*;  ^  O  "^  *t  T 
M   ^00  P0*0   ^  w  in  ^  f^  O   ^^  ^N.'0   ^f^  m 


;-    J.    K 

<  S  'J 

T  < 


g     < 

:^- 

X  :^  w  : 
a  ^'  X  ' 


w  m  ■♦  -♦  m  M  o  1^*0  00  moo  tN.«  o  Otn-*©  t*.0  ■*■*•►?  0»a 
\0  00  t^vO  fn  •-«  -^vo  00  •-"  «  o^-^r-^f*  MOO  r*lM  M  r>.%o  O  m  00 
«  "^O  «  inOM\o  MOO'O  r^No  ■*  O*  ^^  r*  w  m  t^  «  o*  ^00  0» 
m"  cTi^-T  WHTr^McTpr  ^<r  »o  1000  00  o«  ^  cT  ^vo^  0*00  « 
M  •-  Miowwt^M^mrofOcoio 


o^  t^  M  h*  lA  o  00  O'^o  r^  I 
«  <y\0*  ti\  O  rorv-Coo  t-i  1 
CT-w  inmcmO'M  moo  i 
vo  tC  in  t>  m"  (vj  fp  r>  inpo 


•^  -*  U-)  «  M  mm 


»0  poo-N  e^ovo  i>iM»o  r^oo  o  1^  »o 
m  ^00  ob  00  m  lovo  O  *  r^  M  mo  •* 
»  m  I**  ^  0  moo  M  mrs.mr-.o*tv.Mvo 
^■^o^m»H'tCerc?mmMM  moo 


•♦  m  M  00 


>  m  ^  t^oo  r*  ( 


>  mvo  o«  M 


M 

A 

K 

H 

u: 

s 

Q 

0 

< 

O  S.5 


o  a  K  a 
-  w  3 

^M 

a:  S  z  i2 

a  5  <  < 


ovo  0 

M       • 

M        ■ 

■♦VO   O    O  vO 


■*\  m  IN.VO    «    O    M 
>  m  M   o   ■*  moo 
000  M  S.0  mmmmt^i^O  m  -^  **  m  o   tN.\o  o  *o 
O^  «^  tC  d"  cJocT  ■^00  m^  m  0  00  rC  c^  "^  c-vo  moo  o» 


•  00  o  00  '<^  < 


moo  vo  (s.  m  -*•  M  o 


>  tN.\0    •♦Om    O    ^t^O^NOO    O    «    «00    mN    N    tN.M    o    ^^ 

mt^O'O^'^mmmmfo  c^'0  mvo  mM  Ooo  t>.mt*«mM 
tN.  o-  O  M  m  m  tN.  moo  (Xa  vo  tN.vo  c  ■*  ^  -voo  'O  o  r^  f^ 
~>  M^op^  p"*^  ^^  ^  t*  5"^  ^'^iCSf^^  N^WO^^QOO  M 


O.  ^  M    o-ivo   0  00   O 


« vo  vo  m  r^  M  o\  ■♦v* 


mt^H  m-^M  '^^OM  ■♦*  -^vo  m  «  c  -*■  ovo  vo  vo  m  m  m  m 
o>  r^  m  ■♦vo  m  fn  mvo  m  ^  r^  fo  -»-  t^.  n^vo  «  m  n  0^00  ♦  r^  m 
t^  ■^'O  vo  mM  ♦o-mM  M  0*00  t^tN.c*  cmrs.r^i-  ♦-m  c^oo 
h"  ^  (>  nT  O'  t-T  m  M  \o  o'*f^criC^mi-"'^^NmMooo  m 


ts.oo  d  o  ♦•  M  M  00  O* 
m  fn  -v  N  moo  0W2!y""!iy 
^vo  m  m  e^  o  ♦  mvo  o  m  m  mvo 
m"  m  d"  M  "^  ■♦  "-"vo"  m  m  m  cC  cToo 


mvo  '♦00  ooOMOOr«^««o*m  •#■00 

NNnni-tCtxOClOvMOOOMClOv 

M  vo  •♦  ^  O^  m      00  •♦ 
cT       cT  rC  (C  m     vo^ 


J  O  M  vo    O-  O  <■ 


♦-00  M  o  mvo  mvo  O  e 
o  «  M  mo«m-4-ci  -^u. 
•r^Ovo  O  r^m-^-c*  «^i 
o-  T  ^  m  t^oo  00       m  c 


ovo  vo  mv3  m  t^  o>oo  00  Cvm  m^w  t^-M  ^mo  w  o*co  00  ^  (s. 

m  m  M  o  « vo  ti  5  iClo  mvo  w  m«  ♦moo  mtN.r^t^m  moo  m 

«   O  vo   ♦-O^O    Om    ♦♦m    O  «    ♦©   mvO^  ♦00^  <>  «   ^*^,°®,  *0  *^ 

mvo  ■♦  c>  M  «  N        ♦oo"  «"  N  m  ^00  ^♦•mmmw  m   mo  f^o* 


t^oo  m^o 

./  00    M  \0    M 

«  "O  m  «  ■♦ 


t*.  Qi  m  o  t^  < 


*  00  r-. 


♦  00^0   ♦CO 


o^o-mmo  mo  0»m 
o3  M  c>\o  ♦  w  M  vO  m 
00  « vo  o   O  m  o>vo  m 


iOvOoo   mc   M   M   o-t^  ^^oo  M   o  00 

«  «  r^  m  m  O'  ♦oo  m  o  m  m   «  r^ 

M  moo^  O^  cjvo_  O;  t^  m  moo  c>  O  m 

M*  pT  eT  «  m>o'vo'oo^  (>  m  rCoo" 


00  ■♦  ♦-  m  000  00  i^ 

C  Ov  «  ♦  o;  ♦■  M  m 
M  t*HM  ♦-mooo  m 

m  0^  0  M  m  ♦  0 
00  <^  2"  JO  J^  ^  JJ. 

0    « 

r^  0 

CIMOMMMMn 

«  M  mmc^-mo* 

00  m  moo  vo  m  (^vo 

m  c>  moo  00  m  cT 

«  m  ♦■vo  ♦vo 

IN.   M 

m  m 

0*  o»  ♦■vo  m  m  M  0 
♦■mm  mvo  ♦  ♦■  m 

vo    O    O   « 

00     «     ♦  M 

VO  m  c^vo^ 
■^  mocT  c? 


*mM  ♦t«*t*.MOo  0  M  M  r«»o  Oooet 
"O  n  m  O"  ♦00  w  CTtO-N  o-m^^r-s 
M  m  m  «  m  0  vo^  C;  r^  m  ♦  «  00  vo  q_ 
■M  o^^'^mM  mmmc*  fim  (**oo  w 
>  t>*  IN.  o  t^  ""'VO  m  ♦■  «  M  mvo  00  »n  M 


m  ■♦  m'O  rN.00  c-  O  M 


SvOVOOvOvOOvO'O 


m  ♦  mvo   r^oo  Cv  O 


OOCOQOQOCOOOCOCOOOOOCOOOOOOOOOCOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOC 


nOO  00  00  00 


Eg 


eS 


J3J5 


.a  5 

•s-g 

.-« 
"o  ii 

•■  & 
-a  o» 

=  5 

!5  ° 

■o  « 

1° 

,.'■0 

•5 1 

i% 

o  C 


^J3       O  •- 
^    Ml       -C^ 


S5 


<^ 


TLxa^c  witb  tbe  XHnite^  States. 


177 


< 


S  fe  z 

£  O  <    , 

J  U)  S  a 

H  ^  •= 


«<  . 

U  X  u 
S  u  i£ 

H  K  a 
o  a  -• 


555 
2  a  h 
^  ^  i 


^  a 


o  a 


Z  M  J 


o  o  o  >^ 
5  S 


»  mvo  vo  vo  00  «  'O  vo  o  r^o  b 


-^^^-^   NOD  M  lOi-Nvo   r^-t-  "OOO   O 

00  r^Mcooo  ■*r^o*  mvo  \o  vo  00  «  v_ 

O  ■^  M  0^00  '«-oo  O  CT-'O  M\o^O;>-"^ 

M  0^00  r^O  M  <Nr-0"^fOt^(N  O  N  roM  m  "-*  t 


<  m  r^oo  w  00 


q»  ^  M^  I-.  ui 

10  c>  c> 
r%oo  M 
«  nioo 


)\000«^-00't^» 


'^'O    M    f  vO    M    w    « 
c*  tH    O   O    ■-■    *^    "^ 


4  \o  00 


■^00  00  00  00  i^  ' 

M  «  o  <>  M^  r 


(s.  O  "O  in  e^  I 


'^  C  «  w  u^  -^  « 


1  ro  O  CO  m  ^  »nvo  'O 


vo  o^fit^-^o  foo*o*'>o*  moo  t*.  o  »i  tn  o^oo  vo  00  o^  t^  «  t^  ( 


t  O   O    mvO  ^D  00  00 


;  lO-O    -^  t^oO  vo 


nro  10  ■*\C  ^  O  0^*0  t^oo  en  M  O  »^  »^  vt  i-.-ju  v 
M  00  M  \0  10  ^  u^  -^VO  CO  cooo  00  o*  m  ^  N  "^oo^  t^ 
^  d!  in  m"  fo  invcT  inoo        ■^  m  o\(moo  o»  n  o»  m  o» 


t^vO    '^  CM-» 


C*  O  VO 
O  N  r^ 
«  00  vo 


■-i-  o*  «  00  m  t^  -^  ^vo  vo  tn 
M  000  0^00  00  00  t^  t^^  r^. 
■  -^  O  «  tN.  o%  -^  1^00  cnvo  r^ 


"i-oo  00   r*"-  O    -■ 


1  O^  mvo  vo  O^vO  ^  m 
-  -  -  "  .  •-•  M  O  O 
)  (^00    m  O  00   Ovo 


vo    t^  O    rooo    tN.  t 


in  t^  r-)  tN.  tN.co 
h*  ^^  M  00    0  00  vo^ 
o  tnoo  o*  (N  '-'  ^^ 


00  -^vo  ■^  c 


1  w  o-  rnvo  o  H  ■^  M  vo  r^vo  roowO'-'OOOO-ooin 
iininr^mN  ^n  'i-t-vO  oh  oco  cioo  »nvO  ■^  i-»  pi  r>. 
in  000  00  o  O  rooo  -^  -^  rovo  m  oo  m  -f  vo  t>.  o  «  ^  t^ 
>-rrofrd"o"c?o'fO'4-?c5"»^N"M"M"int-rfoc5>  inoo"  O 


-*•  m  'J-  M  fn-o  00  00  000 


invo  OD  M  t^  N  vo  inoo  \o  m  o 

lovo  ro  r^  -^  in  f<  n-^  Mmo—   _     _^___         _^ 
1  in  M  M  00  r*  ■^  fovo  m  t^  «  vo  o  000  «  00  m  r*.  m  -^ 


^■o  pH  ro  0  00  vo  -^  o  o  (y<'^o  m  m  rN,_o 
ro  cf  o  o  vo  d'od  vo  t^vb  »o  00  t>. 


o*  o  00  o  o*  in  o  t^vo  t^  M  o 
^movo  rnf^ino  "*vo  «  m^ 
pr       cTvo*^  fOvo"  w"  tn  in  Hrvo"vo 


O  mino*h*.(N.o  ^-» 


O  rn  in ,    - 

I  t^  -i-  000  q^oo  m  c 


«  rn  m  r^  M  inv< 


m  0^  fo  0 
«  N  0  'n 

0000    Cl    M 

«> 

»o 

^ 

?\0  0 


Ot  M  Is.  w  ro  ^00  o  moo  in  o» 
o*  M  o  \o  mo  t^co  m  M  ■*  rn 
tN.  N  *o  «  vo  ro  O^'O  w  «  «  00 
cTn  'frn^^M'O"  pTof  00  d 


.1 

in  o> 

^0. 

" 

■«->o 

po»p 
invo^v 
o  mvd"  in  M  N  tC  in  tC*o^\£r  rC 
rsM    infivo    O^    «    mrOf — 

wi  •*  c^  -*  moo  moo  m  •■ 


•*  m-o  M  "t  O  000  00  •- 
m  o  m  «  N  ■^  mvo  vO  < 


6  i 


O   O 


1  m  o 


ae  z 


■£    3 


SEE 


X     X     ^ 


000 


00  Ov  o  M  N  m  *  invo  t'^oo  o  o  •-  (n  m  -f  in\o  r-oo  c  Q  •-  « 
m  invo  vosovovovoovO^vo  t^r^r^r»r^ts.r>.t**tN.  t*.oo  oo  oo  < 
oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooocoooooooc 


178 


Statistical  Motes  on  /IDcjico. 


O     ■    M  00    ^  I 


M   moo  0*0 
\0    '♦'£>    ^00    in  w    ro  I 


»  O  00    t>.  Q    w  00  V 


"t      ,    t-*  ^  COO 


00  c*  f^  c«  00  on\o  m  IN  I 


N,  HAW    OR 
FACTORKl 

«> 

O'  lo  h.  C   • 
•  5  m  r»  ui   . 

O  c?;  m  c  m' 

■  c 

r^.  M  00  •♦  t^oo  o-c^o  »AN  M  c  m»o  o  m 
M   T  C  «   O   C  0   c^o   f^r^->0   «   '♦CO   mrs, 
moo  m«  eN.'«-w»o   u-,«  moo  i-t  ■-.  m  «  ^o  r* 

C 

t: 

0 
u 

O  0  co"  cfccf^O  c>m«"c>  <n"oo  m  *o  rC  tC 

m  ►^  «  ■♦■  0  0  m  mco  o  «^^o  w  coo  oo  m  i^ 

mn  ONo  mc»rt«mcc  •♦oooo  m  m  lo 

moo  « 'O  m"           «  i-T*©"  m  m  c  ^  m  ci"  O 

U->  N- 


cr^t^O  inr^Ooo  ^.\0  oo  m  w  0»»0  O  C«  0\O  mMKOoo  m-^ 
«  «■♦■«  M  «  mm«*o  mM  mnp*o  «  •♦  moo  »ooo  Q  «  c  t-»  "♦ 
NO  -<  w  ccr^t*-N  «  O  ccco  •-  f^'^mm  h*oo  o  «  m  ^  h* 
m  -f  oo"  cT  i-T  c  o  o'vo'  tCo'd-r-^moTm  J"\o"  m  -'  o  ■♦  o  in'od" 
M  m  r*  m  c>o  »^i-i^M«mMP*<NN«mm  '♦^o  c  -" 


w^o  «  mmi-t  woo  c  v»*o  m  «  m  o  w  «  t^oo  oo 
r^«  w\0  O  w  t^M  rvct>o  r«*mM  mtN.t«.uiM  o 
r^O  O  c«  M  mts,«  m\o  »-  CC'^CO  t**m^*- 
.  m  c  ^  rC  moo^  c  moo"  o  ^  cToo  oo  ►^  c  c  m  moo 

.  moo  oo   ■♦■♦t^O    P*   M    M   COOOO    t^«%0   CO    h* 


vco  mmt«*C'*''*m-* 
rN.oo  o  c*-t  '♦Nvo  mt^ 

vo  CO  0  c  O^oo  c  ■♦  moo 
iC  coo"  c  "♦■  m»d"  tC  tH"vd" 
m«tN.       N-vom-'j-wi- 
N  «  mw 

MONO    rovo   O*  N   lOOO   **>  C*   r*l  «    N   M 

iri  cTi  o\in  fo>o  ■*  a>  •*  m  N  o  -^-oo  ■.^  lo 

O^«fn«MO0   0..0  ^o  oo  t^  »-i  .o   tx 

^M  mo.txO.0  o..nuirx  \rtoo  o  w  m 

tx.o  .o  «  o  ■♦      tx  ino  0..0  -^  m  o 

•  C«  ct^'^m'^-N  •♦oo 
■';   tN.  m  «  r^>o  m  ■"  vo  N  t- 
r^  »o  c  moo  mvo  q_  ■♦vo  « 
*j.  ceo  o  moootT  rC  m  oo  ■♦ 

a 

7.292 

72,216 

62,859 

173.585 
21,039 
104,146 

55.881 

9,862 
93.487 
64,776 
288,109 
126,613 

85,702 
352,510 
419.263 
476,453 

•  m  o  f^  ^  o 


c  tN.  m 
,00  m  -♦ 

•-•  00  00  c 
00  «  m  c  cT  m 


moo  r-  c  t«*oo 

O   O   M  00   H^   c 

00  c  f^  r^oo  ■^ 

"♦00  m  cToo 


00  m  -^  m     00 


>  c  m  c  »n^o  00 


rrt^  rv\o    r^  t>.  « 


M  M  c*o  moo 


m  *  iTi^  rsoo  c  O  ►<  «  m  •♦  m^o  t**.oo  c  O 


CO    C   O  _      _     _,      _ 

iri  m\D  \0^O^vO^\OvO*O^O 
CO'^COOOOOOOOOOOCOCOOOOOCO 


-     -     -     -     ,  ^     ,    ,N.oo  0000  00 

)0000000O00000000000O00CO 


«  B 
&  < 
u  o  bt 

'.2.S 

■£  "  2 

O-Ojs 
__  v^ 

■^  a"" 
rt  -^  fc, 

w  °  S 

3  U)  DC 

S   H   "^ 

•^  D.^ 
-3  o   C 

-=oS 
*   «■*" 


Zvat>c  witb  tbe  "ClniteC)  States. 


179 


0   1^0*00  mo  0  M  r*)rs.rno  r*oo  ,^  i/-.  woo  f^^  «  f<iir»M  0 

< 

V 

j: 

0 

z 

<»                                         MM 

<    . 

a 

'-^t 

< 

g.1 

■ 

tH 

I 
h 
< 

VO  in  0,  « ,0  mvo  00  H  rot^O  h  0  »nt^t^o,rorno  Q,o  t*  '^^ 
vS  ■«•  N  «3  t-.  ■♦  T^  m  m  iM  5>\o  S.«  r»  M  «  mco  ui  5 ,0  0  «  00 

M    ^0^  '^<>oiro<>M^M    M    u^,o    MOO    fO    ■*O*r^O00    r,^00   1/^,0 

°J^ 

^                            M    ro  H__                            M                 « 

-1 

PQ 

♦ 

i!^ 

M  i^«  «  w  ^-tf-t^fnu^  oco  a«  o,,o  t^  r,^vo  00  vo  t^co  r^  v  m  00 
«   Tf-ft^rON   0,10100   MOO   rn«   N,0   0   ,0  o-vo   fO  10  0   1^  ro  t^  M 
00'  m'  <y  10  10  •*  >o  to  0'  0'  'f-  m'  -too  to  ro  rn  ■*  tivo'  m'«>  tC  n  c>  « 

ii 

^fS 

|E 

M        fociNr^M'^Tri^  t^co  ,o,ocoooo,ot^«o,«u^e*t^ 

<»                                           ""                                                             -MMMH«*m 

b. 

„ 

1; 

.  U 

K 

00  tC  in  in  ■«?  m  cT'O  m\o  tC  rC  m  oo"»o^vcr  o^  tC  o  -^^^o"  tC  -*  t^  w  <> 

)  < 

<^                                                           M                                                                                                                                                        MM 

i 

C 

u  0  t 

)  a  a? 

t^O  (^0  '«h'<t-M  too  t^iON  moo  "«J-vo  r^  i^oo  o  C'O  m  t^  ■*  o 

c  «  t^  t>.  M  vo  t^vo  vOMvomMwt-^'*  "^00  n^  t-^  0   r^  m  -^cc   w 

J<fe 

u  2  < 

O'  **■  root?  moo  vo  vO  Ooo  m  m  m>o  m  r^^o  w  m  cr^t^mwco  m 

«  mvo  -^tN-Mvo  woovcoo  I""'-'  CT-c-O  «  M  M  r^M  n  -^moo^o 

0  J  i; 

i» 

g5? 

J    «;    >■ 

:  <  Q 

1 

M  «  M  N  r,.-^t^«oovo  t^Mvo  '^oo  m  0  ■<^  Q  '^  f**  o^o  m\o  m 
00  M   Tj-  M  moo  M  w  m  moo  ■*  0  O  m  ts,  mvo  vo  \0  oo  vO  0  o  ooo 

<; 

<»                      ^        « 

I     I    I    I    I    I    I     ^OOO'^'-o  mso  o^^iom   t^«  MOO  mo 

^                    „HM-MN^^««mm« 

0 

•0 

K 
0 

0 

f, 

00  m  o»      tN.  rvvo  m  m  ts.  m  r-vo  oo  oo  w  o  m 

w MOOM       MNmwoooi-.Mm-*-«M\5r^ 

C3 

Q hv  mo/-N  O  r^vo  Ooo  o  ooo  m  t^.  n  vo  vo  oo 

i. 

^    ',',    I    '.    I    '.    I    '.   m  m  tCt- •-^  "-^  ^00  vcT  o  mvo' vd"vo  00  tCoo  m 

< '■foomm  moo  m  -rrv«co  0  mm« 

>■                                                     ■*\5'*mNOO*-'oo  r^oo  oo  vo  oo  m 

z 

< 

M  M  MM  M  cimtrjmn  mmm 

z 

z 
0 

|: 

vooo       O'*t^mtv'*M00M  mco  mow 

u 

Moo/^mNmMfrit^fO-<rmNvOMvoM 

I      '      '.      '.      '.     ,     !     !      iOM,J>ON    ■^vo    m  N    M    n^vO    O  '^    M    ■^  *-" 

<^ 

•W 

0 

U 

■ QM        moomvon  mvo  ooo  M  0  «  t^  M 

« 001^      MmMmm  moo  oo  "*  o  t^  t^  m  ■♦ 

Q t^v      vom-*MOoo«-*OOM  moo  m 

^    ',    I    '.     ',    '.     I     '.    I    '.  >^  tC  _.  ooo  OO'tCoo'm'x^mM-^m'^ 
>                                            M  m;^  o  t^mmw  m«  «  mno  -^oo  r<*  m 

M                                    M  VO    0    t-^vO  vo  vo  O 

M 

3 

:::::::::::::::::::::::::: 

a 

d 

2 

2 

HI 

1      1 

K 

1      :::::::::::::::::::::::::: 

< 

I       o6  o  o  M  M  m  -<■  mvo'  »^od  o  d  m  «  m  ■4-  mvo  t^od  o  6  •-  «  m 

m  irv£.  'ovovovcvovovovovo  is*t>.rs.r»*r**ts.r^^.t^  t>*eo  oo  oo  oo 

{       00  00  oo  oo  00  oc  00  00  00  00  00  00  00  00  00  CO  00  00  00  00  00  oo  00  00  CO  CD 

> 

i8o 


Statistical  Motes  on  /IDcjico. 


'aSIQNVHDHMU 

do    sxaodxa      1VJ.OX 


"asia 

-NVHDHHW  NOIBHOd 

JO    sxHOdxa    ivxox 


'aSIQNVHO 

-aa  w      Dixsaivoa 
dO    sxaodxa    nvxox 


'HSiaMVHSaaw  aaHio 


•JO  saanx 

OVJnMVW  QNV  aoOM 


•JO  saMnxDvd 

-a.MVN   QNV  oDDvaox 


00  t^ 

fO  o» 


rs.  o^  o  ^  O  fOOO 


fOO  *  ■^  t>.  O^OO  »0  O  r*. 
r«*  T  -™  O  tnoo  N^  r^  f^  ^^ 
^  O   «"  o"  d"  o'  fo  in  «'  ro 

W    ■«  00    P*    t^  ITi  t^   O    ^00"'-^-^Nta/-        -    -      -      -. 

m«  »-  o  «  mmro  i^oo  oovo  *^''^C>t^«oo^  •^oo 
lo  pT  N  ^  ^^  *♦  invo"  ^  in  t^L  in^o^  in  in>o  in  t^vO  t^ 


30    O    <O0u    r^  <->•  vj    ^r  w  '■<> —     ^- 

ir*  ooo  «  in  T  t^  «  •«■  «  mvO 
O   *  fo  O   O^   »n\0   t^oo  e 


•wo 


in*o 


J  *♦  o^  ■«*-oo  ^o 

'  ►*  in  ^  r 
o  vo  rn  I 


tN,oo  roo  m  -^o  ^o  M  00 


>^t^O  n-itN.r*.o^ 


MOO  ^^N  in^o»M  t««-oo 
o^  rN.  o-  p«  ^^^o  >-•  ^  t>  « 
o»  ^  a-  o  <>6b  voN"vo«ooinM^  H^ 
"fod^inc^^O-MQ  fooo  *o 
mvo  O«oo  -^  m  O  r^  m  w 
C>oo  ^  co^  roco  ^  M  « 


N  mvo 


w 


O   O  f 


tN.  ro  «*•  < 


r^  O 

aoo 


*  t^  I 

t^  ex  ( 

ICO" 


•  ■*  e  o  m  moo  o^oo  -^oo 
.  _>»-««pv>i-min»H^~- 
0»  mvo  ^vo  tN.  o  ^  O  M 
*  O"  O  m'  in  (^  M  motT  in"^'^d"»^0  ci^O'^'^C  "Sod  ^  b 
m  ■♦  -wo  HiO«'*m'^'«»-«'^»-t-it^0OM  0*0  o  «  Ji 
J  moo  -^  r^oo  t^oo  Ooo  mo  ^0*000  t^  ^00  *  o_  "^^  ^  t? 
iM'M"rCtCmm'^mm'^Lnmm^m'«f''^in  mvo"  ^  m  •* 


■  a>  I 


o  00  •-<  o  t 


»  r^vo  00  m  tx  (■ 


m^o  00 


.        m  -^  •*  « 

I  tN»^  moo  m  O  V 


vo  o  r>.o 


-  m  --fvo  o*  o  tx  •■ 


t^  ^  m  'T  o*  O  00  rooo  m«  -^n  mvoo  onoo  0  O 


.  M  m  tx  ^  I 


•^00  vo  M  m<o 


ts.  m  txvo 


■*  «  o  m  m  ■*  ► 

m  tx  N  vo  vo  m  < 
■  «  o  -^vo  tx  m  ( 


tx  o  O  00  o\vo  r*.  •'tvo 


>vo  m  «n  w  O"  "»■•*■  ■■ 


>  fooo  m  t»»  I-  vo 


»««0^\O    N    f^i-«    t^  o>  t-i    O    M    O    dvt^ci    Q    Min«    » 

«  o  r^  m  N  m  «  o«oo  «  tv."^o«o  c   -^wvo  mro"*" 


sassvaow  anv  avons 


•aaATisMoin^ 


#j3iijo  nv 


in  -H-  m  o>  r^  m  ' 

t-xvo    C'  0  '^  f 


noo  «  moo 


OOwmt^oc^m  mvo  00  O  «  m  n  mvO  m  -*-  %•-  t^oo  vo  r*  m  « 
r?)  tC  m"  i-T  m  m  mv^T  ^  m  eT  i^vo^  m  moo  tC  c?oo  00  moo  hT  m  ih  m 
^^      ctM       Mmmmmm'«r«Hfomwmmmr*m  ^^vo  e^  t^ 


o  000  o^tN.M  ovo  00000  tN.\D  00  m  o  ■*  « 


1  ex  O     O  00    tx  ( 


txvo    O    txvo 


>  O  -*  txvo    HI    o 


m  tx  N  vo  H  vo  o>vo  00  o-cn  0*00  vo 


ov  a>  '^o  M  o 


*  -J-  O  m  o  o  moo  m  m  -»f  h.  m  tx  ix\£ 
.  vo  ^vo  vo  VO  VO  m  mvo  moo  tx  tx  o*  f 


«  mo  •*  «  cv  m  rxvo 
OMd-^fO-      -    -     ' 
o  '^'^^  mvO_ 
tC  m  m  tCvo"  o  o" 


■  o  cxoo  CT-  mvo 


«    '^vo    O- 


<  00  m  m  ^vo 


0\  r^.  m  tx 

tx^tH  omm«  ex 

m  tC  ^\o  «"  m  m 


moo 


roo 


m  ■^  "^  mvo  o  «  00  m  n  mvo  tx  ^ 
■00  o  m-^"^c^vo  t-vo  n  cioo  n-m 
O   "^  tx  »-  invo  rx  tx  -^vo  ■«*-oo  tx  o  -^  m  O  'O  m 
vo  o-^  cxvo  txm4-o«mM"o"'*^-<f  aop  'tfocT  m'  cT  m  '^oo  m  m  « 
-dtxOMmmw  moo  oco  m  mo  txOvOoo>-mmo"       --- 
P  mvo  c  M  \o  moo  moo  00  o-vo  txr^ooo  mmmmci  n 
2  w'  N  cT  m" 


00  mvo  tx 

J  O  m  o  00 

J  vo'  O-'^ 
^  «  tx  o 


o  O   o  tx  ■♦oo  o 


1  m  o  o  M  00  ov 
»  M  m 


=  a 

O   rt 


Is 

CT.  10  m 
000  m 
r-00  -^ 

0  M   0   -^c*  000 
'^oo  mvo  0  »-.  m 
-*  tx  rx  N  -.r  rxvo 

m  O^ooo  « 
m  M  00  M  m 

m  ovo  0  0 

o«oo  M  moo  «  m  m  m 
5  m  o^vo  tx  M  vo  M  m 
Omo  mmmrxo  o^ 

10  m 
4» 

t^  -.rvo 

0  0    O^OO  00  vo    « 

^  Tj-  m  «  M  M  .- 

rx  0  M  mco 

■*  S  cJvo  dv  M  (^  M  tC 
MM       M       MM  mm 

z.  ^  ^ 

S>3?. 

«  0  M  moo  0  m 
ovo  M  m  IH  o*  w 

0«  fx  IX  ro  "^  -^  »-. 

M    0    ^  vo    « 

m  tx  Q  mvo 
00  tx  0  moo 

c^  m  Q  m  mvo  «  m  m 
0.00  v5  0  -*  ov  M  «  00 
tx  ov  m  mvo  '(T  m  m  m 

?  cvmd^txoitxM  it-d  moo  00  movo  1x0*000  -^m  mo  ^-^m 

J   ■^  ^O    mvo  00    N    O  W    O-  O-vO    0«  M    O  txvo    M    «  vO    ^  tx  o-vo    M    -^ 

O  ■*  m «  ..-.-.*..---  ...... 


•joqio  nv 


•jspAvodunQ 


*iio  avaaNiw  oni 
-xvNiwnni  aaMuaa 


m  Ov  m  mvo  m  '*• 

M      O     «     IX.   O     M     ■* 

o  ^  m  tx  o*  M  N 
tC  -^vo^  m  ■«? vd"vo" 


O  tx  moo  O 


•*oo  txO  «  tx«  txtxmm 


o-vo  «  000  «  Qco  m-^mo  mM 
mmtxmQ  coo^rxovM  h  mo  o* 
00  r^  M  M^vo  Tj-nimtxc^M  N  m^ 
N  vo  m  o  r^oo  vd"  txoo  m  O  moo  O' 


O   moo  oo   O  m  ( 


» txoo  -^vo  vo 


V  O  00  00  'i-oo  00  00 


ovo 'O^oo  o-vo  O.  o_  «  M  M^  m  f^.co  "^  "t  ^^  "^  •-;.  "^ 
mvo  r^OcT  ^cx3"crm  •too  m'  m  rr>  cT  in  mvo  <> 
M  N  c*w  o-vo  m  o-  tx  -^-o  o  tx«  ixuimtxM  -r 


t  -^  mvo  txoo 


,  ^  ,.-.  .  ._  ,  -50«0'-"«fn'^  mvo  t'oo  o  O  M  «  m 
- .  -■»  O  voovovovovovovovo  txtxcxr^txtxrxix.ts»  txoo  00  00  00 
oooooo^oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo 


•T3    CU 

X  o 


c  > 

V 

oJi 
u 


^S3 
•-  o 

4)    o 


O   o 

c  .. 


e ;; 


—  ^ 


2  = 


XTraDe  witb  tbe  XHiuteC)  States. 


< 


P 


u 
m 

Q 

•< 

X 

u 

X 
H 

b. 
O 

12 

O 

A. 

s 

Lead  and  Manu- 
factures of. 

rva)o.oo►<^oom 

lOlO^O      woo      -Tt-u^M 

•4 

^                M       ft>     .A    ^O       H       M       14 

a.           

0«rowilvwco>--<- 
M    N    c-00    ««-o     c-fnw 

VOOO      lOO.O'W-O.IO.O 

e^M     t^N    r^    o^   \ri    c\   \n 

CSt»_0_^.n.OCjmMN 

•0.1^0      w      O      f*>vO      w      M 

^oooovO     '1     inw     0     •«■    o< 
P  M    pT  vo    fT   o"   n'   di  lo   0* 

u  «  „• 

Q   o    ON     r^ooo    o   \ri 

0      MVO      O^     lOVOOO     t^ 

.•VO      M      floO.O     vr,  CO      mM 
Qaoo     nmC     -^-oo     moo 

5rotCo;o'o''o     o     •f«5 

.^rot^vo      M      -.J-MVO      M      O 

0«„„«HM„„M 

rt  P  «  S 

Kc^2 

NVOOO      t-^M      -«-\0      «0O 
■«-OOU^t^O0ON« 

">   "=   u   3   ,„• 

ir.0     or*     lot^inw     m 
M    in\o     t^t^t^-^ro    « 
CCS     foco     r^CJ     om« 

vo"    O  -o'     ■♦    fO  oo'     rn    d;  oo' 
«      t'^-.J-O      u^ror-^M      t.. 

4» 

•o 

3 
rt 

>. 
•o    . 

«-« 
boc 

5" 

•o'-3 
js'e 

n 
o 

"b 

u 

u 

<•£ 

o 

■«-0     mt-~oo    lomiOM 
n    inM^ooo    MOO     m     t^ 
MrjoovOO_^>OM^t;fO 
tT    lo  oo'  vs"    o'   .o   m   c?    tC 

t    ",  "i    '^    ^2   1    O"    'i    ? 

N     N     lnl»u^O     0     '^^0 
CO     .ri'.*--,t-t^rOM     t^o 

coO'^OMTfeooofi 

O'rt'O 

QHintOHMinoo 
0    r^w    «^i40o    •.♦•M 

►T    N    0    m  CO 

Copper :  Pigs, 
bars,  ineots,  old, 
and  other  un- 
manufactured. 

moo    0    irit-»i^ioN     H 
00    o-"^«     cmvo     r^« 

T(-N     m    f    f    m    tn    fi     0 
«^          cicomwioiooD 

.M    i^Tfc*    M    m   n    coo 
tAI^Q     •«-«»o>o     o     «     r 

Q    -J  VO^     t;     «      tv     ►.      «_     ^     f. 
SOOmoOONNM?!- 

0                N     -     .n  00     N     in    0 

ft.                     M    H    ►.    N    lo   ^ 

V 

tta 
o 
O 

000000    in  00    0    -^--wS 

ION      ■.f't^t^.^M      o      w 

OOiOOONOO.0"" 

^m^^^^    ^^^ 

«  rn   o.  vo_    lo   M_  \o^    «    ♦   rr, 
^-^-vooo    «    M.C.O    r«.m 

3    «     VO^     *(>•«•     M_     N      CJ     1^ 

g  00    o'  oo'    ■->*    lA  oo    IT.   m  00 

g«T3 
ui-S   O 

lis 

o 

t-iovoicooo    ros     0 
mp)    -^-vo     t^Noo    0    M 

OOOOMNOONNf 

Mm«m«wONO 
4»          n                       M    «    M 

a 

o 

— OE  HN 
NIQNa  u 

nf 

cd*H    «     m'4-io'o     IS, 

oo      0\QtCO*0'C»0*0 
OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 

Statii5tical  IHotes  on  /IDcjico. 


Si; 


l,T3 


rn  cT  -^  f^  ^  f^  *^^  "^ 


m  •«■  tv 

8  "vO 

3  58 

8 

in  i^vo 
t*.  »n  1%. 

m  ^4-  o  ■*  t^  1^ 
t-N,  (s.  ts.  o  <n  »n 

o>  0  M  r^ 

M 

i-iMOO''-iOOmO 
O    -4-  rv  cS  ^o^O    fO  O'  CO 


rC  o'  O"        m  fO  I 


.  00  VO    O*  fO  O^OO    'J-  '^  fO 

a  00  M  r^  «  t^  t^  »'>oo  O 
ZHTcii-r      (^  in  -^  ^  O 


rtJ2 

3   £ 


M  o*  O  O  r-00  vo 
rC  rC  u^  O  00  ^  m 


00  fO  f-  »A  M  mvo  vo  m 
C4  -^  in  moo  m  M  o   M 


no  o  Q>  en  f^  c 
>  -^  in\0  rooo  ' 
r>  mvo  ro  o  f^  ' 


\0   Tt-mM   ■*«»-'   O   t^ 
m"-"  N  "-"^  »^«  "^-^ 

O-O    O    O  Hi^O    M  00  OO 


■<■ 

♦  0>O^ 

1 

-4-  c 

0«  t^  O    O  v£) 


r^8 


og 


o  o  r^  0  ^  ro  coo  -f 
fooo  O;  »n  ■»^oo  «  "^^  **• 


|-| 


I  OO  00  f*^  mvo 


OOO   N   000 
00    •-•    C4    M    C« 

)  o>  ■♦  ■*  ^vO 


g2  8--3 


o  moo  c^  o  « 


_     _  .  *  M    -^  O  vo  00 


» t^  ■*  Q  o  moo 


'^S 


o>  o-  r%  o  roog  o 


M  CO  rn  o  t«*\o  c 


O  h-o  t^  5>oo 


t^  m  M  o  h".^    - 
f".  O  *0   r*.  r*.  ro  ( 
'^  •-•  cf  (>  ro  cf  00  cT 
rhoo  OO  CO  ■*■  M  o  rN. 

'<r  m  ■»*-  m  ei  m  "O 


«> 


OOVO^O   M  OO   Q 

I  '^^  m  M  H  m»o 
.  in  m  m«o  r^oo 

X  -^  M  m  -*  q'  w  o-^"  m 

— \o  M  mso  m  tv.  tN.  CI 

CT-vo  t^  <:^  -^  M  \o_oo 

w'oo 


^o^O 


0>  •♦>ovO 
M  <y  ■*  5 

§ 

^ 

R>ir 

r> 

M  1/^ 

M 

^ 

- 

moo 

M  00  m 

5 

§;<2 

00 

-o 

r~vo 

<y  ri 

'• 

in 

« 

■«■ 

O"  O  »*  N  r^.  'f  mvo  r* 
00  &<o^^c^oool^^ 
ooooooaooooooooooo 


4 


00    O'CT^^OOO'O'^ 

oooooooooooooooooo 


UraDe  witb  tbe  lUnitcC)  States. 


183 


(A 


»!    a 


„ 

men 

f 

1  ro     1 

a 
z 

•0    r^«   i^mNso   a--* 

^ 

0 

^ 

< 

<  K 

■■<!    H 

t  s 

=    < 

C  0  fO  0  t^OO    lA  M  0 

r-   >^ 

ui  0 

< 

J 

40^ 

11 

t>.  C7«  tN.  flvO   t^^   t^  m 

,rt  0 

0*"  0'  -^  -<?  w  00   rp  ^  ;5 

S"*; 

«  r^  -^-oo  00  M  t-^  N  ■* 

2  >' 

P2 

II 

Q    B 

tN.00  fovo  m  t^  0  r^  0 

<  - 

^   D. 

<   X 

<»• 

u 

#  w 

2»i 

z  " 

Q 

z 

< 

§1 

OS 

«  «oooooo\o  N  0  »o 
N  r^^  in  t^  N  0  00  -o 

S  s 

«s 

u 

0. 

4» 

0 

(Jl 

H 

lA 

J3  ti 

00  yD  vo  lA  c>  a«  -^vo  -"i- 

C 

0  S 

•0^ 

VO     "^^    fA  t^  «    M    M  C5 
t^O'WCIiHi-iM^OvO 

0 

Q 

k. 

s 

<» 

fcj 

roci  fAM  mm^O'O' 

h 
a: 

2 

s 

HHMMMMMrOm 

X 

M 

<! 

<«- 

d-oo  t-^  coMD  c*  '*oo  00 

u. 

S 

00  rovo  '♦VO  M  m  «N  ♦ 

0 

0 

ro  u-i  «  -^oo  w  ♦oo  m 

0 

a 

4» 

a 

lA 

o^o  iN-c^-fnoooo 
(/  iofn«oo  o^o  M  00 

< 

g 

u 

a:  inoo  ^  r-»  0  oo  on  0  ^O 
-•  ♦♦o  rooso  »A-*0 

s 

MNMMM«?1«M 

2 

t 

t>.O0    ^0    N  00    -•    tn  irj 

-o 

s 

'0 
0 

49- 

.^§cg;?^8S*%S8 

0 

Q  0_oo  r^  c>  «^  c^  ''O**^  "^ 

0 

5  *^  1 1  "^  't  T  "^^  ^"i 

tC  in  »n\o"  fo  rn  ■♦  10  ro 

k 

z 

•"» 

0 

z 

a 

z 

u 

K 

< 

U 

>• 

9*  0  ►*  «   rn  T  »nvo  1^ 

i 

^ 

« 

■^ci 

^i 

^i 

""^ 

1 

. 

00  0*  0  00  0  ♦  «  000 

•a 
0 

H 

i>-2'^  si 

a  <y.6  rCvo  o"  fn  r?  ♦ 
5    -    t^o-r^O    M»0   O* 

4» 

"0  u        tj 

tN."  op  m  H,   0  00  0*0* 

Tota 
exports 
domes 

mer- 
chandi 

yS'S  cfvo"  «^  -'  «  ^'O' 

00  o  i->  ^  00  ♦  «n<o  rx 

0  M  »o  moo  «  '♦00  « 

«» 

B-a 

.  •« 

CO   J>  0"0  -  .0  0-  .n  M 

■Sja 

VO   O'OO  «.0  00   «   t*  o- 

ttmtnm-fm-ftntn 

O" 

4» 

■^  1 

n  «  0 

rr)  ■*  0.0   -^oo  00   ■*  -<• 

•o'2  ?. 

>ooooo02--«-">o 
^  -  -'  -'  ►.'       "'  -  « 

0  5 

3 

A    . 

"'«'^"S 

M  •«■  m  o*  •«■  0  «  .J-oo 

5  =  2  u 

•5  «  c  " 

0      n  3 

u 

H     b2 

«» 

minm«in«MMiD 

5 

°^°,  t't'Ott'^'^ 

z 

-0  •*■  m  mt^tn  mmtt 

X 

a 

4* 

u 

Ji  u 

t^  m  M  CO  m  t~.vo  «  •♦ 

u 

■5>. 

-.t-  Q*c»  ■-•  m  fi  Ht  .o  00 

h 

c/s 

U 

4» 

0 

a 

t^M  m^r^w  mo?- 

S  V 

H  o-N  •*-«-«oo  •♦r* 

0 

u 

a 
0 
a: 

<-z 

.0  rooo  fn  f<>  rn  -*  r..  0 
00  m  N  0-  m  <^.o  .o  >o 

0 

X 

<* 

oiO  VO  m  ovoo  c  t~  m 

>• 

< 

CO    OvOvWOOvOOO    O'CI 
MMO'^OMMOm 

MMMI^rOMMMCV) 

Q 
Z 
< 

■6 

^ 

ovmrot^t^Mvo  f^tv 

h 

hJ 

'C'm«t»i5-<-NO~r^ 

u 

^  VO   m  w   vnvo   M   Q   ■*  0. 
J  cnvo  VO  0  CO  ■«•&■■«■  M 

0 

z 

j2 

K 

p»M   o,0C0   rr,-^  rfiiri 

S 

S 

5-S'S.'3-SSR'^% 

4» 

z 

0 

■a 

, ,•    I^CO    lA  t^  Ov  fri  0.0    ■«■ 

§ 

Qvovo  *4co  roomtnt^ 

0 

X 
a, 

5  r^  ^  i^vo  «"ag"  t^  o'  .0 
SOviO^OmSov  ♦VO 

pq 

. 

MinovNOvOMOm 

..  rtT3 

u<    ^    V 

CO    •♦•i^OOOOvO    "    f*    ■♦ 

♦  fo  0  rn  ov  •♦00  .r  r% 

4» 

1 

a: 

z 

= 

;::::;;:: 

::::::... 

•0 



z 

0 

z 

H 

at 

> 

00  OO  00  00  00  00  CO  CO  w 

i84  Statistical  IWotcc^  on  flDcjico. 

Increase  of  trade  diiri/ii^  the  year  iSgd-gj. — The  data  given  in  the 
cliapter  on  Foreign  Trade  contain  detailed  statements  of  the  amount 
of  commodities  and  precious  metals  exported  from  Mexico  into  the 
United  States  during  the  last  ten  years,  and  I  refer,  therefore,  to  the 
same,  those  desiring  more  detailed  inft)rmatitjn  on  that  sul)ject. 

I  give,  however,  a  statement  of  the  leading  merchandise  imported 
from  Mexico  into  the  United  States,  during  the  last  fiscal  year,  com- 
pared with  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1896,  embracing  only  such 
imports  as  are  not  specifically  stated  in  the  data  taken  from  the 
official  reports  of  the  United  States  Statistical  Bureau,  and  which 
appear  on  pages  176  and  177.  The  following  data,  also  taken  from  the 
last  official  report  of  the  same  Bureau,  shows  a  comparative  increase  of 
trade. 

LEADING    MERCHANDISE   IMPORTS    FROM    MEXICO. 

FISCAL   YKAR  FISCAL   YEAR 

1896-1S97.  I 895-1 896. 

Henequen,  tons 62,839  5i>i67 

Value $3,809,415  $3,339,180 

Ixtle  fibre,  tons 6,313  12,207 

Value $335,841  $717,585 

Oranges,  value $258,340  $212,913 

Tobacco,   lbs 749,560  93.197 

Value $297,262  $28,025 

Mahogany,  feet 6,791  10,654 

Value. $321,800  $414,817 

Coal,  tons 99,760  72,056 

Value $218,456  $146,813 

I  also  append  a  similar  statement  of  some  of  the  articles  exi)orted 
from  the  United  States  into  Mexico  during  the  last  fiscal  year,  com- 
pared with  the  i)revious  one,  ended  June  30,  1896,  embracing  only 
such  exports  as  are  not  specifically  stated  in  the  data  taken  from 
the  official  reports  of  the  United  States  Statistical  Bureau,  appearing 
on  pages  178  to  183,  and  which  I  also  take  from  the  last  official  re- 
port of  the  same  Bureau.  When  it  is  taken  into  consideration  that  the 
Mexican  imports  from  the  United  States  during  the  last  fiscal  year  were 
made  on  a  falling  silver  market,  the  annexed  statement  shows  a  con- 
siderable financial  strength. 

EXPORTS    FROM    THp:    UNITED    STATES    TO    MEXICO. 

(  Fiscal  year  iSgd-gy  and  preceding  year.) 

1896-97.  1895-96. 

Cattle,   no 690  1,112 

Value $29,186  $39,509 

Hogs,  no 22,164  17,540 

Value $263,083  $206,807 


Xlra^e  witb  tbe  "ClnitcD  States.  185 

1896-97.  1895-96. 

Agricultural   implements $130,825  $119,838 

Books,  maps,  etc $161,143  $107,384 

Carriages  and  cars $615,468  $687,425 

Coal  and  coke,  tons 219,111  121,269 

Value $643,715  $377,469 

Bicycles $73,  "7  $24,278 

Fruits  and  nuts $72,654  $78,497 

Hops $55,610  $8,289 

Hardware $2,874,283  $2,455,400 

Leather $16,456  $24,014 

Crude  petroleum,  gals 7,090,853  (>, 779,059 

Value $349,021  $392,510 

Refined  jietroleum,  gals 836,628  631,147 

Value $174,107  $142,761 

(Includes  lubricating  oil.) 

Cotton-seed  oil,  gals 1,616,407  1,588,504 

Value $320,496  $337,892 

Paraffin,  lbs 2,888,475  2,975,476 

Value $144,805  $163,644 

Tallow,  lbs 997,216  1,783,788 

Value $36,561  $77,050 

Hams $28,976  $29,487 

Butter $40,089  $33, 169 

Wool,   lbs 1,698,952  2,605,150 

Value $140,609  $238,316 

Tropical  Products  Supplied  by  Mexico  to  the  United  States. — It  will  be 
interesting  to  state  in  what  proportion  Mexican  imports  of  tropical  pro- 
ducts figure  in  the  total  imports  of  said  commodities  into  this  country. 

From  1892  to  1896  the  annual  average  of  importation  of  vanilla 
beans  into  the  United  States  was  205,197  pounds,  of  which  Mexico  fur- 
nished 142,727  ])ounds,  or  69^^  per  cent.  Mexico  receives  for  her 
vanilla  crop,  annually,  $640,000  gold. 

Mexico's  average  annual  exportation  of  coffee  to  the  United  States 
for  the  past  five  yenrs  was  28,927,410  pounds,  or  4.8  per  cent.,  of  the 
total  American  jnirchase  of  coffee,  lirazil  furnishing  70  ])er  cent.. 
Central  America  7.6  per  cent.,  Venezuela  6.4  per  cent.,  and  the 
British  West  Indies  i.i  per  cent.  There  is  jjlenty  of  room  for  the 
Mexican  coffee-growing  industry  to  expand.  Mexico's  fine  flavored, 
mild  coffees  are  steadily  gaining  in  i\x\ox  in  tlie  Ignited  States. 

In  henequen,or  sisal  grass,  Mexico  takes  the  leading  i)lace  in  the  im- 
port trade  of  the  United  States,  selling,  of  the  total  received  there,  98.1 
per  cent.  The  average  annual  ini])()rtati()n  for  the  past  five  years  was 
50,129  tons,  of  which  Mexico  furnished  49,195,  Cuba  277,  British  Aus- 
tralia 386,  and  all  other  countries  271.  Mexico  received  a  yearly  aver- 
age, during  the  five  years,  for  her  henecpien,  of  $4,218,267,  gold.  All 
of  which  went  to  the  State  of  Yucatan. 


i86  Statistical  TRotcs  on  /IDcjico. 

In  sugar,  Mexico  holds  but  an  insignificant  place  in  the  American 
inii)ortation,  which  showed  an  annual  average,  during  the  past  five 
years,  of  3,827,799,481  i)ounds,  Cul)a  furnishing  46.5  per  cent,  and 
Hawaii  7.9  per  cent. 

We  could  expand  very  largely  our  sugar  production  and  sujjply  this 
country  with  almost  all  of  that  product,  but  as  sugar  is  produced  in 
Louisiana  and  as  Hawaii  is  likely  to  belong  to  the  United  States 
the  protective  policy  of  this  country  will  not  allow  us  to  supply  the 
United  States  with  that  commodity  on  a  large  scale. 

Mexico  is  sending  on  an  average  every  year,  1,400,000  pounds  of 
wool  to  the  United  States.     In  1892  she  exported  but  190  pounds. 

The  United  States  takes,  annually,  an  average  of  50,493,000  pounds 
of  goat  skins,  of  which  Mexico  furnishes  3,007,000,  or  5.9  per  cent. 
Of  other  hides  and  skins  the  United  States  imports  167,  993,000  pounds, 
Mexico's  share  being  4.3  per  cent. 

The  cattle  trade  of  Mexico  with  the  United  States  increased  consid- 
erably under  the  liberal  provisions  of  the  Wilson  Bill,  which  taxed  cattle 
with  20  per  cent,  ad  valorem.  The  following  statement  shows  how 
large  the  increase  of  that  trade  was  under  that  bill  : 

CATTLE    EXPORTED    TO    THE    UNITED    STATES. 
Years.  Number.  Gold  Value. 

1892 1,438 $  7,740 

1S93 2,597 16,376 

1894 1,469 11,857 

1895 148,431 720,864 

1896 216,913 1,481,954 

(Fiscal  years  ended  June  30th.) 

Mexico  has  been  for  at  least  two  years  the  most  important  source 
of  supply  to  the  United  States  for  cattle  purchased  abroad,  Canada 
furnishing,  in  1896,  cattle  to  the  value  of  but  $18,902,  and  the  United 
Kingdom  $6,684.  i'^^e  cattle  trade  is  one  in  which  American,  as  well  as 
Mexican  capital  is  embarked,  but  it  will  be  considerably  diminished 
if  not  completely  destroyed  under  the  highly  protective  tariff. 

COINAGE. 

In  the  chapter  on  Mining  I  gave  a  concise  statement  of  the  silver  and 
gold  coined  in  Mexico  from  the  time  of  its  discovery  by  the  Spaniards 
to  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1896,  and  it  appears  from  the  same 
that  the  total  coinage  of  silver  amounted  to  $3,398,664,400. 

According  to  the  report  of  the  Director  of  the  Mint  (page  347) 
on  the  "  Production  of  Precious  Metals  in   the  United  States  during 


Coinage. 


187 


the  Calendar  Year  1895,"  the  last  one  out  as  this  paper  goes  to  press, 
the  total  production  of  silver  of  the  world  from  1493  to  1895  is  $10,- 
345,688,700,  the  Mexican  coinage  being  over  one-third  of  the  whole. 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  that  statement  embraces,  so  far  as 
Mexico  is  concerned,  only  the  silver  coined,  and  it  does  not  take  into 
consideration  the  silver  used  in  the  arts,  w  hich  used  to  be  a  considerable 
amount,  as  almost  every  well-to-do  Mexican  had  forks,  spoons,  plates 
and  other  table  ware  and  household  articles  of  solid  silver.  It  does  not 
embrace  either  such  silver  as  was  smuggled  in  bullion,  which,  consider- 
ing the  large  extent  of  the  Mexican  sea  coast,  its  scanty  j^opulation  and 
the  general  demoralization  during  our  civil  wars  represents  a  very  large 
amount.  It  can,  therefore,  be  safely  stated  that  the  production  of  silver 
in  Mexico,  not  coined,  represents  at  least  from  one-fourth  to  one-third 
of  the  amount  coined.  Therefore,  the  production  of  silver  by  Mexic  o 
may  be  safely  estimated  at  from  $5,000,000,000,  to  $6,000,000,000,  which 
is  about  one-half  of  the  total  product  of  the  world. 

The  following  statement  shows  the  amount  of  silver  coined  by  the 
several  mints  of  Mexico  from  their  establishment  to  June  30,  1895, 
stating  the  years  in  which  the  coinage  was  made  : 

COINAGK    HV    THE    MEXICAN    MINTS    FROM    THEIR    ESTABLISHMENT    IN 
1535    TO    JUNE    30,    1895. 


PERIOD    OF   COINAGE. 

MINTS. 

COINAGE. 

1868-1895 

Alamos 

$     22,828.869 

1. 321. 545 
62,465,756 
46,438,169 
67,128.366 
64, X 27, 846 
4.375.062 
307,364,150 

1863-1866 

Calorce 

18x1-1895  

Chihuahua 

1846-1895 

Culiacan 

I8H-1895 

Durnngo 

1812-1895 

Guatlalajara.  .  .     

l8,l4-i8(iO 

(juadalupe  y  t  alvo 

18x2-1895.            

(ju.inajuato 

1852-X895 

icie- i8qS 

IIcrniosiHa 

Mexico 

i9.65<),5o6 

2,453,iio.xio 

5.761.045 

1x3,143,358 

1857-1893 

1827-1803 

Oaxaca 

San  I^uis  Potosi 

t8io-i8i2 

Sombrerete 

1,^51,248 

1827-18^0 

Tlalpam 

1,162.660 

1810-X895 

Zacatecas 

Total     

350,341.499 

From  1535  to  1895 

$3,520,779,189 

I  give  a  statement  of  the  produc  tion  of  gold   and  silver  in   Mexico 
in  the  fiscal  years   1879-1880,  1S89-1890  and  1894-1895,  which  shows 


i88 


Statistical  TRotes  on  /lOcjico. 


a  considerable  increase  in  each  of  those  years,  and  tliis  statement  only 
represents  such  amounts  of  the  i)recious  metals  as  were  either  exported 
in  bullion  or  taken  to  the  mints,  and  not  the  i>rodu(-tion  that  is  other- 
wise disposed  of. 

PRODUCTION    OF    GOLD  AND   SILVER    IN    MEXICO  IN  THE  FISCAL  YEARS 
1879-1880,   1889-189O  AND    1894-1895. 


I 

870-1880. 

1889-1890. 

i894-j89S. 

Kilo- 
grams. 

1 
it 

0 

Value. 

Kilo- 
grams. 

E 
2 
0 

Value. 

Kilo- 
grams. 

« 

260 
35» 

611 

551 
490 

Value. 

Gold  coined 

Gold  exported 

772 

622 

598 
032 

$      521,836 
420,131 

941,957 

360 
677 

1.037 

219 
524 

743 

1      243.298 
457.611 

807 
6,217 

$  545,237 
4,199,305 

Total 

1.394 

630 

700,909 

7,024 

4,744,542 

Silver  coined 

Silver  exported  .... 

587.034 
74.302 

804 
3>o 

24,018,529 
3,040,079 

594,606 
362,418 

526 
697 

24,328,326 
14,828,361 

675,277 
747,283 

27,628,981 
30,575,104 

Total 

661,337 

"4 

27,058,608 

957.025 

223 

39,156,687 
139.857,596 

1,422,561 

041 

58,204,085 

Total  of  gold  and 

$28,000,565 

$62,948,627 

The  following  statement  gives  the  exports  of  the  precious  metals 
from  Mexico  during  the  same  years  embraced  in  the  preceding  table. 

EXPORT    OF    PRECIOUS    METALS    AND    MINERALS     FROM     MEXICO    IN     THE 
FISCAL    YEARS   1879-1880,    1889-1890  AND   1894-1895. 


Arp;entiferous  copper. 

Gold  ore 

Silver  ore 

F'oreign  gold  coined  . 
Mexican  gold  coined. 

Gold  bullion 

Mixed  gold 

Foreign  silver  coined 
Mexican  silver  coined 

Base  silver.    

Silver  bullion 

Manufactured  silver. 

Mixed  silver 

Sulphite  of  silver.  .  .  . 
Argentiferous  lead. . . 
Argentiferous  zinc. .  . 


VALUE  IN  MEXICAN  DOLLARS. 


X 879- I 880. 


220,567 
760,683 
420,132 

3M-537 
16,783,317 

3,040,079 
581 


21,539.896 


3-1890. 


6,394,662 

13,204 

96,592 

457.611 

141.033 

23,084,489 

1,810 

7,259.959 

368,872 
803,058 


38,621,290 


1894-1895. 


59,660 

10,935,353 

34.887 

164. 113 

4,139,645 

485,326 

17,077,119 

50,866 

18,803,876 


785,009 


52,535.854 


CoiuaGC.  189 

It  may  be  interesting  to  state  the  amount  of  silver  exported   and 
coined  in  Mexican  mints  from  1S74  to  1896,  which   is  the  following  : 


EXPORTKD. 

COINED. 

1874-7*; 

$     16,033,215 

20,853,074 
19.339,151 
20,307,563 
17,774.910 
15.700,704 
28,441,212 
32,242,770 

32,770,()Oo 
29,160,835 
32,642,785 
30,286.247 
37,982,948 
37,912,848 

35.259,131 
46,272,391 

44,303,593 
36,012,950 
36,716,870 
46,722,823 

$    19,336,958 

19,454.054 
21,415,128 
22,084,203 
22,162,988 
24,018,529 
24.617,395 
25,146,260 
24,083,922 

25,377.379 
25,840,728 
20,991.805 
20,844.031 
25,862,977 
26,031,223 
24,328,326 
24,237,449 
25,527,018 

i87'?-76 

1876-77 

1877-78 

1878-70 

1879-80 

1880-81 

1881-82 

1882-83  

1883-84 

1884-85 

1885-86 

1886-87 

1887-88 

1888-89 

i88q-qo 

1890-gi 

1891-92   

1892-93 

1893-94 

1894-95 

27,169,876 
30,185,612 
27,628,981 
22,634.788 

$616,741,920 

$541,029,630 

The  preceding  statement  gives  correct  data  of  the  exports  of  silver 
from  the  fiscal  year  1874-1875  to  the  fiscal  year  1895-1896,  excei)ting 
the  years  1875-1876  and  1876-1877,  which  are  not  included  for  want 
of  data.  The  difference  between  the  two  amounts  for  these  years  is 
$75,712,290,  showing  the  large  proportion  of  silver  which  was  not  coined, 
and  was  exported  in  bullion. 

The  following  statement  shows  that  the  export  of  Mexican 
silver  reached  almost  its  minimum  in  the  year  1887-1888,  and  its  maxi- 
mum in  the  year  1892-1893,  with  the  exception  of  the  last  one.  The 
minimum  coincided  with  the  first  sterling  loan  negotiated  by  Mexico  ; 
the  second  sterling  loan  negotiated  in  1890  caused  a  decrease  in  the 
export  of  Mexican  silver  coin  of  26  per  cent.,  as  compared  with  the 
previous  fiscal  year  of  1 889-1 890. 

The  export  of  silver  bullion  has  steadily  increased  since  1872-1873, 
until  it  was  in  1 895-1 896  seventeen  times  as  large  as  in  the  first  named 
year.  During  the  first  fiscal  year  of  those  embraced  in  the  above  table, 
the  exjiort  of  silver  bullion  was  1.4  to  22.6  as  compared  wilii  silver  coin, 
and  in  tlie  year  1895-1896  the  proportion  was  15.3  to  20.5.  In  the 
year  1872-1873  the  export  of  silver  bullion  rojjresented   6  i>cr   cent,  of 


IQO 


Statistical  IHotcs  on  /IDcrico, 


the  total  ex])ort  of  silver,  while  in  the  fiscal  year    1895-1896   it  repre- 
sented 20  per  cent. 

The  export  of  silver  ore  only  began  in  tlie  fiscal  year  1886-1887. 

EXPORTS    OK    SILVER     FROM    JULY     ISl,     1872,     TO    JUNE    30IH,     1896. 


FISCAL    YEARS. 


1872-1873 ,$   22,626,065 

1873-1S74 17,021,405 

1874-1875 15,372,254 


Average  in  three  years. 


1877-1878. 
1878-187Q. 
j879-i88o. 
1880-1881. 


Average  in  five  years. 


882-1883. 
883-1884. 
884-1885. 
885-1886. 
886-1887. 


Average  in  five  years. 


1888-1889. 
i88g-i8qo. 
1890-1891. 
1891-1892. 


Average  in  five  years. 


1892-1893. 
1893-1894. 
1804-189C. 
1895-1896. 


Average  in  four  years. 


Total  in  the  twenty-two  years. 


Average  for  the  twenty-two  years. 


$  18,339,908 

$  18,120,297 
16,366,877 
16,783,317 
13.183.955 
11,607,888 

$  15,212,467 

$  22,969,584 
25,099,876 
25.394.262 
21,969,958 

21,953.759 


$  23,657,488 


794.245 
.686,337 
,084,489 
1622,171 
,478,376 


$  19,533.124 


$  27, 

17, 
17, 


170,865 
386.338 

077.1  IQ 
377.663 


$  20,502,996 

$429 

$  19 


J. 459.426 
1,217,853 
1.843.523 


$   1,506,934 


I  2,560,859 
2,650,400 
3,040,079 
3,976,879 
3,540,994 


$   3,153.842 
$   4.773,928 

5,3".3io 

5,899,297 
5,261,502 
6,128,239 


$  5,474,855 


$  6,919,356 


047,100 
502,140 


$  8,126,593 
7,881,897 
18,803,876 
26,345,160 

$  15,289,381 


$143,418,595 


$     6,519,027 


$      199,596 

240,769 

79.443 


$      173.269 


19,920 


10,129 


6,010 


30,105 
67.815 


1,809,873 
3,737,883 


$  1,129,135 


$  4,547.250 
7.623.589 
6,394.662 

8,874,457 
10,478,264 


$  7,583,644 

$10,940,750 
9,023,596 
10,935,353 
10,885,479 


$10,446,294 


^5,898,933 
$  3.904,496 


OTHER 
FORMS. 


$  8,716 

1.359 
3,920 


4,665 


87 

2,8l2 

581 

376 

S.O79 

1-787 


$      "3,537 
111,112 

153.489 
145,070 

823,951 


$      269,432 


$      475,942 

830,304 

804,869 

1,282,151 

3,237,116 

$  1,326,076 


$  5,525,420 


$30,102,151 
$  1,368,279 


TOTAL 
VALUE. 


$  24,293,803 
18,481,386 
17,299,140 


$   20,024,776 


$  20,701,163 
19,020,089 
■9.823.977 
17,161,210 

'5, '63.990 


$  18,374,086 

$  27,892,154 
31,490,113 
31,446,848 
29,186,403 
32,643,832 


$  30,531,870 


$  17,588,765 
38,002,740 
37,912,851 
35,259.133 
48,047,513 

$  35.362,200 

55,246,423 
45,411,176 
47,652,223 
58,74*^,547 


$  51,764,092 

$688,471,479 

$31,294,158 


MEXICAN    GOLD    EXPORTS. 


Our  i)roduction  of  gold  used  to  be  very  small  for  reasons  already 
given,  but  the  present  high  price  of  that  metal  is  increasing  consider- 
ably our  output  of  the  same. 

The  exports  of  gold  from  Mexico  in  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30, 
1896,  amounted  to  $5,800,000,  as  declared  by  the  Mexican  Bureau  of 
Statistics,  but  even  this  statement  is  not  correct,  as  it  needs  the  follow- 
ing additions,  shown  by  experience  and  reliable  authorities  :  about 
15  per  cent,  for  gold  exports  made  without  any  return,  2  per  cent,  for 
undervaluation,  0.5  per  cent,  used  in  the  arts  in  Mexico,  i  per  cent., 
possibly  more  now,  with  the  increasing  prosperity  of  the  country,  re- 
tained in  the  l)anks,  2  per  cent,  in  circulation,  making  a  total  of  20.5 
per  cent,  to  be  added  to  the  official  return,  which  brings  up  the  produc- 


/IDejican  0ol&  JEjporteD. 


191 


tion  of  gold  in  Mexico  to  $6,989,000  for  the  year  1S96  and  even  this 
ligure  is  considered  very  low. 

Mexican  Gold  Exported  to  the  United  States. — The  United  States  is 
our  principal  market  for  the  gold  we  produce. 

The  following  statement  furnished  to  me  on  February  6,  1897,  by 
the  Director  of  the  Mint  of  the  Treasury  Department  of  the  United 
States,  contains  the  imports  of  gold  bullion,  ore  and  coin  into  the 
United  States,  as  reported  by  the  Collector  of  Customs,  from  1891  to 
1895,  and  from  the  fiscal  years  ending  June  30,  1892,  to  June  30,  1896. 

"imports   of    gold  bullion,  ore    and    coin  from    MEXICO    INTO    THE 
UNITED  STATES  AS  REPORTED  BY  COLLECTORS  OF  CUSTOMS. 


1891 

1892 

1893 

1894 

1895 

Total 


222,088 
711,672 
507,647 
673.583 
997,221 


$3,112,211 


$1,192,183 
1,714,440 
1.566,728 
1,064,721 
2,435,296 


$7,973,368 


367,015 
380,711 

265,315 
38,376 
34,217 


$1,085,634 


$  1,781,286 
2.806.823 
2.339,690 
1.776,680 
3,466,734 


$12,171,213 


"  For  additional  information  see  Report  on  Production  of  Precious  Metals,  1894, 
page  248,  and  the  same  report  for  1S95,  page  289. 

"  Yours,  R.  D.  Preston, 

"  Mint  Bureau,  February  6,  1897." 

"imports  OF  GOLD    ORE,  BULLION     AND    COIN    FROM    MEXICO    INTO    THE 
UNITED  STATES  AS  REPORTED  BY  COLLECTORS  OF  CUSTOMS. 


FISCAL  YF.ARS  E.NDING 
JUNK  30. 


1892 

1893 

1894 

1895 

1896 

Total 


\  246,849 
886,284 
502,023 
810,066 

1,1.08,839 


$3,554,061 


$1,336,593 
i,923.5<>5 
1,210,757 
1,635.852 
2.826,327 


COIN. 


$8,933,094 


542,499 
300,012 
116,823 

36,835 
72.4S2 


$  2. 125.941 
3,109,861 
1,829.603 

2.482.753 
4,007.648 


$1,068,651   :  $13,555,806 


"Treasury  Department.  Mint  Bureau.  February  6.  1897." 

Mr.  Preston  completed  the  above  information  with  other  data  ob- 
tained from  private  parties  in  the  following  manner  :  coinmunicated  to 
me  in  a  letter  dated,  February  6,  1897,  enclosing  the  two  preceding 
statements. 

"I  would  add,  for  your  information,  that  from  returns  received  by  this  Bureau, 
from  private  refineries,  and  the  deposits  of  foreign   bullion  at   the   Mints  and   Assay 


192 


statistical  IRotes  on  /IDcjico. 


Offices  of  the  United  States  during  the  calendar  years  1894  and  1895  the  amount  of 
gold  credited  to  Mexico  was  reported  to  be  as  follows  : 

1894. 
Reported    by    private    refineries   as    extracted    from     Mexican    ores   and 

bullion $2,360,765 

Gold  bullion  deposited  at  the  United  States  Assay  Office  at  New  York.  .  .         735,73? 
Deposited  at  the  Mint  at  San  Francisco 290,713 

Total $3,387,265 

1895. 

Gold  extracted  from  Mexican  ores  and  bullion  by  private  refineries $3,843,783 

Gold  deposited  at  the  United  States  Assay  Office  at  New  York 560,775 

Mexican  gold  bullion  deposited  at  the  United  States  Mint  at  San  Francisco        504,745 

Total $4,909,303 

The  preceding  official  data  from  the  United  States  Treasury  Depart- 
ment was  not  complete,  as  will  appear  from  the  following  table  pre- 
pared by  the  Bureau  of  Statistics  of  the  Mexican  Republic  : 

GOLD    EXPORTED    FROM    MEXICO    TO    THE    UNITED    STATES. 
CALENDAR   YEARS. 


■.^- 

1892. 

$     100,595 

45.290 

279,699 

126,184 

1893. 

1894. 

1895. 

1896. 

Gold  ore 

$ 

16,700 

53.76q 

497,400 

$    113.548 
91,936 
99,415 
257,761 

1        5.767 

177,089 

1,606,152 

144.515 

$      87,695 

109,421 

4,368,898 

$    324.305 

477.505 

6,851,564 

528,460 

31.231 

3,026 

Bullion  ' 

Mixed  ' 

.... 

31,231 
3,026 

1 

1 

According  to  information 

$ 
$1 
-f$i 

567,869 
,781,286 
.213,417 

$     551,768 
2,806,823 

$     562,660 
2.339.690 

$1,933,523 
1,776,680 

$4,6oo,jJ7i 
3.466,734 

$8,316,091 
12,171,213 

According  to  information 
from  the  United  States 

-1- $2,255,055 

-1- $1,777,030 

-  $    156,843 

-  $1,133,537 

+  $3,953,122 

FISCAL 

YEARS. 

i8g 

[-1892. 

1892-1893. 

1893-1894. 

1894-1895. 

1895-1896. 

TOTAL. 

$ 

31,289 
41.259 
474.156 

$    '45.785 

74.798 

115,642 

271,913 

$      55.799 
121,915 
116,994 
256,547 

$        8,889 

150,544 

3,687,872 

$    i6o,S5S 

147,981 

4,608,959 

$       402,317 
536,497 

Bullion  • 

Mixed  ' 

528,460 
80,947 

31.33* 

80,947 
31.332 

According  to  information 

$ 
2 

546,704 
.125,941 

$    608,138 
3,109,861 

$    55'.255 
1,829,603 

$3,847,305 
2.482,753 

$5,029,774 
4,007,648 

$10,583,176 

According  to  in  formation 
from  the  United  States 

13.555,806 

+  $i 

.579.237 

-1- $2,501,723 

+  $1,278,348 

-  $1,364,552 

-  $1,022,126 

-j- $2,972,630 

•  From  the  ist  of  July,  1894,  the  "  Bullion  "  includes  the  value  of  the  gold  contained  in  the  mixed  ore. 

This  instance  shows  how  difficult  it  is  for  the  commercial  statistics 
of  both  countries  to  agree,  even  when  the  merchandise  is  entered  with 
the  same  value  in  both  as  in  the  present  case. 


IRailwaps. 


193 


RAILWAYS. 

The  following  table  contains  a  list  of  all  the  railways,  exclusive  of 
the  tramways,  built  in  Mexico  up  to  October  31,  1896,  prepared  by  the 
Department  of  Communications  of  the  United  Mexican  States  : 

OFFICIAL  STATEMENT  MADE  BY  THE  DEPARTMENT  OF    COMMUMCATIONS 

OF    THE    MEXICAN    GOVERNMENT    OF    THE    RAILROAD    MILEAGE 

IN    OPERATION    ON    OCTOBER    31,    1896. 

(1)  The  initials  at  the  beginning  of  each  line  of  this  table  stand  for  the  g^a(;e  of  the  railroads  ;  S.  for 
standard,  N.  for  narrow,  and  B.  for  both. 


DATE 

3F 

NAME. 

LENGTH. 

FROM    AND   TO. 

CONCESSION. 

(i)  S.  Mexican. 

Nov. 

27, 

1867 

292.50 

Mexico  to  Veracruz  and  Apizaco 
to  Puebla. 

S.    Merida  to  Progreso. 

Jan. 

17. 

1874 

22.65 

Merida  to  I'rogreso. 

N.   Hidalgo. 

Feb. 

2, 

1878 

92 -43 

Tepa  to  Sototlan,  Tepa  to  Pa- 
chuca  and  San  .Vugustin  to 
Tepa. 

B.    Veracruz  to  Alvarado. 

Mar. 

26, 

1878 

43-75 

Veracruz  to  Medellin  and  Me- 
dellin  to  Alvarado. 

N.   Merida  to  Peto. 

Mar. 

27, 

1878 

68.97 

Merida  to  Ingenio  de  Sta.  Maria. 

N,  Interoceanic       from 

Apr. 

16, 

1878 

489.74 

Mexico  to  Veracruz,  Mexico  to 

Acapulco  to  Vera- 

Puente Ixtla  by  Morelos  and 

cruz. 

branches  of  Virreyes  to  Libres 
and  San  Nicolas. 

N.   Puebla  to  Izucar  de 

May 

6, 

1878 

52.39 

Los  Arcos  to  Cholula,  Cholula 

Matamoros. 

to  Atlixco  and  Atlixco  to 
Matamoros. 

S.    Mexican  Western. 

Aug. 

16, 

1880 

38.48 

Culiacan  to  Altata. 

•S.    Mexican  Central. 

Sept. 

8, 

1880 

1,877-15 

Mexico  to  Paso  del  Norte,  Silao 
to  Guanajuato,  Irapuato  to 
( Hiadalajara,  Aguascalicntes 
to  Tampico,  San  Rlas  to  Ilua- 
ristemba  and  Guadalajara  to 
Ameca. 

N.   Mexican  National. 

Sept. 

13, 

1880 

1,056. 16 

Mexico  to  Laredo,  Acambaro 
to  Patzcuaro,  Matamoros  to 
S.  Miguel,  Mexico  to  Salto, 
belt  tramways  from  suburbs 
of  Mexico  called  La  Colonia 
extension  to  .Salto. 

N.   Mexican      National 

Sept. 

13. 

1880 

88.30 

Manzanillo  to  Colima  and  Za- 

Construction  Com- 

catecas to  Ojo  Caliente. 

pany. 

S.    Sonora. 

Sept. 

14, 

1880 

262.40 

Guaymas  to  Nogales. 

N.   Merida  to  Valladolid. 

Dec. 

15, 

1880 

67-53 

Merida  to  Vallailolid  and  Pro- 
greso to  Conkal. 

N.  Tlalmanalco. 

Feb. 

3. 

1881 

16.56 

Tlalmanalco  to  Chalco  and 
Amecameca. 

N.   Merida  to  Campeche. 

Feb. 

23, 

1881 

97.  So 

Merida  to  Campeche,  Campeche 
toCalkini  and  connecting  line 
with  the  railroad  from  Merida 
to  Progreso. 

194 


Statii^ticai  IRotcs  on  /IDcjico. 


D.ATF.  OF 

NAME. 

LENGTH. 

KROM    AND    TO. 

CONCESSION. 

N.  Campeche  to  Lerma. 

Feb. 

23, 

1881 

3-73 

Campeche  to  Lerma. 

S.    Mexican        Interna- 

June 

7. 

1881 

658.28 

Portirio    Diaz  City  to   Torreon 

tional. 

and  Durango,  Sabinas  to 
Hondo,  Matamoros  to  Zara- 
goza,  Hornos  to  San  Pedro, 
branch  from  Velaideua  and 
Monclova  to  Cuatro  C'icnc;4:is 

N.   Nautla  to  San  Mar- 

June 

25. 

1881 

47.22 

San    Marcos  toward  Nautla  an<i 

cos. 

branch  to  Libres. 

N.  San  Juan  Bautista  to 

Sept. 

17, 

18S1 

3-57 

S.  Juan  Bautista  to  Tamultc. 

Paso  del  Carrizal. 

S.    Chalchicomula. 

Sept. 

20, 

18S1 

6.43 

San  Andres  Chalchicomula. 

S.    Orizaba  to  Ingenio. 

Sept. 

22, 

1881 

4.69 

Orizaba  to  Ingenio. 

S.    .Santa  Ana  to  Tlax- 

Dec. 

11. 

1882 

5.28 

Santa  Ana  to  Tlaxcala. 

cala. 

N.  Cardenas  to  the  River 

May 

12. 

1S83 

4.66 

Cardenas  to  the  River  Grijalva. 

Grijalva. 

N.  Toluca  to  San  Juan 

May 

25. 

18S3 

9-77 

Toluca    to    San    Juan     de    las 

de  las  Huertas. 

Huertas. 

N.   Vanegas,        Cedral, 

June 

II, 

1883 

40.39 

Vanegas  to  Cedral  and  branch 

Matehuala  and  Rio 

to  Potrero. 

Verde. 

S.    Tehuacan   to  Esper- 

Nov. 

28, 

1883 

31-07 

Esperanza  to  Tehuacan. 

anza. 

S.    Merida  to  Izamal. 

May 

IS- 

1S84 

40.91 

Merida  to  Izamal. 

S,    Chihuahua   and   Hi- 

Nov. 

IS. 

1884 

6.83 

Chihuahua  to  the  Sierra   M.ndre 

dalgo  to  the  Sierra 

and  Jimenez  to  Haileza. 

Mad  re. 

N.  Southern  Mexican. 

Apr. 

21, 

1886 

228.00 

Puebla  to  Oaxaca. 

S.    Tonala  to  Textla  and 

Dec. 

16, 

1886 

31  07 

Tonala  to  Kilomete. 

Frontera. 

S.    Lower  California. 

May 

25, 

18S7 

16.78 

San  Quintin  to-  the  Colorado 
River. 

S.    Monterey  to  the  Gulf. 

Nov. 

10, 

1887 

3S8.12 

Monterey  to  Trevino  and  Mon- 
terey to  Tampico. 

N.  Tecolutla  to  Espinal. 

Dec. 

10, 

1887 

13.04 

Tecolutla  to  Kspinal. 

S.    Cordova  to  Tuxtepec. 

May 

19. 

1S88 

31.69 

Cordova  to  Motzorongo. 

S.    Pachuca  to  Tampico. 

June 

5. 

1888 

6.21 

Isolated  Branch. 

N.    Maravatio  to   Cuer- 

Aug. 

16, 

1888 

40.84 

]\Iaravatio   towards  Cuernavaca 

navaca. 

and  branches  to  Aganguco  to 
Trojes. 

N.'  Mexican  Northeast- 

Aug. 

28. 

1888 

31.12 

Mexico  to  Tizayuca. 

ern. 
N.   Salamanca  to  Jaral. 

Aug. 

30, 

1888 

21.75 

Salamanca  to  Jaral. 

N.    Monte  Alto. 

Aug. 

30. 

188S 

6.21 

Tlalnejiantla  to  Pedregal. 

N.  Veracruz  to  Boca  del 

Rio. 
S.     National    Tehuante- 

Aug. 

31. 

1888 

13  f>7 

Veracruz  to  Boca  del  Rio. 

Gov 

emment 

192.38 

Coatzacoalcas  to  Salina  Cruz. 

pec. 

Road 

S.    Ometusco  to  Pachuca. 

May 

25. 

i88g 

28.40 

Ometusco  to  Pachuca. 

S.     Puebla  Industrial. 

July 

21, 

1889 

22.21 

Puebla  to  Constancia,  Cholula 
and  Iluejotzingo. 

S.    Tula  to  Pachuca. 

Dec. 

20, 

1889 

43-49 

Tula  to  Pachuca. 

S.     Minero. 

Mar. 

20, 

1890 

80.94 

Escalon  to  Sierra  Mojada  and 
branches. 

S.    Mexico  to  Cuernavaca 

May 

30, 

1890 

58.65 

Mexico    to    Tres     Marias   and 

and  the  Pacific. 

I'uente  de  Ixtla  to  Mexcala. 

N.   Mixcalco    to    Santa 

June 

13. 

1890 

2.77 

Mixcalco  to  Santa  ("ruz. 

Cruz. 

IRailwaps. 


195 


NAME. 

DATE  OF 
CONCESSION. 

LENGTH. 

FROM    AND   TO. 

N.   Izucarof  Matamoros 

Nov. 

21,  1890 

24.85 

Matamoros  towards  Acapulco. 

to  Acapulco. 

N.    Toluca  to   lenango. 

Nov. 

24,  i89;_ 

-       4-35 

Toluca  to  Tenango. 

N.    Hacienda   of    Xava- 

Mar. 

24,  1892 

2.49 

Hacienda   of   Xavaleta    to   San 

leta     to     the    San 

Rafael  Paper  Mill. 

Rafael  Paper  Fac- 

tory. 
S.     E.speranza  toXuchil. 

Nov. 

29,  1892 

15.84 

Esperanza  to  Xuchil  Station. 

N.   Guanajuato    to  Do- 

May 

24,  1893 

6.21 

Rincon   on  the   National    Rail- 

lores, Hidalgo  and 

road  to  San  Luis  de  la  Paz. 

San  Luis  de  la  Paz. 

8.     Villa   Lerdo  to  San 

June 

3.  1893 

15.84 

Villa  Lerdo  to  Sacramento. 

Pedro  de   la  Colo- 

ma. 

N.   Celaya  to  the  farms 

June 

2.  1893 

9.07 

Celaya  to  the  farms  of  Roque 

of  Roque  and  Plan- 

and  Plancarte. 

carte. 

N.   From   La  CompaRia 
to    the    Zoquiapan 
farm. 

June 

13.  1893 

517 

La  Compania  to  the  Zoquiapan 
farm. 

S.    Cazadero  to  Solis. 

May 

24,  1893 

18.64 

Cazadero     to     point      between 
the     stations     of    Solis     and 

S.    Industrial  Railroads. 

Dec.     18,  1895 
Total 

1.86 

Tepetongo. 
Mexico  to  Xochimilco. 

(0 
6,791.30 

(1)  This  amount  does  not  include  the  tramways. 


RESUME    OF    RAILWAYS   IN    MEXICO    IN    1895. 

KILOMETERS.  MILES. 

Railroads  under  Federal  Grants 10,723, k  113  6,663,022 

Tramways 427,    583  265 ,687 

Surburban  Railways  connecting  towns 410,    164  254,863 

Railroads  belonging  to  private  parties 87,    000  54.059 

Portable  Railroad,  Decauville  System 242,    252  150,527 

Total ii,890,kii2         7,388,158 

As  I  have  already  stated  most  of  the  roads  built  in  Mexico  have 
obtained  large  subsidies  from  the  government,  and  that  fact  has  con- 
tributed very  materially  to  their  present  ])rosperous  financial  condition, 
as  they  have  used  the  proceeds  of  the  subsidy,  not  only  to  build  the 
roads,  but  in  some  cases  to  pay  the  interest  on  their  bonds.  On  the 
whole  Mexican  roads  are  very  prosperous,  and  the  following  statements 
taken  from  the  official  reports  of  the  principal  roads  shows  their  trade 
and  earnings  are  increasing  considerably. 

The  Mexican  roads  like  the  Mexican  Government  have  been  very 
much  crippled  by  their  obligation  to  jiay  in  gold  the  interest  on  their 
bonds  and  dividends  on  their  shares,  and  as  they  collect  their  freights 


196 


statistical  "Motes  on  /Ccjico. 


in  silver,  they  have  to  buy  gold  at  current  prices  to  pay  their  gold 
obligations,  and  the  depreciation  of  silver  causes  them  a  very  great 
loss,  but  notwithstanding  that  serious  drawback,  the  increase  in  their 
business  and  earnings  has  been  such  as  to  place  them  in  a  position  to 
meet  their  gold  obligations. 

I  give  below  a  statement  of  the  traffic  and  receipts  of  the  three 
principal  railways  in  Mexico,  namely  :  the  Mexican  Central,  Mexican 
National,  and  Mexican  International,  which  I  have  obtained  directly 
from  the  respective  comjjanies.  I  also  give  similar  statements  from 
the  other  roads,  which  I  have  taken  from  statements  published  by  the 
Anuario  Estadistico  de  la  Republica  Mexicana  of  1895. 

Mexican  Central. — The  Mexican  Central  is  the  largest  road  so  far 
built  in  Mexico.  The  whole  of  the  main  line  was  opened  for  traffic 
in  1884,  and  all  figures  for  traffic  previous  to  July  i,  1884,  were 
thrown  into  Construction  Accounts.  The  annexed  statement  of  freights 
and  earnings  of  this  road  begins  therefore  in  1885,  and  shows  a  decided 
increase  every  year.  I  also  append  a  statement  of  the  traffic  and 
earnings  of  this  road  and  its  branch  from  Tula  to  Pachuca,  from  1881 
to  1895,  taken  from  the  Amiario  Estadistico  de  la  Republica  Mexicana  of 
1895,  which  has  been  compiled  from  data  furnished  by  the  company 
to  the  Mexican  Government.     (See  first  table  on  page  197.) 


EARNINGS    OF    THE    MEXICAN    CENTRAL    RAILWAY    FROM    1885    TO    1896. 

MEXICAN    CURRENCY. 


CALEN- 

MILEAGE 

MBTRIC 

FREIGHT 

NUMBER 

PASSENGER 

ALL   OTHER 

TOTAL  GROSS 

DAR 

OPER- 

TONS 

EARNINGS. 

OF    PAS- 

EARNINGS. 

EARNINGS. 

EARNINGS. 

YEAR. 

ATED. 

FREIGHT. 

SENGERS. 

1885 

1,235.90 

226,138 

$   2,287,410   14 

512,272 

$   1,100,268    62 

$     171,882   00 

$  3,559,560   76 

1886 

1,235.90 

245.398 

2,511,028    78 

573,896 

1,168,750   24 

177.926  83 

3.857.705   85 

1887 

1,235.90 

346,898 

3,458,006  46 

601,393 

1,235.284   05 

193,288    16 

4,886,578   67 

1888 

1,316.40 

507.631 

4,244,648    52 

581,967 

1,321,511    96 

208,170  83 

5.774.331    31 

1889 

1,461.8s 

540.546 

4,683,290  74 

675.144 

1,420.375    76 

233,558  88 

6.337,225  38 

1890 

1,527.20 

609,382 

4,702,142   48 

723,928 

1,436,317  68 

287,233  92 

6,425,694  08 

1891 

1,665.11 

867,657 

5,625,668    51 

742,993 

1,470,940  51 

277,929  00 

7,374.538  01 

1892 

1.824.83 

1,091,785 

6,183,149  29 

731,425 

1,439.571  60 

340.532  80 

7.963.253  69 

1893 

1,846.64 

860,187 

6,130,347   06 

792,025 

1,443.793  73 

407,627  52 

7,981,768  31 

1894 

1,859.83 

898,484 

6,440,713    23 

945.434 

1,576,801  33 

408,510  72 

8,426,035  28 

1895 

1,859.83 

1,047,038 

7,145,041  44 

1,030,911 

1,828,072  61 

522,751  63 

9,495,865  68 

i8q6 

1,869.60 

1,231,025 

7,646,257  99 

1,259,623 

1.934,612  78 

627,149  62 

10,208,020  39 

Total .  . 

1°    ,-°.-:- 

°, 472,169 

$61,057,704  64 

9,171,011 

$17,376,300^7 

$3,856,561  91 

$82,290,567  43 

Mexican  JVational. — The  Mexican  National  obtained  its  first  con- 
cession from  the  Mexican  Government  in  1877,  but  it  was  amended 
from  time  to  time  thereafter,  until  all  the  amended  grants  were  grouped 
in  the  concession  approved  July  5,  1886,  under  which  the  road  is  now 
operated.  The  old  companies  did  not  print  any  reports,  and  there  is 
no  data  running  back  further  than  the  time  when  the  bondholders  took 
possession  of  the  property  at  the  foreclosure  sale,  which  occurred  in 
the  City  of  Mexico  on  May  23,  1887.     I  give  a  statement  of  the  traffic 


TRailwa^s. 


197 


and  earnings  of  the  road  from  1873  to  1895,  taken  from  the  Anuario 
Estadistico  de  la  Republica  Mexiuina  in  1895,  which  was  compiled  with 
data  furnished  to  the  Mexican  (iovernmcnt  by  the  comi)any. 

(.ENTRAI,    RAILWAY    AND    BRANCHES,  INCLUDING    EARNINGS    DURING 
PERIOD   OF    CONSTRUCTION; 


OS 

PASSEN- 
GERS. 

PASSENGER 
RECEIPTS. 

FREIGHT. 

MISCELLANEOUS 
RECEIPTS. 

TOTAL 

Tons. 

Kilos. 

RECEIPTS. 

I88I. 
1882. 
1883. 
1884. 
1885. 
1886. 
1887. 
1888. 
1889. 
1890. 
I89I. 
1892. 

1893. 
1894. 
1895. 

303.543 
491.985 
653,669 
761.687 
694.894 
769,655 
797,693 
756.560 
683.147 
736,730 
753.276 
735.363 
792,025 

945,434 
1,030,911 

$          62.270   20 
442.726    54 
726,830  09 
1,111,906   96 
1,111,062    54 
1,185,662    53 
1,251.743   98 

1,337.734  iO 
1,436,301  06 
1,487,086  60 
1,512,415  42 
1,442,310  99 

1,443,793  73 
1,576,801  35 
1,828,072  61 

7,012 
202.304 
167,356 
190,423 
331,700 
255,027 
356,448 
519,261 

576,324 
694,966 

1,005,447 

1,100,364 

860,186 

898,484 

1,047,037 

436 
993 
565 
972 
260 
III 
976 

394 
408 
914 
237 
029 

545 
071 
836 

$        33,413  44 
1,289,387  24 
2,876,906  29 
2,662,684  86 
2,484,325  68 
2,754.613  02 
3,721,358  13 
4,554.830  53 
5,081,628  68 
5,212,261  40 
6,167,092  56 
6,534,507  42 
6,537.974  58 
6,849,223  95 

7,767,793  03 
$64,528,000  81 

$          95,683   64 
1,732,113    78 
3,603,736    38 
3,774,591    82 
3.595,388    22 
3,940,275    55 
4,973,102    II 
5,892,564   63 

6,517,929  74 
6,699,348  00 
7,670,507  98 
7,976,818  41 
7,981,768  31 
8,426,025  28 
9,495,865  68 

Total 

10,906,572  j$i7, 956,718  70    8,212,346 

747 

$82,484,719  51 

MEXICAN    NATIONAL    RAILROAD. 


in 

FREIGHT. 

MISCEL- 

< 

PAS- 

PASSENGER 

LANEOUS 

TOTAL 

> 

Tons. 

Kilos. 

RECEIPTS. 

1873- 
1874. 

247.547 
584,075 

%           17,425    65 
40,446   01 

$          17.425   65 
40.744   87 

298 

860 

%                  298 

86 

1875. 

486,788 

43.027    18 

221 

140 

221 

14 

43.248   32 

1876. 

486,000 

43,437  24 

698 

245 

709 

41 

44,146  65 

1877. 

565,572 

52.759  84 

346 

499 

275 

75 

53.035  59 

1878. 

529,333 

71,193  68 

3,209 

097 

3,845 

61 

75,039  29 

1879. 

535.806 

74,277  07 

8,102 

920 

15,329   07 

89,606  14 

1880. 

466,897 

91,505  23 

18,191 

400 

41.983 

90 

133.489  13 

I88I. 

903,049 

•24,452    13 

26,234 

150 

47,32<^ 

00 

171.772  13 

1882. 

900,855 

225,267  21 

105,549 

146 

229,586 

51 

454.853  72 

1883. 

1,071,835 

341,614  87 

140,185 

779 

366,320 

26 

707.935  13 

1884. 

878,878 

517,316  80 

254.804 

000 

743,423 

74 

1.260,74.)  54 

IS85. 

839.573 

492,822  92 

177.179 

000 

803,291 

20 

1,296,114  12 

1886. 

891,711 

538.359  97 

132,661 

000 

1.018,018 

51 

1.556,378  48 

1887. 

884,541 

537.520  17 

307,435 

000 

1,120,950 

34 

1.658,470  51 

1888. 

907. 113 

691,915  03 

370,300 

527 

1,880,684 

24 

2.572.599  27 

1889. 

929,685 

864,309  90 

430,166 

055 

2.640,418 

14 

3.504.728  04 

1890. 

937.527 

887.437   19 

487,593 

563 

2,684.550 

59 

3,561,987  78 

189I. 

998,617 

9t)4,()5i  69 

515,164 

143 

3,057.891 

00 

4,052,842  69 

1892. 

1,012,786 

973,768  72 

605.545 

610 

3.643.784 

47 

4.617,553  19 

1893. 

935,167 

972,488  57 

571,524 

780 

3,191,146 

37 

4.163,634  94 

1894. 

576,574 

865.698  53 

527,440 

000 

3.246.375 

07 

4,112,073  60 

1895. 

926,516 

1,005,515  55 

642,535 

071 

3,426,841 
$28,152,266 

93 
II 

4.432.357  48 

Total 

17,496,445 

$10,467,511   15 

5,325.390 

985 

$38,609,777  26 

iqS 


statistical  1Flotci>  on  /IDcsico. 


w 

[  1 

> 

z 

OS 

_) 

D 

U 

(J 

vr. 

Z 

'" 

< 

o 

u 

00 

X 

o 

H 

CTv 

00 

00 

M 

s 

o 

p« 

t*. 

^ 

>< 

< 

^ 

hJ 

"< 

piS 

^ 

«! 

2: 

o 

H 

< 

2 

z 

< 

u 

X 

«] 

s 

M 

oo 

2 

CO 

H 

O 

S 

(rt 

S', 

r* 

z 

>< 

z 

w 

•^ 

Q      rr 


CO        T       N       >0        r^ 

r^ 

o 

„ 

CO 

r~» 

CO 

O        - 

O        O       oo 

t^ 

o 

i^ 

CO 

CO 

-r 

i^      O      oo      CO       i-i 

in 

oo 

t^ 

PI 

o 

o 

i 

in       CO       •-        O 

PI 

O 

CO 

w         11          ►-         to        to 

q^ 

O^ 

<> 

in 

i^ 

00 

►"       O      OO      CO       M 

cf^ 

CO 

m 

>o 

i-i 

»i4 

t^      1-1        1^       in      CO 

o 

r^ 

PI 

in 

o^ 

cc 

O        N 

PI 

r^ 

in 

"-• 

o 

CO        ^ 

in 

pi" 

pT 

<J> 

to        u 

^^ 

■1      CO     oo       P< 

^ 

^ 

O 

~o^ 

O 

PI 

-t        1^        M         t^       oo 

O 

^ 

r^ 

•^ 

•- 

r^      -r      > 

T        O 

in 

t^ 

oo 

t 

•^ 

1-1 

• 

vC 

-r     «      t^     o 

O 

a^ 

O 

CO 

CO 

■i-      O       O       1 

-         0^ 

PI 

t~~ 

T 

in 

o 

oo 

O      O        M        t      o 

PO 

M 

1-1 

M 

n 

M 

C< 

1- 

O        to      I^ 

M 

-r 

!>. 

PI 

o 

•- 

O        P< 

in 

-t 

q_ 

'- 

CX) 

to       1-1 

^^_ 

pi' 

pT 

0»     CO      %0       CO      o^ 

tn 

_ 

-t 

O 

PI 

o 

N         N        t^        O*       CO 

O 

^ 

PI 

CO 

CO 

oo 

vo      -r     a>     -t     CO 

00 

vO 

PI 

o 

,_, 

o 

3; 

O        >n       CO       CO      CO 

t^ 

-o 

in 

-t 

'T       •*       O^      CO        CO 

O 

1-1 

o^ 

-T 

oo 

t^      -r      r~      to      CO 

cf> 

r^ 

1-1 

CO 

in 

IH 

oo         M         PJ         N        O 

PI 

PO 

o 

o 

00 

O^        O        M 

CO 

■* 

O0__ 

oo 

CO 

-t 

pT 

M 

«» 

O^      Tt"       i-i       oo        O^ 

in 

o 

PI 

PI 

T 

n         CO        t^        O^       00 

M 

•r 

o 

PI 

CI 

m 

00       a>      O       >n      o 

"i- 

o 

r^ 

M 

PI 

CI 

• 

Tt       O"       CO       O        M 

o 

o 

CO 

o 

O 

CO 

M           CO         1^          CO         Pt 

CO 

CO 

•^ 

o_ 

CO 

00 

O        in       O      N       i-i 

^ 

vO 

co" 

1-1 

PI 

»H 

«n     oo       o      e<      o 

PI 

CO 

CO 

in 

•^ 

cr.     o>     H 

M 

>n 

>o 

IH 

m 

M 

-f 

pT 

M 

«» 

_^_ 

Pi 

CO      tn       T}-      O 

Tf 

m 

ON 

•r 

CO 

o> 

Tt      -i-      -r      "-I       in 

O^ 

«n 

CO 

PI 

oo 

in 

m      M       CO     oo       w 

o 

o 

CO 

-t 

O 

r^ 

c 

r^      p 

CO       CT> 

PI 

o 

00 

1^ 

■*     c 

vC 

t~»       •- 

q^ 

tT 

o 

o 

r^ 

oo 

rj-        T        O       ^        CO 

o" 

in 

8 

a> 

o" 

M 

t^      o      r-.      o      OO 

in 

-t 

-t     a>     M 

r^ 

q^ 

1^ 

C^i 

CO 

^_ 

CO 

l-« 

c 

w         PI         O 

't 

o 

00 

m 

r^ 

CO 

o»      i- 

CO         1-1          CO 

r^ 

m 

IH 

-r 

00 

— 

t~>      r--       C 

CO        o 

PI 

»H 

n 

PI 

'  in 

in 

pi 

1^       in       -r 

PI 

o 

PI 

r^ 

in 

t 

oc 

<: 

<: 

CO          O 

't 

1- 

O 

(> 

r^ 

CO 

vC 

c 

v^ 

"        CO       CD 

vo" 

t-» 

(> 

d- 

•* 

in       c 

in       PI        -+ 

o 

Tf 

>o 

O^       C 

1- 

PI 

o_ 

M 

^ 

_^"_: 

_^ 

CO 

"' 

Tf            1- 

C 

P 

C^ 

o 

o> 

r-^ 

t^ 

in 

«n 

0 

"t     c 

o^     o> 

CO 

CO 

•* 

O^ 

M 

PI 

oo 

CO        - 

O^       CO 

vO 

M 

-t 

1^ 

-t 

CO 

c 

p 

in       c 

t^ 

vO 

o 

8 

1  ^ 

O^ 

CO 

a 

c 

c 

.     "2     o 

*? 

a^ 

i-t 

to 

oo 

4       ^ 

6^     c 

a- 

'f 

r-~ 

ri 

in 

c 

co' 

in       C 

p 

Pi 

-t 

»n 

PI 

PI 

CO 

i-t 

vO 

o      - 

r; 

a> 

00 

*— 

"5 

P 

CO 

pT 

O 

00 

k 

«» 

Tt            « 

o 

"V 

•I- 

O 

00 

CO 

CO        0^        CO        CO        CO 

PI 

in 

1^ 

ri 

CO 

CT>       CO        P) 

in       CO 

-t 

i-i 

PI 

t-i 

r^ 

0 

PO       w 

M 

-I- 

PI 

CO 

o 

CO 

oo 

o- 

in      H 

00 

t-.     o> 

n 

-f; 

o 

CO 

00 

CO 

p 

o      r-^      r^      p» 

O 

CO 

o 

M 

p 

CO 

p 

»-l 

CO 

CO 

PI* 

o 

PI 

<o 

^ 

rt 

b 

X 

1> 

O, 

O 

a 

V 

B 

Ul 

o 

D 

a, 

O 

rt 

O 

3 

cS 

i2 

(A 

X 

"Hi 

C 
U 

■■2 

'c 

ui 
lU 

f 

W 

1> 

a 

a 

'•^ 

n 

C 

u 

*^ 

o 

y. 

<' 

V 

u 

O 

'/) 

(J 

G- 

ea 

11 

u 

F.ARN 

'I 

c 

01 

1- 
V 

t, 

B 

"    5 

0       S 

0 

5 
1- 
b. 

3 

o 

<  J 

0 

til 

o 
1-1 

tn 

'c 

Cl 

w 

w 

c 
u 
o 

U) 

11 

ii 

■5 
c 
11 

tn 

u 

'3 

cu 
1) 

rt 

o 
1-1 

2 

1) 

c 

C4 

1 

r 

X 

"ij 

a. 

11 

11 

X 

"o 

1 

til 

C_ 

W 

h 

" 

O 

•^ 

0. 

U 

O 

11 

IRailwavs. 


199 


I  also  append  a  statement  of  the  freights,  passengers,  express,  tele- 
graphs, and  iniscellaneous  receipts,  as  well  as  the  expenses  and  earn- 
ings of  the  road  from  tlie  year  1889  to  1896,  taken  from  the  last 
ofificial  report  of  the  companies.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  traffic  and 
receipts  of  this  road,  like  the  Central,  have  been  steadily  increasing 
from  the  time  at  which  it  began  to  be  operated.    (See  table  on  page  198.) 

MEXICAN    INTERNATIONAL    RAILROAD    COMPANY. 
GROSS   EARNINGS   IN   MEXICAN   MONEY. 


FREIGHT. 

YEAR 

NO.  OF 

pass'g'rs. 

PASSENGER 
RECEIPTS. 

FREIGHT 
RECEIPTS. 

TOTAL 

Tons. 

Kilos. 

RECEIPTS. 

From  Dec. 

f-  15.942 

3d.  1883- 

$  32,408  45 

15,129 

723 

$   37,575  00 

$   69,983  45 

1884 

1885 

9.853 

25,881  44 

50,896 

181 

118,177  80 

144,059  24 

1886 

10,411 

29,242  61 

55.877 

079 

144,311  09 

173.553  70 

1887 

9.796 

32,516  71 

86,889 

772 

189,184  86 

221,701  57 

i888 

41,170 

125,848  48 

116,561 

273 

459.906  57 

585.755  05 

iSSy 

53.194 

140,676  05 

180,544 

270 

691,477  04 

832.153  09 

1 890 

59.327 

149.25S  43 

222,856 

211 

894,944  35 

1,044.202  78 

1891 

64,641 

170,304  00 

216,465 

739 

956,546  91 

1,126,850  91 

1892 

60,967 

181,378  14 

390,802 

838 

1,836,958  51 

2,018,336  65 

1893 

74.577 

219,624  38 

335,200 

769 

1,743,140  42 

1,962,764  80 

1894 

77,456 

208,551  86 

376.734 

430 

1.873,974  91 

2,082,526  77 

1895 

102,858 

276,514  04 

469,641 

859 

2,197.463  36 

2,473.977  40 

1896 

111,480 

313,904  13 

525,951 

874 

2,453,223  54 
$13,596,88436 

2,767.127  67 

Total.. 

691,672 

$1,906,108  72 

3,043,552 

orS 

$15,502,993  08 

MEXICAN    INTERNATIONAL    RAILWAY. 
(STATEMENT   FURNISHED   BY   THE   COMPANY.) 


AVKRAGE 
KILOMKIRES 
OPHRATKD. 


1884 

1885 

1886 

1887 

1888 

1889 

1890 

1891 

1892 

1893 

1894 

1895 

l8q() 

Total 


245-20 

273-58 
273.58 
273.58 
573.97 
630  34 

637-38 
658.30 

746-37 
922.19 
922.19 

947-23 
1,011.02 


8,120.93 


GROSS  EARNINGS. 


103,307  98 
153,916  18 
185.150   25 

237,3<)4  13 
656,781  41 
911,698  51 
1,126.366  41 
1,197.856  55 
2,095,726  14 
2,050,934  01 

2,I()9,I2I    47 
2,664,126    08 

2,9(X\925  33 


AVERAGE 

EARNINGS 

PER 

KILOMETRE. 


612  37 
905  39 
1 ,098  I  I 
1,396  43 
1,841  47 
2,305  ()4 
2.839  77 
2,924  02 
4,5iS  67 
3.579  04 
3,785  29 
4,526  28 
4,617  69 


$16,453,304  45  ,$21,738  93     I      $34,950  17 


421  49 

562  59 

676  76 

867  73 

1,144  28 

1,432  73 

1,745  64 

1,819  69 

2,807  89 

2,226  15 

2,352  14 

2,812  54 

2,869  30 


AVKRAGE 
EARNINGS 
PER  MILE. 


Mexican  Internatiotuil.  The  Mexican  International,  which  has  been 
built  without  any  subsidy  from  the  Mexican  (lovernment,  was  opened 
for  traffic  in  1883,  and  its  traffic  and  rereijjts,  like  the  other  two  roads, 
have  steadily   increased.      I    a])pend  tut)  slatements  of  this   road;    the 


200 


Statistical  IRotcs  on  /IDcjico. 


first,  furnished  me  by  the  company,  embraces  its  traffic  and  earnings 
from  18S3  to  1896  ;  and  the  second  is  another  statement  furnished  me 
also  by  the  company,  showing  the  average  kilometres  o])erated,  gross 
earnings,  average  earnings  per  kilometre,  and  average  earnings  per  mile 
from  liie  years  18S4  to  1896.     (See  the  two  tables  on  page  199.) 

Mexican  Southern  Railway. — I  give  below  a  statement  of  the  number 
of  passengers,  amount  of  freight  and  earnings  of  the  Mexican  Southern 
Railway,  furnished  to  me  by  the  Company,  embracing  nine  months  of 
the  year  1893  and  the  whole  of  1894,  as  before  the  ist  of  April,  1893, 
the  road  was  run  by  the  Contractors,  and  the  Company  has  no  data  in 
their  possession.  I  also  append  a  statement  taken  from  the  Anuario 
Estadistico  dc  la  Republica  Mexicana  of  1895,  embracing  the  traffic  and 


MEXICAN    SOUTHERN     RAILWAY. 


MONTHS. 

PASSEN- 
GERS. 

PASSENGER 
RECEIPTS. 

FREIGHT. 

FREIGHT 
RECEIPTS. 

TOTAL 

Tons. 

Kilos. 

1893. 
January  

February  .... 

March 

1 

April 

May 

June 

[uly 

12,099 

9.943 

S.154 
11,865 

10,375 
10,405 
10,897 
11,893 
14.452 

$    14,647    21 

11,683    15 

7.119    78 

8,740    20 

9.577  91 

9.751  47 

io,3'7  54 

I2,66i   99 

17.096  43 

2,554 
2,262 

1,344 
1.355 
2,568 
2,019 

2.145 
3.296 

2,943 

810 
790 
950 
420 
330 
000 
150 
070 
420 

$   20,243    01 
15,421    87 
9,541    00 
5,707    05 
23,^62    64 
17,322    40 
16,941    41 
16,276    89 
15,702    01 

$  38,172    41 
29,506    27 
i8,20<j   8g 
16,671    95 
35.959  30 
30,947   32 
29.945   71 
31,839  26 
38,308  76 

August 

.September .  .  . 

October 

November  .  . . 
December  . . . 

Total 

100,083 

$101,595  68 

20,489 

940 

$140,918    28 

$269,560  87 

Number  of  Passengers  according  to  official  Tables. 
Tons  "  "  "      . 


142,919. 
27,917,510  k. 


MONTHS. 

PASSEN- 

PASSENGER 


FREIGHT. 

FREIGHT 
RECEIPTS. 

TOTAL 

GERS.                 Kt.CKll'l  b. 

Tons. 

Kilos. 

880 
140 

2()0 

3"" 

590 
no 
420 
740 
510 
800 
690 

430 

RECEIPTS. 

1894. 

January 

February  .... 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September.  .  . 

October 

November  .  . . 
December  .  .  . 

15.255 

14,900 

29.545 
16.527 

18,229 

20,543 
19.471 
18,218 

18,653 
17,814 

16,300 

20.994 

$    16,146   67 
14.925    48 
21,348    92 
17,195    89 
14.864    75 

15.173    98 
14,023    23 
14,602    85 
15,354    80 
14.954    13 
14,257    08 
18,776    23 

$191,624   01 

3,187 
3,060 
3.744 
4,01.. 
4.322 
3,942 
3,828 
3,515 
3,189 
2,973 
2,453 
2,682 

40,911 

$-20,083  75 
22,616   16 
25,224  36 

25.184  73 
21,406   14 

23.279  97 
20,637  28 

17,531   15 
16,285   34 
19.374  02 
17.145   58 
17,900  02 

%  39.725  34 
40,935  29 
50,001    II 
45.742  46 
39,720   18 
42,037   56 
38,168  24 
35.709  56 
35.156  99 
38,068   95 
34,691   02 
40,519  83 

Total 

226,449 

$246,668  50 

$480,476  53 

IRailwa^s. 


earnings  of  the  Company  during  the  years  from  1890  to  1895,  taken 
from  data  furnished  by  the  Company  to  the  Department  of  Communi- 
cations of  Mexico. 


MEXICAN    SOUTHERN. 


YEARS. 

PASSHN- 
GtRS. 

PASSENGER 

MERCHANDISE. 

OTHER 
RECEIPrS. 

TOTAL 
RECEIPTS. 

Tons. 

Kilos. 

1890 

189I 

76,788 
104,296 
143.037 
225,447 
218,213 

$74,259    78        11,506 
109,011    90       26,977 
153,233   01        27.921 
191,624   01        40,911 
196,462    34       36,511 

820 
490 
510 
430 
210 

$    59.427   26     $    111. 687   Oi 

l8()2 

152.859    II 
246,862    75 
246,668    50 

261,871    01 

iSq-? 

400,0(;5    76 

1804 

418. 2Q2    m 

1895 

287,426  59        483.888  93 

Total 

767.781 

$724,591    04 

143,828 

460 

$993,244  21 

$1,717,835  25 

Other  Railroads.  The  following  statement  shows  the  traffic  and 
earnings  of  the  Mexican,  Interoceanic,  Sonora,  and  minor  railroads  in 
Mexiccj,  taken  from  the  Anuario  Estadistico  de  la  Republica  Mexicana 
of  1895,  compiled  from  data  furnished  by  the  respective  companies  to 
the  Department  of  Communications  of  the  Mexican  Government. 


MEXICAN    RAILROAD. 


MERCHANDISE. 

YEARS. 

PASSEN- 
GERS. 

PASSENGER 
RECEIPTS. 

OTHER 
RECEIPTS. 

TOTAL 

Tons. 

Kilos. 

RECEIPTS. 

1873- •• 

476,287 

%       482.565   39 

150,473 

812 

%   1,348,344  49 

$    1,830,909  88 

1874 

459,601 

467,816    73 

121,935 

229 

1,887,028    76 

2.354.845  49 

1875 

267,776 

476,546    91 

136,632 

65 

1,970,008    55 

2,446,555  46 

1876 

245,675 

380,018    73 

132,216 

831 

I. 841. 717  53 

2,221.736  26 

1877 

300,591 

533,520    58 

158.537 

56 

2,255,466  03 

2,788.986  61 

1878 

279.893 

518.318  74 

169,287 

672 

2.440.513  39 

2,958,832   13 

1879 

293,179 

517,711  92 

190,908 

638 

2,823,013  02 

3,340,724  94 

1880 

323.088 

548.941  72 

219.930 

162 

3.242,343  II 

3.791.284  83 

1881 

331.749 

587,135  85 

278,942 

924 

4.433,648  24 

5.020,784  09 

1882 

385,621 

696,235  87 

333,979 

556 

5,396.090  55 

6.092,326  42 

18S3 

409,098 

710,636  88 

373.389 

634 

5,115.639  84 

5,826,276  72 

1884 

389.421 

655,458  83 

236,030 

480 

3,191,916  10 

3,847.374  93 

1885 

377,512 

603,886  II 

246,169 

949 

2,812,764  22 

3,416,650  33 

1886 

367,260 

604,278  41 

266,432 

333 

2,714,082  96 

3.318.361   37 

1887 

380,153 

655,312  23 

301,185 

300 

3.141,903  40 

3,797.215  63 

1888 

393.f'79 

694,138  08 

351,070 

36 

3,352,439  37 

4,046,577  45 

1889 

444,149 

765,118  71 

391,627 

274 

3,512,566  64 

4.277.685  35 

i8i)0 

502,139 

701,916  00 

4'43,794 

979 

3,505.083  50 

4.266,999  50 

189 1 

620.988 

832,185  94 

464,123 

453 

3,239,7()4   53 

4,07 1. 9?o  47 

1892 

628,591 

797,878  35 

408,709 

417 

2.286,389  71 

3.084,268  06 

1893 

629.892 

76S,«>i6  68 

387,400 

277 

2.140,061    75 

2,908,678  43 

1894 

717,076 

857.525  26 

433,637 

485 

2,o<)3.4S6  26 

2.921,011    52 

1895 

772,139 
9.995.557 

993,016  63 

453,294 
6,649,709 

579 
141 

2,087,844  19 

3,080.860  82 

Tot 

al. 

114.848,780  55 

$66,862,116  14 

$81,710,896  69 

statistical  Botes  on  /IDeinco. 


INTEROCEANIC 

RAILWAY. 

MERCHANDISE. 

YEARS. 

PASSEN- 
GERS. 

PASSENGER 
RECEIPTS. 

OTHER 
RECEIPTS. 

TOTAL 

Tons 

Kilos. 

RECEIPTS. 

1880 

228,053 

$65,277   91 

".431 

145 

0     36,515  46 

$    ior,793  37 

iS8r 

367,116 

105,083   31 

49.942 

548 

159.535    64 

264,618  95 

1882 

411,090 

111,029   25 

53,382 

385 

258,221    05 

369,250  30 

1883 

406,016 

223,049   58 

56,822 

222 

356,906   46 

579,956  04 

1S84 

634,306 

247,528   50 

131.385 

319 

407.593    64 

655,122  14 

1885 

606,510 

240,233   70 

167,970 

265 

436,345    10 

676,578  80 

iSSb 

569,421 

224,815    iq 

148,0(31 

913 

482,003    Ij 

706,818  37 

1887 

621,295 

239,812  48 

174.194 

156 

570,033    20 

809,845  68 

18S8 

673.169 

254,809  77 

200,386 

400 

658,063    22 

912,872  99 

1889 

596,812 

271,562  69 

190,902 

920 

710,848    78 

982,411  47 

1890 

657,616 

383,107   10 

288,836 

358 

1,153,999    13 

1,537,106  23 

1891 

795,625 

456,035   80 

282,311 

491 

1,176,562    22 

1,633,248  02 

1892 

799.487 

466,799  31 

367,762 

660 

1,376,488    38 

1,843,287  69 

1893 

879,005 

486,075   54 

383.503 

000 

1,705,859  74 

2,191,935  28 

1S94 

881,810 

491,914   20 

440,648 

000 

1,912,192  58 

2,404,106  78 

1895 

906,550 

491,388   67 

464,975 

000 

1,771,268  92 
13,172,436  70 

2,262,657  59 

Total . . 

10.033.881 

4,759.173  00 

3,412,455 

782 

17,931,609  70 

SONORA  RAILWAY. 

1881 

$   11,303   29 
68,410  83 
99,461   33 
87,793  47 

101.918  90 
98,613  06 
87,098  20 

84,143  57 
104,367  85 
97,663  48 

112.919  i3 
119,784  37 
126,657  56 
141,744  09 

$  17,254  95 
157,694  60 

119.347  56 
108,531  43 
193,189  89 
191,981  24 
193,981  40 
204,146  63 

239,697  67 
259,360  01 
332,933  65 
363,123  91 

393,319  17 
469,950  09 

$  28,558  24 
226,105  43 
218, 80S  89 
196,324  90 
295,108  79 
290.594  30 
281,079  60 
288,290  20 
344,065  52 
357,022  49 
445.857  83 
482,913  28 
519,976  73 
611,694  18 

1882 

1883 

1884 

1885 

1886 

1887 

188S 

1889 

1890 

I891 

1892 

1893 

1895 

33,464 
36,428 

47,271 
45,298 
38,189 
38,335 
44.691 
48,196 
56,565 
54,621 
52,678 
62,715 

24,202 
21,115 
29,927 

33.635 
34,660 
37,621 
43.321 
46,147 

53.947 
58,867 
63,687 
69,982 

79t 
382 
682 
621 
670 
60 
710 
870 
663 
359 
055 
3S9 

Total. . . 

558,451 

1,341,878  18 

517.117 

252 

3,244,522  20 

4,586,400  38 

HIDALGO  AND  NORTHEASTERN  RAILWAY. 


1882..  . 
1883.... 
1884...  . 
1885.... 
1886.,., 
1887.... 
1888.... 
1889.... 
1890.. .  , 
1891...  , 
1892...  , 
1893..., 
1894..., 
1895..., 

Total 


39.759$ 
30,940, 

37.198: 

35.209; 

51,8231 

44,666, 

53,958: 

55,o55i 

90,241; 

113,6051 

127,972! 

148,5401 

168,4221 

214,8371 
206,1941 


9.897  17 

12,270  02 

25,715  04 

32,648  22 

32,295  oS 

36,692  27 

43,582  66 

45,805  05 

90,194  56 

106,397  87 

120,128  18 

141,360  09 

161,908  45 

178,477  10 

181,043  96 


1,418,419  $1,218,415  72   1,441,234 


2,264 

7,624 

17,852 

34.958 

40,960 

51.760 

65.524 

77.203 

100,110 

137.467 

176,432 

186,041 

178.174 
200,685 
164,176 


000 

000 
283 
222 
794 
395 
057 
173 
733 
201 
664 
471 
047 
687 
000 


1.659 

10,442 
33,220 

54,955 

76,710 

117,603 

145.702 

161,773 
262,081 
328,124 

404.735 
422,052 
468,566 
643,700 
616,641 


727  I  $3,747,970  64  $4,966,384  36 


11.556  53 

22,712  32 

58,933  84 

87,603  38 

109,005  51 

154,295  82 

189,284  88 

207,578  23 

352,275  83 

434, ?22  36 

524,863  92 

563,413  00 

630.475  14 
822,178  03 
797.685  57 


IRailwa^s. 


203 


M^RIDA  AND  PROGKESO  RAILWAY. 


PASSEN- 
GERS. 

PASSENCiER 
RECEIPTS. 

MERCHANDISE. 

OTHER 

TOTAL 

YEARS. 

Tons. 

Kilos. 

RECEIPTS.      RECEIPTS. 

i 

I    188 1 

56,085 

84,016 

83,231 

87.159 

64,173 

77,139 

85,044 

109,997 

158.534 

162,701 

129,989 

108,119 

91,291 

79.653 

$  28,639  50 
37,642  38 
36,239  83 

37,940  54 
29,078  41 
33,353  16 
22,844  42 
29,812  76 
56,763  81 
55,566  97 
46,155  85 
36,528  45 
39,276  08 
33.387  18 
38,228  81 

$   53,236  00  £   8T.87t;  ';o 

.  1882 

i  1883 

1884 

1885 

1886 

1887 

1888 

•  1889 

•,  1890 

i  1891 

;  1892 

1893 

1894 

iSoe 

41.934 
59.859 
95,962 
79.611 
58.239 
46,055 
30,872 

44,619 
53,949 
34,486 
28,656 
34,406 
38,659 

297 

715 
902 

737 
254 
714 
512 
200 
818 
000 

499 
476 
401 

75,242  88 
108,248  80 

139.299  59 
120,389  13 
78,168  66 
52,995  68 
64,291  88 
97,017  37 
89,139  Si 
67,460  18 

83,593  75 
96,230  47 
68,513  05 
97,850  38 

112,885  26 
144,488  63 
177.240  13 

149.467  54 
111,521  82 
75,840  10 
94,104  64 
153.781  18 
144,706  78 
113,616  03 
120,132  20 
135.506  55 
101,900  23 
136,079  19 

Total. . , 

1,377,131 

$561,458  15 

647.313 

525 

$1,291,677  63  $1,853,135  78 

TEHUACAN   AND  ESPERANZA  RAILWAY, 


1884 

1885 

1886 

1887 

1888 

1889 

1890 

I89I 

1892 

1893 

I80J 

18,343 
15,049 
12,942 
14,848 
17,116 

19.385 
20,462 
17,426 
15.102 
16,096 

$  11,427  64 

10,077  20 

9,111  04 

10,080  15 

15.376  57 

20,673  00 

18,459  96 

11,087  06 

8,792  35 

9.411  51 

6,043 

5,857 
6,603 
7,669 
8,764 
9.858 
16,625 
14,381 

4,179 
5,663 

813 
257 
705 
730 
045 
360 
870 
340 
510 
530 

$  32,921  87 
31,905  66 
38,271  80 

47.437  77 
54,500  93 
61,564  09 
75,744  37 
68,684  08 
44,602  09 
37,997  45 

$  44,349  51 
41,982  86 
47,382  84 

57,517  92 
69,877  50 
82,237  09 
94.204  33 
79,771  14 
53,394  44 
47,408  96 

1895 

19.905 

10,941  81 

4,062 

500 

18,724  99 

29,666  80 

Total. .  . 

186,674 

$135,438  29 

89,709 

660 

$512,355  10 

$647,793  39 

M^RIDA  AND  PETO  RAILWAY. 


1881... 
1882.. . 
1883... 
1884.. . 
1885... 
1886..  . 
1887..  . 
18S8... 
1889... 
1890. . . 
iSgi.. . 
1892 . . . 
1893 . . 
1894 . . 
1895 . . 

Total 


22,852 
81,102 
88,920 
81,566 
64,118 
62,983 
62,763 
92.773 
99,761 
126,978 
134,438 
129.163 
163,852 

157. 3" 
140,193 

1.508,773 


3,913  69 
12,293  58 
14,422  31 
17,818  29 
■6,795  70 
16,728  82 


15, 

943 

55 

22, 

146  61 

25 

351 

70 

24 

5'4 

70 

55 

IK)7 

97 

59.742 

62 

71 

970 

64 

70 

898 

03 

67 

134 

69 

$494 

682 

90 

5,654 

115 

11,063 

915 

16,919 

464 

17,368 

079 

15.827 

969 

20,231 

714 

25,397 

822 

30,024 

477 

27.106 

666 

28.266 

475 

36,202 

439 

32,260 

765 

37,853 

723 

304,177 

623 

$  430  60 
2.637  41 
4,833  23 

11,588  49 

20,222  10 

21.710  91 

26,619  71 

37,013  76 

52,553  95 

69.390  02 

85.602  24 
118,214  20 
128.115  61 

121.547  79 
118.179  II 

$318,659  13  $i,3«3.342  03 


4.344  29 
14,930  99 

19.255  54 
29.406  78 
37.017  80 

38.439  73 
42.563  26 
59,160  37 

77,905  65 
93.904  72 
140.610  21 
177,956  82 
200.086  25 
192.445  82 
185.313  80 


204 


statistical  Botes  on  /iDejico. 


SINALOA  AND  DURANGO  (aLTATA  TO  CULIACAN)  RAILWAY. 


PASSEN- 
GERS. 

PASSENGER 
RECEIPTS. 

FREIGHT. 

MISCELLA- 
NEOUS 
RECEIPTS. 

TOTAL 

YEARS. 

Tons. 

Kilos. 

RECEIPTS. 

1882 

1883 

1884 

1885 

1886 

1887 

1888 

1889 

1890 

I89I 

1892 

1893 

1894 

1895 

2,727 
12,251 
21,776 
15,816 
23,171 

25,487 
27,904 
21,850 
42,987 
54,678 

39-494 
56,503 
38,451 
37,627 

$   3,712  04 
7,816  94 

8,584  57 

8,786  88 

10,681  46 

10,705  56 

11,459  15 

9,318  46 

14,871  77 

19,170  23 

14,837  39 
14,152  07 
14,040  41 
15,768  25 

1,864 

3,913 

5,962 

4,953 

4,316 

5,962 

6,736 

6,535 

4,722 

7,442 

10,371 

12,893 

12,093 

8,538 

589 
457 
325 
364 
116 

325 
532 
236 

749 
886 
701 
822 
568 
024 

$   5,155  65 

18,717  39 
25,019  62 

19,719  92 
20,880  39 
16,661  71 
23,650  34 

25,537  79 
18,911  41 

25,381  35 
28,131  17 
35,205  12 
38,393  29 
29,390  59 

$   8,867  69 

26,534  33 
33,604  19 
28,506  80 
31,561  85 
27,367  27 
35,109  49 
34,856  25 
33,783  18 
44,551  58 
42,968  56 
49,357  19 
52,433  70 
45,158  84 

Total. . . 

420,722 

$163,905  18 

96,306 

694 

$330,755  74 

$494,660  92 

M^RIDA  AND  CAMPECHE  RAILWAY., 


1883 

1884 

1885 

1886 

1887 

1888 

1889 

1890 

I89I 

1892 

1893 

i8q4. 

22,944 
97,295 
76,135 
65,274 
68,883 
86,329 
58,383 
75,496 
96,994 

87,954 
124,983 

$  3,586  10 
13,161  59 
12,535  94 
10,779  44 
11,793  63 
22,172  II 
17,017  46 
28,939  04 
35,303  04 
33,598  II 
56,034  03 

462 

3,952 

7,794 

6,265 

8,106 

11,514 

12,534 

6,779 

17,328 

17,363 
21,775 

169 

565 
570 
722 

813 
018 

035 
458 
478 
510 

lOI 

$  r, 1 20  32 
5-203  67 
9,306  31 

9,579  90 
13,263  22 
21,106  70 
28,300  44 
19,057  69 
36,035  70 
39,330  26 
53,390  97 

$   4,706  42 
18,365  26 
21,842  25 

20,359  34 
25,056  85 
43,278  81 
45-317  90 
47,996  73 
71,338  74 
72,928  37 
109,425  00 

1895 

139,349 

66,174  14 

24,699 

277 

72,923  31 

139,097  45 

Total. . . 

1,000,019 

$311,094  63 

138,575 

716 

$308,618  49 

$  619,713  12 

MERIDA  AND  VALLADOLID  RAILWAY. 


1883, 
1884, 
1885, 
1886, 
1887. 
1888, 
1889, 
1890. 

1891  , 

1892  , 
1893. 
1894, 
1895. 


18,123 

75,541 
100,015 
132,210 
176,501 

183,973 
280.348 

295-034 
264,781 

254,344 
244,040 


2,570  17 
12,595  63 
18,548  61 

25,798  73 
32,298  87 

37,957  45 
58,691 

63,485 
60,366 

61,573 
79-223 


4,248 

6,040 

25,181 

41,496 

35,975 
54,206 

50,781 
47,064 
46,124 
50,633 


788 
957 
498 
479 
207 
189 
662 
535 
159 
534 


^   609  18 

5,287  96 

8,487  63 

33-276  45 

58,096  41 

65,864  26 

115,032  74 

96,611  23 

98,212  31 

134,209  85 

139,384  68 


3-179  35 
17,883  59 
27,036  24 
59,075  18 
90,395  28 
103,821  71 

173,724  44 
160,096  41 

158,579  07 
195,783  55 
218,608  16 


Total. . 


199,670 


72,828  22 


2,224,580 


$525,938  50 


62,342 


424,095 


134 

142 


165,983  26 


238,811  48 


)2i,055  96]  $1,446,994  46 


IRailways. 


TLALMANALCO  RAILWAY. 


205 


FREIGHT. 

MISCELLA- 

PASSEN- 
GERS. 

PASSENGER 
RECEIPTS. 

NEOUS 

TOTAL 

YEARS. 

RECEIPTS. 

Tons. 

Kilos. 

RECEIPTS. 

1883 

39,688 

$  4,022   44 

10,813 

000 

$      5,564   91 

$    9,587  35 

1884 

40,211 

4,596    80 

9,641 

000 

7,276  95 

11,873  75 

1885 

41,226 

4,577  43 

7,466 

713 

6,830  06 

11,407  49 

1886 

41,905 

4,621  28 

6,845 

349 

6,360  51 

10,981  79 

1887 

47,808 

5,008  09 

8,083 

538 

6,788  75 

11,886  84 

1888 

46,150 

5,076  97 

10,722 

122 

9,164  56 

14,241   53 

1889 

49,866 

5,536   16 

13,710 

170 

11,566  53 

17,102  69 

1890 

55.345 

6,654  20 

24,988 

131 

12,019  62 

18,673  82 

189I 

61,236 

6,765   86 

15.469 

050 

12,684  68 

19,450  54 

1892 

62,618 

7,225  65 

12,303 

020 

9,853  83 

17,079  48 

1893 

60,835 

6,492  30 

18,572 

715 

15,430  59 

21,922  89 

iSod    .... 

1895 

71.777 
618,665 

7.358   10 

13,824 

250 

12,284  66 

19,642  76 

Total. .  . 

$68,025  28 

152,439 

058 

$115,825  65 

$183,850  93 

SAN  JUAN  BAUTISTA  AND  CARRIZAL  PASSENGER  RAILWAY. 


1888 

99.504 
56,880 
no. 731 
105,251 
152,606 
150,243 

$  5.123  13 
4,406  10 

6,733  92 
7,923  34 
9,462  23 

9,965  56 

$  5,123  13 

4,406  10 

7.756  52 

8,846  13 

10,904  51 

11,808  26 

1889 

1890 

I89I 

1892 

1893 

1894 

1,022 

922 
1,803 
2,052 

000 
000 
000 
000 

$1,022  60 

922  79 

1,442  28 

1,842  70 

1895 

167,994 

12.003  21 

3,455 

454 

3. 131  00 

15,134  21 

Total. . . 

843,209 

$55,617  49 

9,254 

454 

$8,361  37 

$63,978  86 

SAN    ANDRES    AND    CHALCHICOMULA    RAILWAY. 


1882 

1883.... 
1884.... 
1885.... 
1886.... 
1887.... 
1888.... 
1889.  .. 
1890. . . . 

1891 

1892 

1893.... 
1894.... 
1895.... 

Total. 


6,851 

15,053 
14,218 
10,928 
9,994 
9,794 
10,173 
12,727 
13,010 
12, 7n 
12,223 
12,239 
13.998 
13,454 

167,373 


$  1.905  53 
4,002  51 
3,683  23 
2,834  42 

2,595  58 
2,428  25 
2,489  80 
3-137  07 
3,163  15 
3,079  10 
6,327  21 
3,061  75 
3,398  65 
3.444  35 

$45,550  60 


1,658 
4,802 
4,485 
4,723 
4,079 
5,835 
8,324 
5,832 
4,385 
6,258 
7.980 
10, or  I 
7,781 


76,159 


614 

280 
960 
310 
[  294 

I  696 

!  735 
417 
480 

307 

430 

i   250 

980 


753 


^  2,847  76 
9,548  51 

ii,6Si  15 
4,805  87 
4,980  S4 
6,850  94 
9,592  88 
7,100  57 
6,225  35 
8,140  76 
9.376  67 

11,474  05 
9,266  42 

10,383  00 

5112,274  77 


$  4,753  29 

13.551  02 

15,364  38 

7,640  29 

7.576  42 

9,279  19 

12,082  68 

10,237  64 

9.388  50 

11,219  86 

15,703  88 

14.535  80 

12,665  07 

13,827  35 

$157,825  37 


L 


2o6 


statistical  "Botes'  on  /IDcjtco. 


ORIZABA     AND    INGENIO    RAILWAY, 


PASSEN- 
GERS. 

PASSENGER 
RECEIPTS. 

FREIGHT. 

MISCELLA- 
NEOUS 
RECEIPTS. 

TOTAL 

YKAkS. 

Tons, 

Kilos. 

RKCEIPTS 

1882 

1883 

1884 

1885 

1886 

1887 

1888 

1889 

I  890 

I89I 

1892 

1893 

1894 

1895 

38,636 
91,949 
94.323 
34,921 
86,047 
40,364 

41.945 

46,640 

106,773 

103,011 

99.553 
104,030 
104,019 
132,650 

$     4.473  30 

10,645    94 

10,920  74 

4,365  12 

9.962  57 

4.673  38 

4,800  00 

5,400  00 

12,362  20 

12,532  10 

13,303  20 

13,900  50 

13.990  77 

17,438  04 

237 
360 

435 
384 
121 
182 
168 

504 
612 
750 

704 

748 

168 
972 
720 
813 
344 
400 
000 
oco 
000 
000 

000 
000 

$      

197    64 
300   82 
363    10 
350    18 
lOI     12 
152    00 
140   00 
420   00 
510   00 
728    36 
400   00 
528    00 
561    00 

1     4.473  30 

10,843  58 

11,221   56 

4,728  22 

10,312  75 

4.774  50 

4,952  00 

5,540  00 

12,782  20 

13,042   10 

14,031   56 

I4,3(X)  50 

14,518  77 

17,999  04 

Total.  . 

1,124,861 

$138,767  86 

5,2oS 

417 

$4,752    22 

$143,520  08 

SANTA    ANA    AND    TLAXCALA    RAILWAY. 


1883... 
1884.. . 
18S5... 
1886... 
1887... 
1888... 
1889. .. 
1890. . . 
I  891... 
1892.  .  . 
1893... 
1894... 
1S95... 

Total 


58,068  $ 
117.560 
174,204 
156,676 
117,518 
120,910 
110,574 
145,263 

66,716 

55.76S 

59.127 


71,843 


1,254,227 


2,S6o  20 

8,580  60 

12,714  98 

6,733  14 

8,463  85 

9,179  28 

8,294  98 

8,398  00 

9,098  30 

7,011  74 

7,326  40 

8.670  35 


$  97.331  82 


750 
3.829 

2,038 


6,617 


000 
003 


440 


443 


494  38 
1,494  14 
1,483  00 

1.482  37 
1,373  25 
1,651  02 
1,475  20 
1,469  82 
1,769  28 
1,280  03 
2.434  13 

2,344  38 


$18,751  00 


3,354  58 

10,074  74 

14,197  98 

8,215  51 

9,837  10 

10,830  30 

9,770  18 

9,867  82 

10,867  58 

8,291  77 

9,760  53 

11,014  73 


$116,082  82 


CARDENAS    AND    RIO    GRIJALVA    RAILWAY. 


1886 

1887 
IS88 
1889 
1890 
I89I 
1892 

1893 
1884 

180=; 

$       263  01 

401  43 
309  07 
216  72 
380  00 
480  00 

$        526  00 
722  57 

781   13 
839  69 
839  69 
939  69 

$    789  01 

1,124  00 
1,090  20 
1,056  41 
1,219  69 
1,419  69 

- 



To 

tal. 

2,050  23 

$4,648  77 

$6,699  00 

TRallwa^^s. 


207 


TOLUCA    AND  SAN    JUAN    DE    LAS    HUERTAS    RAILWAY 


FREIGHT. 

MISCELLA- 

PASSEN- 
GERS. 

PASSENGER 
RECEIPTS. 

NEOUS 
RECEIPTS. 

TOTAL 

YEARS. 

Tons. 

Kilos. 

RECEIPTS. 

1885 

75,052 

$     7,016  39 

$    1,138    19 

$      8,154    58 

1886 

97.535 

9,078  95 

6.133 

000 

5,201    59 

14,280    54 

1887 

94,874 

8,788    61 

9,361 

000 

6.755  49 

15.544    10 

1888 

93.512 

8,475  83 

7,251 

750 

4.729  99 

13,205    82 

1889 

134,193 

12,677  97 

13,483 

088 

8,087  03 

20,765   00 

1 8go 

178,072 

16,264  75 

t8,595 

86  r 

12,156  67 

28,421    42 

1891 

156,917 

15,293  69 

13,998 

1S5 

U,OS2    76 

26,376   45 

1 892 

107,122 

13,777  47 

13,924 

530 

11,702  56 

25,480   03 

1893 

176,241 

16,340  90 

14,128 

510 

11,690  24 

28,031     14 

1894 

121,949 

15,328  76 

■3,778 

q20 

11,536  10 

26,864  86 

1895 

204,591 
1,440,058 

i8,2io  13 

13,860 

796 

10,136  78 

28,346  91 

Total.  . 

$141,253  45 

124,515 

640 

194,217  40 

$235,470  85 

VANEGAS,    CEDRAL,   MATEHUALA, 

AND    RIO    VERDE     RAILWAY. 

1889 

$      449  69 

28 

540 

$        335  24 

$        784  93 

1890 

10,848 

5.763   16 

1,840 

66  r 

15,492  27 

21,255  43 

1891 

36,742 

12,783  05 

5,939 

568 

61,513  43 

74,296  48 

1892 

44.502 

16,083   II 

94,112 

500 

124,565  69 

140,648  80 

1893 

46,083 

16,030  02 

83.115 

000 

114,505  49 

130,535   51 

1894 

35.213 

13,798  53 

113,384 

000 

185,649  51 

199,448  04 

1895.... 

Total.  . 

173,388 

$64,907  56 

298,420 

269 

$502,061  63 

$566,969  19 

M^RIDA    AND    IZAMAL    RAILWAY. 


1887 

1888 

1889 

1890 

189I 

1892 

1893 

1894 

1895 

Total.. 


42,812 

78,102 

106  089 

106,883 

80,042 

94.634 
96,458 


605,020 


7,280  38 
18,981  70 
38,330  34 
54,462  10 
41,891  51 
49,729  03 
45,684  12 
52,564  78 
49,735  12 


$358,659  08 


2.729 

7,871 

11,633 

10,146 

13.775 
18,094 
21,476 


85,727 


000 
541 
376 
374 
771 
768 
676 


506 


3.954  64 
17,656  81 
28,069  91 

29.995  33 
44,798  43 

65.565  47 
65.714  14 
61,335  45 
63.295  49 


$380,385  67 


$  11.235  02 
36.638  51 
66,400  25 

84.457  43 
86,689  94 
115.294  50 
111,398  26 
113,900  23 
113.030  61 


$739,044  75 


SAN  MARCOS  AND  NAUTLA   RAILWAY, 


I89I 

1892 

1893 

1894 

1895 

4.582 
10,894 
14.136 
15.481 
17,309 

62,402 

$  3,181   70 
5.968   34 

7,339   14 
7,918  63 

8.195  77 

5,307 
12,000 
19,576 

750 
570 
000 

$     5,968  12 

17.835  93 
27,008  47 

29.519  97 
27.603  55 

$    9.149  82 

23,804  27 
34.347  61 
37,438  60 

24.452 

440 

35.799  32 

Total. . . 

$32,603  58 

61,336 

760 

$107,936  04      $140,539  62 

2o8 


statistical  IHotes  on  /iDcjico. 


MONTEREY    AND    GULF    RAILWAY. 


PASSEN- 
GERS. 

PASSENGER 
RECEIPTS. 

FREIGHT. 

MISCELLA- 
NEOUS 
RECEIPTS. 

lOTAL 

YEARS. 

Tons. 

Kilos. 

RECEIPTS. 

1S89 

1890 

1891 

1S92 

1893 

1894 

1895 

16,714 
57,096 
94,052 
99,802 
107.378 

127,900 
502,942 

$  17,144  65 

70,185  08 

112,910  64 

119,390  74 

141,093  86 
150,005  75 

4.197 

168,204 
174,829 

193,437 
238,442 

329,059 

432 
600 
706 
800 
000 

008 

$   13,440  52 
791,398  47 

876,563  75 
664,072  42 
820,433  06 

$    30,585  17 

861,583  55 

989,474  39 
783,463  16 
961,526  92 

1,162,009  39 

1,312,015  14 

Total.. 

$610,730  72 

1,108,170 

546 

$4,327,917  61 

$4,938,648  33 

CORDOVA    AND    TUXTEPEC    RAILWAY. 


1889 

1890 

I89I 

1892 

1893 

1894 

1895 

26,537 
49,142 
23,542 
39,885 
46,086 

$  4,8x5  27 

8,917  06 

14,009  84 

12,767  51 

17,433  62 

2,235 
3,730 

571 
424 

$  1,285  13 
2,379  97 
5,097  98 
5,111  19 
9,828  94 

$  6,100  40 
11,297  03 
19,107  82 
17,878  70 
27,262  56 

Total.. 

185,192 

$57,943  30 

5.965 

995 

$23,703  21 

$81,646  51 

MARAVATIO    AND    CUERNAVACA    RAILWAY 


1890 

I89I 

1892 

1893 

1894 

1895 

3,466 

6,190 

g,o8i 

12,867 

15,138 

13,964 

60,706 

$  3,389  66 
6,283  94 
8,047  76 
9,418  26 

11,235  58 
11,364  72 

$49,739  92 

$  3,372  TO 
16,741  42 
30,160  42 
28,201  99 
32.238  33 
39,714  80 

$  6,761  76 
23,025  36 
38,208  18 
37,620  25 
43,473  91 
51.079  52 

Total.  . 

$150,429  06 

$200,168  98 

SALAMANCA    AND    SANTIAGO    VALLEY    RAILWAY. 


1889 

1890 

I89I 

1892 

1893 

1894 

1895 

4,709 
18,836 
25,432 
21,923 
22,674 
27,496 
30,094 

$  1.486  51 
5,946  04 
8,554  11 
8,020  59 

7,719  44 

8,740  90 

10,376  66 

132 
529 
3.324 
2,815 
3,380 
4,142 
7.799 

270 
080 
430 
940 
060 
690 
050 

$   304  26 
1,217  04 
7,237  67 
5,325  03 
8,910  74 
9,584  17 
13.969  73 

$  1,790  77 
7,163  08 

15,791  78 

13.345  62 
16,630  18 
18,325  07 

24.346  39 

Total.. 

151,164 

$50,844  25 

22,123 

520 

$46,548  64 

$97,392  89 

IRailwavs. 


209 


MONTE    ALTO    RAILWAY. 


PASSEN- 
GERS. 

PASSENGER 
RECEIPTS. 

FREIGHT 

MISCELLA- 
NEOUS 
RECEIPTS. 

Tf>TAL 

Tons. 

Kilos. 

RECKIPTS. 

1892 

1893 

1894 

1895 

31,080 
30,888 
31,913 
39,041 

132,922 

$   2,652   89 
3,260   28 
3,318    14 
4,005    14 

4,006 

6,135 
6,221 
5,430 

000 
000 
000 
000 

$1,330   13 
1.965    72 
2,002   79 
1,410  85 

$   3,983   02 
5,226   00 
5.320  93 

5.415  99 

Total.. 

$13,236  45 

21,792 

000 

$6,709  49 

$19,945  94 

VALLEY    OF    MEXICO    RAILWAY. 


I89I 

1892 

1893 

1894 

1,423,652 
1,639,873 
1,637,135 

$  99,615  09 

119,379  76 
110,160  60 

9,108 
21,154 
24,361 

000 
000 
000 

$  5,912  38 
12,310  35 
21,497  48 

$105,527  41 
131,690  17 
131,658  08 

1895 

Total.. 

4,700,660 

$329,155  45 

54,623 

000 

$39,720  21 

$368,875  66 

PUEBLA    INDUSTRIAL    RAILWAY. 


1891 

1892 

1893 

1894 

1895 

151,380    $  23,234  66 
125,766        20,052  34 
155,112        24,082  55 
190,480        31,620  62 
226,275        36,264  00 



14,250 
14,250 

000 
000 

$  1,398  00 
1,239  00 
1,380  00 

3.149  37 
11,122  35 

$  24,632  66 
21,291  34 
25.462  55 
34,769  99 
47,386  35 

Total .  . 

849,013    $135,254  17 

$18,288  72 

$153,542  89 

MEXICAN    NOR'lHERN    RAILWAY. 


I89I 

1892 

1893 

1894 

4,870 

4,369 
4.088 

4,274 
17,601 

$14,802  61 
14,802  61 
13,087  90 

94,726 

177,781 
176,801 

151,744 

000 

825 
913 

929 

$    740,122  98 

1,337,853  47 
1,334,524  47 

1    754.925  59 
1,352,656  08 
1,347,612  37 

1895 

13,420  18 

1,149,069  15 

1,162,489  33 

Total.  . 

$56,113  30 

601,054 

667 

$4,561,570  07 

$4,617,683  37 

MEXICO,    CUERNAVACA     AND    PACIFIC    RAILWAY. 


1895. 


17,209 


$19,214   84 


84,434 


000  j  $130,662  86 


$149,877  70 


statistical  IRotes  on  /IDcjico. 


FEDERAL    DISTRICT    TRAMWAYS. 


PASSENGERS. 

PASSENGER 
RECEIPTS. 

FREIGHT. 

MISCELLA- 
NEOUS 
RECEIPTS. 

TOTAL 

Tons. 

Kilos. 

RECEIPTS. 

1873.. 
1874.. 
1875.. 
1876.. 
1877.. 
1878.. 

1879- • 
1880. . 
I88I.. 
1882.. 
1883.. 
1884.. 
1885.. 
1886.. 
1887.. 

i888. 
1889. . 
1890. . 
1891.. 
1892. . 
1893.. 
1894.. 
1895.. 

3,760,653 

3,oS8,So8 
3,597,197 
3,545,589 
4.455,595 
4,605,223 
5,084,669 
6,165,461 
7.675,829 
9,851,614 
10,101,302 
9,926,621 

9.407,751 
10,841,928 

11,121,575 
12,185,031 

13,533.217 
14,457,203 

15.585,919 
16,164,644 
15,622,879 
15,844,425 
18,281,729 

$   232,347  92    . 
240,277  12  1  .  . 

286,248  25  '  . . 

278,068  94  :  . . 
357,262  43  . . 

360, 1 75  y3  .  . 
390,298  10  .  . 
458,547  6oi  .. 
586,167  20  .  . 
703,422  of)  .  . 
775.550  34i  •• 

717.264  90  . . 
690,457  87  . . 
746,107  46  .  . 
810,974  85  .  . 
881,646  36  .. 
981,922  98  . . 

1,028,871  57  i  .  . 
1,002,224  50  1  . . 
1,023,617  85  i  . . 

990.265  03  .  . 
1,028,430  01  j. . 
1,194,335  17  .. 

$   16,421  10 
29,628  70 
23,644  10 
19,289  15 

14,179  54 

6,752  49 

8,089  47 

19,020  46 

52,547  54 

87.584  95 

90.644  72 

114,307  69 

63,423  48 

134,133  77 

155,972  22 

171,418  II 

203,011  13 

247.868  09 

206,601  54 

194,358  01 

217,905  64 

230,935  43 
229,571  08 

$   248,769  02 

269,905  82 

309,892  35 

297,358  09 

371,441  97 

366,928  47 

398,387  57 

477,568  06 

638,714  74 

791,007  or 

866,195  06 

831.572  59 

753.881  35 

880,241  23 

966,947  07 

1,053,064  47 

1,184,934  11 

1.276,739  66 

1,208,826  04 

1,217,975  86 

1,208,170  67 

1,259.365  44 

1,423,906  25 

Total. 

224,904,862 

$15,764,484  49 

$2,537,308  41 

$18,301,792  90 

VERACRUZ    AND    ALVARADO    RAILWAY. 


1885.... 
1886.... 
1887.... 
188S.... 
1889.... 

1890 

189I...  . 

1892 

1893.... 
1894.... 
1895.... 

Total 


30,078 
37.772 
29,971 
58,127 
63,328 
72,292 
74,317 
73,249 
73,705 
32,964 
87,291 


18,451  01 
18,673  04 
16,677  46 
33,174  25 
36,779  93 
42,128  89 
39,304  87 
47,831  14 
47,298  50 
44,294  74 
53.050  84 


642,094  $397,664  67 


882 


8,500 
11,500 
16,845 

14,498 
22,976 
20,197 
22,764 


118,164 


500 


412 
892 
178 
000 
000 
000 
103 


085 


4,942  00 
14,316  16 
26,549  26 

31,779  57 
34.829  14 
44.831  36 
51,025  73 

49.955  98 
56,927  90 
69,450  61 


$384,607  71 


$  18,451  01 
23,615  04 
30,993  62 
59.723  51 
68,559  50 
76,958  03 
84,136  23 
98,856  87 
97,254  48 
101,222  64 
122,501  45 


52,272  38 


2'otal  2^>ajOic  and  Receipts  of  Mexican  Railways. — Before  concluding 
this  chapter,  I  ajjpend  a  statement  of  the  total  traffic  and  receipts  of 
the  Mexican  Railways  from  1873  to  1895,  taken  from  theAnuan'o  Esta- 
distico  de  la  Republica  Mexicana  of  iSg^,  comi)iled  in  the  Department 
of  Communication  of  the  Mexican  Government  from  data  furnished 
the  same  by  the  respective  companies,  in  compliance  with  the  provis- 
ions of  their  grants. 


RAILWAY    SUBSIDIES    PAID    BY    THE    MEXICAN    GOVERNMENT. 

I  append  a  statement  of  the  railway  subsidies  paid  by  the  Mexican 
Government  from  the  beginning  of  railway  construction  to  June  30, 
1896,  which  is  entirely  correct,  as  it  has  been  obtained  from  the  ac- 
counts of  the  Federal  Treasury  of  Mexico.  1  insert  after  that  state- 
ment a  detailed  account  of  each  of  the  railways  to  whom  subsidies  have 


0*0^0000  o  M^ooo  a»fOM  «-c  PO«c  « »o  c^o 


VO   O-  ( 


C7>  CT-  tN.  t^  ( 


o  o^  '^  m  m  f^  o  m-'to 

O    •-•  CO    "*•  O  "*>0    M    o-  >/^ 

00  t*-  t^  N  Tfvo  r^  r'^  M  t^  rn^  t>»  coo 

N  VO    M    -^'O    CO  r^  fO  IT)  o\c    f*"< 
30  00    rOOO  VO    >0  -^  N    O^   ■-■    "tf-OO 

t>.  in  o^  ■*  000  o  fo  ^\o  ^  M 
■  0600 


10  o^  ir,  m  m  (-1  CO  ON  ■*\o  o  rs.  o 


^00  mooo  oco  M  t^«  mm  o^oo  o^o  oo  ■*  t^ 

onoo  in  o  «  o^  o  O"  'f  "^00  o  00 
ro  r^  N  w  00  o*  tv£^  **•  m  -r  ■^^ 
lin  a>oo   m  O^^o  '^  O;  O^co  vO  ^  *1  "^  *^°° 
'  m  tC  m^o  vo  >n*£)  c?  tCoo"  •-'  o  rC  ^oo^  m  t>.  <> 

■ ^  m\o  m  •-•  mf  -  .  -   .  - 

«  10  t^  r^  ■:> 


■  Ht         ro\o 


■  ^^   o  ■*  tN,  ^00  rs. 


« >o  m  M 


00 


M   CO 


•*»-  MM  00  •-«  -^mo  ro^  CT-vo  mN  "*h^t^N  Q  t>*o  mi^M  m  M\p  ^o-m  w  rs.vo 
M  -^  M  r^  c*  tvoo  NO  \o  M  M  tN.  -^r  o\o  oo  O  m  r^  «  o  t*.  -^^o  ^o  e*o  c*o^o  ■*«  i^moo 

vooo^o  rN.«*o  O  O  t^mo*  »nco  mmovo  m  -^m  moo  i^w  io^rv.m  coo  o»  o  oo  O  « 

M  00  Q  04  mg  r^r^inmmM  miNO  ro\o  t^mm-^Mvooo  -*-m  o  «  -"J-o  woo  r>.vo 
M  m  c*  \o  10  •*■  0  0"0  m«o  t^^o  o  oo  u:)  o  ro  «  t^  rN.vo  n  O  mw  ct^-^ir.  t>.t^«  m\o 


1  t>.oo   «   -^00   -^  ' 


O  m  t^  m  o  vo  "C  000  M  o 


1000  m  m  On  M  M  M 


w  00  moo  ■*  'Nt  «  \o  «  On  M  ■ 
On  o  «  r^  t^  t^  mvo  vo  NO  t^  ► 


■  o  o»o 

•  ■<^^0   O  v_     ,    _ 

•  vo  w  m  -^  m  ON 


■<^vo   O  v6   M*  O" 


so  ■«*-  t-s  mvo  "^  m  < 


)  vo  ■*  ONOO  r^ 
5  m  m  mo  »-* 


» O  tN.00  o  m 


t^  M  CO  mvo 


m  «  mo  ■*  ■* 

«  o*  «  m  m  m 
M  rs.NO  NO'* 


i  bsOO 


o  «  m  ON  o  00 


^  o  00  "«^oo  o»  o  NO  w  f^  \rt\o  00  tj-  «  o  «  m  I 


.  r^O  ■* 


•Mvo  M  o  (^i^H  «  ONMVO  mc*  cruT)  -^vo  0000  «  -^mo  O  t^mo>«  -^-^m  moo 

■  M  -^00  moo  moo  oo  «  m  ■^oo  m^mt^o  tN.M  o  m^.o*w  o  mo*  •*-vo  u^  .,}.  ro  ^ 
M  vo  rN.  (Nv  M  M  o  moo  O  on  m  «  mo  •-•  u^^o  mmmo  movm^ro'^mmmM  m 

'  *C^°^  H  t^  ^  *  ■*nO_  CO  OnonoOno  mcN.foo  w  cvo  m  r^  O"  r^oo  «  m  «  m  m 

■  t-^  rN.  M  ovo  00  M  m  *  m  M  mod  o  is  m  inod  t^  «'  m  >j-od"  ■*  o"  t^  c  o"  m  c  mvo  c 
mC"*mmM\o  movo  m  ^^no  o>mu'>"*ma'      ^-o  m  n  m —     -  —  .- 

.■^mmr-cwu^wmwmm      m  m  m       co  c^vo 

I  O        i-T  -^  tC  m"  m" 


in  "^  m  * 


m  m  t 


mvo  ^  o>  moo  r^  M  m  r^  t^.  ( 


o*  M  ■*  m  N  CO 

__      ..MmrNtN.MMOON 

moo  -^  «  -^oo  m  tj  t-^^vo  ^^  t^  0_  mv 
m  -^No"  -?od  mvo" 00  tCvo'od  o'  Q  -^-i 

C  O    CVO  NO    m  M    M    t^oO    O    Ci    Q    N 

cm^      moc-^mMm-^roNv 
cmtC  oo^w'm       m"      M^eT 


C  C  O    t^vO 


c  m  ► 
"   r-Ni 
moo 
r  m  tC  ' 

)    '^nO    ( 
00    w    ► 


C4    M 


C^mC    t^CM    t^M    CVO    O  V 

o'mmtCoTmOi-rNo'o' 
•^t^QvO  Ocovo  mmo  ■* 


OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOCO'lQODOOOOOOCOOOOOOOCOOOCO 


^v  1^  r«.oo  oooooooooocooocooooo 


II  I  I  I  I  I  I  iIii'LJ.'  ' 
m  m  M  00  «  m  mvo  mct^g  ceo  cw 
X)  00  coo  00  00  00  00  00  00  00  Coo  00  coo  o 


c  c  c  c  c 


oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooocooooooooocooooooooooooocooooooooo 


-a 


>  >  o< 

«  rt  rt  c 

r:  u  rt  C 
.  — *C--  ^ 

X   w    X    2 


^  rt-f.  w  0. 


u 

S  6 


—  .y  uT3. 


J3  5'-'  !«  c  c  c  =  c  c 

g   MO   j^   «   «   rt   rt 


_  ;a  ^  _-c  -o 
t/:  —  «s  3C  ^  H  »'.;/)  ^.  ^.  t 


CT3.S- 
^  I—   o  ^  ■« 

j  c  c  c 

N  rt   -:  tt 


2  SO  «J2 


,0i  c'rt  rj. 


Isle's""? 

^  ^  C  rt  «  rt 

O  <A  O  H  >  ^ 


■  "3    ><   3  /S 


"  E  ?: 

X  3  c  " 

'      a  o  "  -'^  ^^'^ 


statistical  IHotcs  on  /IDcjico. 


00 


O 


m 


m 


^00  vO    O    lAOO  *0    N    nrO 

i-i  rN.M  o  '♦o*'-'  mo 
tnoo  *^  ^  tC\o  "^  "-T  tC  iC 

SM   m  o  rn  o  r^oo  in  - 


« 


iH  tN.  o-o  o  o  «  00  mvo  M  lo 

t^  a>  U^^C    ts.M    N    «    rr\  ^  -^  <y. 


?5v8 


<S:g 


m 


O  3 

2  >• 

S  Q 

S  a 

<  a 

en 


•  o*  t^  ■*  Q"  •^00  ■ 


ro  fn  lO  ■♦i 

_^  S  00  M 
■  o'  ■»  -  tC  5 

•  IV  1*^00   »o  C 

mo  M  ir)v£ 


VO   tv»0 


«4-  lo  ■♦  m  « 


I  0  00    i  • 


VO   o 

s,s 

O  'O    Q    d^  «    q"oO    tC^O 

"  w  0  OO  c^^o  oo  i><><o 


>oo 


^o 


« 


a  COM  o  o  f^e*  tN.rN.roioNoo  O 

vomit    OOVO    M    -    NiO'^wvOm 

o-  -^  O  o  o  w  mo  O"  r>.  o  fovo  VO 


U 


■«-vo  •«•  moo 


I  ut  O   -^OO   O  VO    r^  ( 


irvO  -^Om  o  O  o 


IV    ■♦   W     M 


VO  rv 

«    W  vi 


-irilvO'Mii'H^imJJvoOocj'    .vOcoOmo 


^-i-<  oi  CO  CO  Q  U.  u.  I— >t/:  cTi  Q  «5  S  •— i^  X  <  Q  2  Q  '^■— 1<;  <;•<<;  Q  «5  — iLfj 


OOOOOOOOOOOOOO^^v-'-MM 

.  tv  rv  rv  rv  tvoo  ooooooooooojcoooooi 

0000000300000000000000000000001 


30000000000    o«    -^-i*- 
, >  00  00  00  oo  00  oo    ~    -    - 

joooooooooooooooooooooocooooooooo 


>  "O  •*  -^vo  vO  rv  iv3 --_.-,, 

)0O000O0O0O0000CO0O0O000O000O   o-co- 


•  ^   rj  "  " 


3d 


■a,  11 
•Wo 


^  o.ii 


o  c 


5  =  2  = 


.— J^    Or/ 

'  ^'aj  2^  S'*^' 


«  Eos  >.--s 


=  ""    M    " 


X>X£°  «i'^?,?-p^o-'='^'^.2SiJi?:= 
s  a:  w  i  S -S  2  -  -^  c  c^  Svy  c 'r  ctf  «  2:5  « 


r-  mvo  IV 


— -rt  o  nJi.E^  o^  ii-S  nJ:Ji~  V  =J:  o^ 
r-  U  H  > »'.  "-^  c-'<!5r-'Ua«'5«5'yi>-t-'<«>J»« 


r*i  •♦  mvo  rvoo  o  O  «  w  r^  ^  »avo  ivod 
M  «  «  CI  «  N  w  r^jcnforommfomm 


IRailwai^s.  213 

been  paid,  stating  the  number  of  kilometres  built,  the  amount  of  sui)- 
sidy  due  for  the  same,  and  the  manner  in  which  the  subsidy  was 
paid,  that  statement  being  the  most  complete  that  has  so  far  been 
published  : 

RfesuMfe. — Amount  paid  in  Cash $  46,896,901   95 

"  "        Certificates  of  Construction  (convertible 

in  five  per  cent,  bonds) 21,71 1,513  92 

"  "        Bonds 31,127,00000 

"         of  Balance  due  (payable  either  in  cash  or  Bonds),         8,008,244  3^ 

Total  amount  of  Subsidies,  as  per  corresponding  concessions,  $107,743,660  25 

The  Tehuantepec  Railway  cost  of  construction  is  herein  included,  in  order  to 
give  a  complete  statement  of  the  Government's  pecuniary  outlay  for  the  construction 
of  railways  in  the  country.  As  the  $13,500,000  amount  of  the  five  per  cent.  Bonds 
paid  on  account  of  the  construction  of  this  line  to  the  contractors,  McMurdo  &  Co., 
represent  a  gold  indebtedness,  if  reduced  at  the  rate  of  24  pence  per  dollar,  the 
above  total  cost  of  railway  construction  should  be  increased  by  an  equal  amount,  say 
$13,500,000  Mexican  currency — or  a  grand  total  of  $121,243,660.25. 

DETAILED    STATEMENT    OF    THE    SUBSIDIES    PAID    RY    THE    MEXICAN 
GOVERNMENT    TO    THE    RAILWAY    COMPANIES. 

1.  Mexican  Railnvay. — (From  Mexico  City  to  Veracruz.) 
Subsidy  as  per  original  concession,  $560,000  per  annum,  during 

25  years,  equal  to $14,000,000  00 

Paid  previous  to  October  21,  1890 10,187,315  79 

Balance  in  favor  of  the  company,  on  October 

21,   1890,  as  per  special  agreement  of  the 

same  date $3,497,878  80 

9^   deduction,  for  cash    payment,  according  to 

the  second  clause  of  said  agreement 314,805  41 

Total  payment 14,000,000  00 

2.  HiDALGO  Railway. — (From  Mexico  City  to  Pachuca,  Hid.) 

Subsidy,  $Sooo,  per  kilometre,  as  per  concession $1,232,088  00 

Paid  on  account  thereof  in  cash $931,296  37 

In  2%  and  5;?  Bonds 300,791  63 

Total  payment i  ,232,088  00 

3.  Veracruz    &    Alvarado    Railway. — (Coast    Line    between 

the  said  ports.) 
Subsidy  due  the  Comjiany,  $6000  per  kilometre,  as  per  con- 
cession         $440,000  00 

Paid  on  account  thereof,  in  cash $394,000  <X3 

In  3;{  Bonds 4(),ooo  00  440,o<X)  tx> 

4.  Merida  &    Peto   Railway. — (Between  the  two  named  towns. 

State  of  Yucatan.) 

Subsidy,  due  the  Company,  $6tX)o   per   kilomitrc.  as  per  con- 
cession         $'>48,o<"v<i  no 

Paid  in  cash $577,445  85 

In  3;;  Bonds 70,554   15 

Total  payment 648,000  00 


2  14  Statii?tical  IHotcs  on  /IDcrico. 

5.  Interoceanic   Railway. — (Narrow   gauge,  from  Veracruz  to 

Acapiilco,  Pacific  Coast.) 

Subsidy  due  the  Company $5i570, 511    12 

483.9''^  Kilometres  at  $Sooo $3,866,469  12 

81."*'^  "  "    6500 526,50000 

140.'^^  •■  "    6oo<j 840,000  DO 

38.iA»  "  unsubsidized 

Construction  bounty  earned,  as  per  concession 

on  the  Mexico  &  Cuauila  division 137,542  00 

Construction  bounty  earned,  as  per  concession 

on  the  Jalapa  &  Veracruz  division 200,000  00      5,570,511    12 

Paid  in  cash $2,896,938  00 

In  certificates  already  paid  for, 
out  of  the  3%  of  the  Cus- 
toms Receipts 2,673,573   12 

Total  payment 5,570.5H   12 

6.  Occidental  Railway. — (Between  points  in  the  States  of  Sina- 

loa  and  Durango.) 

Length  of  the  road,  according  to  the  concession 
1373  kilometres,  subsidy  at  the  rate  of 
$Sooo,  per  kilometre,  as  follows  : 

From  Altata,  (Port  on  the  Paci- 
fic Coast,  Gulf  of  Califor- 
nia), to  Culiacan,  capital  of 
the  State  of  Sinaloa 61.?^^  kilometres  constructed 

From  Culiacan  to  Durango  and 

Fresnillo  cities 600 

A  Branch  to  Guaymas 536 

"      "  Mazatlan 237 


1.373 
Subsidy  due   for   the    first    61  "*''    kilometres 

already  built $495,416  00 

Construction  bounty   according    to    concession 

$1000  per  kilometre 61,927  00 

Total  amount  due  and  paid  for  to  the  Company $557,343  00 

Mexican  Central,  and  sundry  branches. — (Trunk-line,  from 
Mexico  City  to  El  Paso  del  Norte,  on  the  Rio  Grande 
River.) 

Subsidy  due  in  accordance  with  the  corresponding  charter  was    $26,609,003  50 

As  follows  :  for  1970.'-^  kilo- 
metres of  the  trunk-line,  of 
which  107  kilometres  were 
subsidized  at  $1500  per  kilo- 
metre  $      160.500  00 

And     1,863.  "^A?     kilometres    at 

$9500  per  kilometre 17,704,200  00   $17,864,700  00 

For   258. 5M  kilometres  of   the 


IRatlwags.  215 

Gaudalajara  branch,  which 
reduced  as  per  special  contract 
of  Feb.  25,  1887,  to  218. "M 
kilometres  at  $95<x>  per  kilo- 
metre      $2,076,510  00 

For  653.?^'^  kilometres  of  the 
Aguascalientes  &  T  a  m  p  i  c  o 
Branch,  at  $9500  per  kilo- 
metre        6,208,250  00 

For  25  kilometres  of  the  San 
Bias  &  Guaristemba  at  $9500 

per  kilometre 237,50000      8,522,26000 

For  23.'--"-  kilometres  of  Silao& 
Guanajuato  Branch  at  $9500 

per  kilometre 222,043   50 

Total  payment $26,609,003  50 

This  total  amount,  was  settled  and  paid  for  in 
accordance  with  special  aj^reeuient  entered 
into  by  and  between  the  Department  of  Pub- 
lic Works  and  the  Company,  on  August  23, 
1890,  as  follows  : 
Lands,  art-works,  drafts  and  plans,  etc.,  due  by 
the    Company   as   per  settlement    effected 

December  22,  1881 $        34.204  39 

Rebate  off  the  subsidy  corresponding  to  G600 
kilometres  of  parallel  lines,  between  Zaca- 
tecas   &    Guadalajara,    as    per    agreement 

therefor 52,800  00 

Rebate  off  the  subsidy  on  50  kilometres  of  the 
line,  between  Tantoyuquita  &  Tampico,  as 

per  agreement 75,000  00 

Cash  received  by  the  Government  of  the  Slate 
of  San  Luis  Potosi,  on  account  of  the  old 

branch  line  to  Tampico 48,000  00 

Certificates  of  construction  paid  at  various  Cus- 
tom Houses  out  of  the  8^  of  the  receipts  of 
the  same,  during  the  fiscal  years  1881-1890      7,108,070  80 
Paid  with  bills  of  exchange  on  London  out  of 
the    proceeds   of    the    loan    negotiated    in 

1H90 14.335.732  06 

25^  discount  on  $19,820,793  01,  amount  of  tlie 
balance  acknowlctlged  in  favor  of  the  Com- 
pany,   according    to    the  above  mentioned 

agreement,  (August  23,  1890) 4.955. '9f>  25 

Tot.al  payment $26,609,003  50 

8.     Mexican      Naiionai.,      and      branches.  —  (Trunk-line     from 
Mexico  City  to  Laredo,  Taniaulipas.) 

The  Company  constructed  1737.5JL*  kilometres 
for  which  the  Cjovcrnment  owed  the  fol- 
lowing subsidies  : — 


2i6  statistical  IHotes  on  /iDcjico. 

On  1444.  ?^^- kilometres  of  the  trunk  line,  at  the 

rate  of  $71x30  per  kilometre $10,108,315  00 

On  273.'^'-'"  kilometres  of   the  trunk  line,  at  the 

rate  of  $0500  per  kilometre 1,774,500  00 

On  20  kilometres  of  the  Salto  Branch  at  the  rate 

of  $Sooo  per  kilometre 160,000  00 

Total  amount  of  subsitiy  due $12,042,815  00 

The  above  amount  was  paid  in  certificates  of  construction  for.  .$11,929,870  00 
of  which  the  sum  of  $8,746,722  60  was  paid  at  several  Custom-Houses 
during  the  fiscal  years  1SS2-1895,  and  the  balance  of  $3,183,147  40,  was 
converted,  by  special  agreement  between  the  Treasury  Department  and 
Messrs.  Lionel  Garden  and  H.  P.  Webb,  as  representatives  of  the  Company 
in  s%  Bonds.  The  balance  of  $112,945  which  in  the  preceding  statement, 
appears  as  pending  of  payment,  was  accepted  by  the  Company,  as  the 
value  of  the  Government's  shares  in  the  Salto  Branch. 

9.  "  SoNORA  Railway." — (From  Guayiiias,  on  the  Gulf  of  Califor- 

nia, to  Nogales,  on  the  boundary  line.) 

Subsidy  on  422^"^  kilometres  at  the  rate  of  $7000  per  kilometre,  $  2,956,184  00 

Paid  to  the  Company,  cash $  2,071,310  60 

Fine  against  the  forfeiture  of  the  concession. . .  100,000  00 

3%  Bonds  in  accordance  with  the  provisions  of 

the  law  of  September  6th,  1894 784,873  40 

Total  payment $  2,956, 184  00 

10.  "Merida    &    Valladolid    Railway,"  with  a  branch. — (Be- 

tween these  two  towns  in  the  State  of  Yucatan.) 

Subsidy  due  on  108. IM  kilometres  at  $6000  per  kilometre $642,008  00 

Paid  for  as  follows,  cash $      597,608  00 

In  3%  Bonds  (law  of  September  6th,  1894). . .  .  44,400  00 

Total  payment.    $642,008  00 

11.  "  Merida  &  Campeche  Railway,"  via.    Kalkini. — (Between 

the  capitals  of  the  States  of  Yucatan  and  Campeche.) 

Subsidy  due  on  135.^"-''  kilometres  at  $6000  per  kilometre,        $810,915  00 

Paid  to  the  Company  in  cash $766,91 5  00 

In  3%  Bonds 44,000  00 

Total  payment $810,915  00 

12.  "San   Marcos  &  Nautla  Railway," — Between  San  Marcos 

station  on  the  Mexican  Ry.  and  Nautla  bar  on  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico.) 

Subsidy  due  on  75  kilometres  at  $6000  per  kilometre $450,000  00 

Paid  to  the  Company  as  follows  :  Cash $  70,500  00 

In  special  s%  subsidy  Bonds 349,000  00 

In  3%  Bonds  according  to  the  provisions  of  the 

law  of  September  6th,    1894 500  00 

Rebatement  of  subsidy  on  5  kilometres  running 

parallel  with  the  "  Interoceanic  Ry 30,000  00 

Total  payment $450,000  OO 


IRailwavs.  217 

13.  "  ToLUCA  &  San  Juan  de  las  Huertas  Railway." — (Between 

the  capital  of  the  State  of    Mexico  and  the  San  Juan 
estate.) 

Subsidy  due  on  1=,.''--  kilometres  at  $3500  per  kilometre $55,023  50 

Paid  to  the  Company,  cash $40,^50  00 

In  2%  Bonds  (law  of  September  6th,  1894) 8,773  5° 

Total  payment $55,023  50 

14.  *'  Vanegas,  Cedral,  Matehuala  &  Rio  Verde  Railway." — 

(All  townshij^s  within  the  State  of  San  Luis  Potosi.) 

Subsidy  due  on  65. Ml  kilometres  at  $5500  per  kilometre I357.500  00 

Paid  to  the  Company,  cash $3.4 1 ,000  00 

In  5^  Bonds  (September  6th,  1894) 16.500  00 

Total  payment $357, 500  00 

15.  "Jimenez    and    Sierra    Madre    Railway." — (Through    the 

Hidalgo  District,  State  of  Chihuahua.) 

Subsidy  due  on  5.^-^  kilometres  at  $Sooo  per  kilometre $40,000  00 

The  whole  paid  to  the  Company  in  2%  Bonds  (Law  of  Septem- 
ber 6th,  1894. 

16.  "Mexican   Southern    Railway." — (367  kilometres  from  the 

City  of  Puebla  to  Oaxaca.) 

Subsidy  due  under  agreement  of  May  4th,  1892 $11,248,805   10 

First  annuity  of  interest  paid  to  the  Company 
in  conformity  with  the  original  concession 
of  April  2ist,  1886 $880,800  00 

Conversion  of  the  remaining  14  annuities,  as 
per  the  above  named  agreement,  in  special 
Bonds  denominated  of  tl)c  "  Oaxaca  Trunk 
Line" 8,558,888  55 

Bounty  paid  to  the  Company,  as  per  original 

concession,  in  Bonds  (special) 1,809,116  55 

Total  payment $11,248,805  10 

Of  the  total  amount  of  special  Bonds  issued,  $10,368,000  00 

Cashed i ,  108,000  00 

Outstanding 9,260,000  00 

17.  "Tonala"    (State    of    Chiapas,    Pacific   Coast)    and   "  Fron- 

tera  Railway." — (State  of  Tabasco,    on  the    (lulf   of 
Mexico.) 

Subsidy  on  50  kilometres  at  $8000  per  kilometre $400,000  00 

Paid  to  the  Comi>any  with  b%  Bonds,  valued  at 

90^  of  their  nominal $444,444  00 

The  balance  shown  in  tlie  preceding  statement 

in    favor  of   the  Company    for  $44,444.00 

proceeds  from  the  want  of  a   Bond  of  less 

value  than  $1000  of  the  corresponding  issue. 


2is  Statistical  IRotes  on  /IDcjico. 

i8.  "Monterey"    (Capital    of    the    State   of    Nuevo    Leon)    and 
"Mexican  Gulf  Railway."-  (Port  of  Tamijico.) 

Subsidy  on  624. •lH  kilometres  at  $8000  per  kilometre $5,534-572  24' 

Wholly  paid  for  in  s%  Bonds,  issued  under  the  law  of  Sep- 
tember 6th,  1894,  with  the  exception  of  a  balance  of 
$572.24,  which,  on  account  of  the  want  of  bonds  of  less 
value  than  $1000,  is  still  pending  of  settlement.  Of  the 
original  issue  of  special  Bonds  i;iven  to  the  Company  in 
payment  of  the  subsidy,  $235,000  is  still  pending  of  con- 
version. 

19.  "Tecolutla"  (a  bar  on  the  Mexican  Gulf)  and  "  Espinal 

Railway." — (Botli  in  the  State  of  Veracruz.) 

According  to  the  original  concession,  the  subsidy  granted  to  this 

Company  was  on  ly  kilometres  at  the  rate  of  $4500   in 

cash  per  kilometre  ;    but  under  a  new  agreement,    dated 

January,  20th,  1892,  it  was  settled  as  follows  : 

9  kilometres  at  the  rate  of  $4500  each  in  cash,         $40,500  00 

10  kilometres  in  Bonds  at  $6000  each 60,000  00 

Total  payment $100,500  00 

20.  "  Pachuca  "  (Capital  of  the  State  of  Hidalgo)  and  "Tamp- 

ico  Railway." — (On  the  Mexican  Gulf.) 

Subsidy  on  10. 51*  kilometres  at  $8000 $80,000  00 

Totally  paid  in  Bonds,  in  accordance  with  the  law  of  Septem- 
ber 6th,  1894. 

21.  "  Maraya no  "  «S:  "  Iguala  Railway." — (Towns  in  the  States 

of  Michoacan  and  Guerrero,  respectively.) 

Subsidy  on  50  kilometres  at  $3000  in  cash  and 
$3000  in  special  Bonds,  under  10%  discount 
off  their  nominal  value,  and  paid  for,  cash,        $112,000  00 

Bonds 166,000  00 

Total  payment $316,666  50' 

22.  "  Mexican  Northeastern  Railway." — (An  extension  of  the 

"  Hidalgo"  Ry.  to  Tizayuca,  in  the  State  of  that  name.) 

Subsidy  on  50. ".'"'  kilometres  at  $6000 -.  .        $300,540  00 

Paid  for,  in  cash $294,000  00 

In  2%  Bonds 6, 540  00 

Total  payment $300, 540  00 

'  Some  of  the  total  payments  in  this  table  do  not  correspond  to  the  amount  of  sub- 
sidy due,  because  in  some  of  those  cases  other  payments  have  been  made,  like 
bounty,  of  which  no  account  appears  in  the  respective  statement.  In  some  cases  a 
bounty  was  offered  provided  the  road  was  finished  before  the  time  fixed  in  the  respec- 
tive grant. 


1 


IRailwaps.  219 

23.  "Veracruz  <S:  Boca  del  Rio  Railway." 

Subsidy  acknowledged  on  ii.Mi  kilometres  at  $8000  per  kilo- 
metre           $(^2,032  00 

Paid  for,  cash $83,oo<j  00 

In  3%  Bonds 9,032  00 

Total  payment $92,032  00 

24.  "Tula,    Zacualtipan  "    (State    of   Hidalgo),    and    Tamhico 

Railway, 

Subsidy  on  70.?"-  kilometres  at  $8,000  per  kilometre $560,000  00 

The  whole  amount  paid  for  in  s%  Bonds,  of  which  $285,000 
were  outstanding  on  the  30th  of  June,  1896. 

25.  "Matamoros  Izucar"   (State  of    Puebla)    and  "  Acapulco 

Railway." — (On  the  Pacific  coast.) 

Subsidy  under  contract  of  March  22d,  1895,  on  40  kilometres. .        $988,776  49 

Paid  as  follows  :  cash,  for  the  amount  of  2%  in- 
terest   annuities  paid   to  the  Company  in 
conformity  with  the  original  concession. .  .        $111,370  62 
In  5^  Bonds,  according  to  the  above  con- 
tract   877,405  87 

Total  payment $988,776  49 

26.  "  Lower    California    Railway." — (From    the   town   of    San 

Quintin  to  a  point  on  the  "  Mexican  Central,"  Chihuahua.) 

Subsidy  on  20  kilometres,  payable  in  6%  Bonds  at  the  rate  of 
$8000  per  kilometre,  the  said  Bonds,  afterwards  converted 
in  conformity  with  the  corresponding  law  of  conversion, 
were  taken  by  the  Company  under  io%  discount  off  their 
nominal  value $177,777  77 

27.  "Monte  Alto  Railway." — (Starts  from  the  town  of  'IMalne- 

pantla,  on  the  Salto  branch  of  the  "  Mexican  National," 
towards  Alizapan  and  Villa  del  Carbon.) 

Subsidy  on  10  kilometres  at  $6000  per  kilometre,  payable  in 
6i  Bonds  taken  by  the  Company  at  the  rate  of  90;^  of  their 
face  value $66,666  66 

28.  Teiiuantepec  R.  R. — (Between  Coatzacoalcos  on  the  Gulf  of 

Mexico,  and  Salina  Cruz,  on  the  Pacific  coast.) 

COSTS  OF  CONSTRUCTION  TO  THE  MEXICAN  GOVERNMENT. 

I.     Contractors,  EinvARi)  Learned  &  Co. —(Contract  of  June  2d,  1879.) 

35  kilometres,  of  which  only  25  were  paid 

for,  at  $7500 $187,500  00 

The  Learned  contract  was  rescinded  by 
the  Mexican  Government  on  August 
i6th,  1882  ;  but  by  agreement  ad- 
justed with  J.  Tyng,  as  representative 
of  the  contractors,  who  received  the 
following  payments  ; 


Statii?tical  1HotC5  ou  /IDcjico. 

December  2ist,    1882,       $125,000  00 

July  gth,  1883 403,618  44 

July  Kjth,   1883 101,06848 

July  i2th,  18S8 1,075,7261)0      1,705,413  82 

Total  amount  pnid  to  Learned  &  Co $1,892,913  82 

Of  which  amount  the  sum  of  $230,413.82  represents 
interest  accrued  at  the  rate  or  6%  per  annum  ;  so  that 
the  35  kilometers  built  by  these  contractors  actually 
cost  $14,083.25  per  kilometre. 

a.     Contractor,  Mr.  Dki.pin  Sanchkz. — (Agreement  of  Oc- 
tober 5th,  18S2.) 

This  contractor  received  from  the  Govern- 
ment the  sum  of $1,079,135  40 


For  the  purchase  of  material,  which  he  only 
accounted  for  the  amount  of  $908,- 
910.50  the  balance  of 1:170,224  90 

Having  been  donated  to  the  contractor  ac- 
cording to  special  agreement  of  April 
25th,  1SS8. 

The  same  contractor  received  in  150 
weekly  installments  of  $1900  each 
during  the  fiscal  years  1885,  1888  ....        $285,000  00 

Mr.  Sanchezdeliveredasconstructed  74kilo- 
meters  which  were  paid  to  him  at  the 
rate  of  $25,000  each $1,850,00000    $2,305,22490 

Mac-Murdo  Contract. — (Agreement  approved  by  Decree 
of  October  15th,  1SS8.) 

For  the  completion  of  the  construction  and  the  furnishing 
of  all  the  rolling  material,  etc.,  and  for  which  the  Con- 
tractors received  in  payment  in  5^  Bonds,  special  issue, 
principal  and  interests  payable  in  sterling  currency, 
;^2, 700,000 $13,500,000  00 

This  contract  was  rescinded  on  the  13th  of  January,  1892, 
when  the  contractors,  in  settlement  of  accounts,  sur- 
rendered to  the  Government  the  sum  of  about  $2,000,- 
000  as  surplus  proceeding  from  the  sale  of  the  said 
bonds,  and  delivered,  more  or  less,  250  kilometres  of 
the  lines  as  built  or  repaired  within  the  stipulations'  of 
the  said  contract. 

Stanhope,    Hampson    &    Corthf.l   Contract. — (Made 
under  Decree  of  December  6th,  1893.) 

For  the  construction  of  59  kilometres  and  the  completion 
of  all  the  necessary  works  for  the  preservation  and 
working  of  the  whole  line,  for  the  fixed  sum  of $1,483,035  00 


Total  cost  of  the  line $19,181,173  72 


public  Debt.  221 

PUBLIC    DKBT. 

In  the  first  part  of  this  paj)er  I  gave  a  brief  statement  of  the  differ- 
ent loans  and  liabilities  which  cunstitute  the  Mexican  debt,  and  that 
statement  will  make  it  easy  to  understand  the  different  issues  and 
denominations  of  our  bonds.  Here  I  append  a  detailed  statement 
of  the  National  Debt  of  Mexico,  up  to  June  30,  1896,  submitted  to 
Congress  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  on  the  14th  of  December, 
'  1896,  and  a  further  statement  containing  the  same  data  in  a  more 
concise  form. 


STATEMENT  OF  THE    NATIONAL    DEBT  OF    MEXICO  TO  JUNE  30,   1896. 

Batttifd  Debt,  Principal  and  Interest  payable  in  Ster- 
ling currency. 

Six  per  cent,  interest  bearing  Bonds  for  the  Loan  of  1888, 

with  . .  it  sinking  fund,  Capit.il  and   Interest $51,908,786  50 

Six  per  cent,  interest  bearing  Bonds  far  the  Loan  of  1890, 

with  .  .  %  sinking  fund,  Capital  and  Interest 30,068,710  25 

Six  per  cent,  interest  bcurint;  Bonds  fur  the  Loan  of  1893, 

with  ..  ^  sinking  fund,  Capital  and  Interest I5i325,s6i  50 

Five  per  cent,  interest  bearinjr  Bonds  for  the  Construc- 
tion of  the  Tehuantepcc  Railway,  1889,  Capital....      13,500,000  00 

Six  per  cent,  (non  converted  balance)  Bonds  of  the  Loan, 

contracted  in  London,  1851,  Capital i34>i53  12 

Total  amount  0/  outitanding  Bonds,  payable 

in  Sterling  currency $110,937,211  37 

Bonded  Debt,  Principal  and  Interest  payable  in  Mexi- 
can Sih'er  currency. 

Three  per  cent,  interest  bearing  Bonds  of  the  Interior 

Consolidated  Debt,  Capital  and  Interest $53,464,937  60 

Five  per  cent,  interest  bearing  Bonds  of  the  Interior  Re- 
deemable Debt,  first  series.  Capital  and   Interest. . . .      19,995,689  48 

Five  per  cent,  interest  bearing  Bonds  of  the  Interior  Re- 
deemable Debt,  second  series.  Capital  and   Interest.  987,137  15 

Subsidy    Bonds,    non    converted    balances,    for   sundry 

works  and  railways.  Capital 9,793,865  75 

Total     83,340,609  98 

Railway  Construction  Certificates,  pending  of  conver- 
sion. Capital 319  17 

Balance-certificates  corresponding  to  the  fiscal  years 
comprehended  between  1883  and  1894,  Capital  pend- 
ing of  conversion 339,331  91 

Total  amount  0/ bonded  debt,  payable  in  Mexi- 
can Sih'er  currency 83,570,051  06 

Grand  Total  of  Bonded  Liabilities $194,507,363  43 

Liabilities  from  vartous  sources,  and  in  forms,  other 

than  Bonds,  payable  in  Mexican  Silver  currency. 
To  Railway,  Harbor  Works  and  Drainage  of  the  Valley 

of  Mexico,  Contractors $    501,741  03 

To  Unpaid  for    Appropriations  in  the    Budgets   for  the 

fiscal  years  between    1891  and  1896 613,337  83 

To  other  credits  pending   of  settlement  :  on  account  of 

the  same  Budgets 600,894  63 

To  B.tlances  in  Account-current  due  various  Contractors 

with  some  of  the  Executive  Departments 315,818  95 

To   sundry,   cash   or    otherwise    executed.    Deposits,   as 

guarantee  for  pending   contracts 9,68i,66a  95 

To  provisional  certificates  issued  on  account  of  the  1888, 

1890  and  1893,  Sterling   Loans ; 3,738,68413 

To  cash  or  other  values  pending  of  classification  in  the 

corresponding  accounts 74<434  57 

To  cash  Receipts  on  account  of  credits,  other  than  fiscal 

and  pending  of  payment  to  the  corresponding  offices.  33,839  68 

To  Balance  due  to   Mint-Ix-ssces 48,31489 

To  outstanding  Bills  Payable 111,186  aS 

Total   Amount   of   Liabilities   frotn    various 

sources  and  in  fortns  ether  than  Bonds. . . .  8,717,804  91 

Grand  Total  of  the  Mexican  National  Debt $003,335,067  34 


222 


Statt^ttcal  IRotcs  on  /IDcrtco. 


.E  — 


"  X 


3^ 
n;3 


M  M  ro  u^  m 
O  CO  »0  O"  O* 
«    r^  '♦00    M 

"^  m  o>  M  vo 

t^  rOQO  00  «0 


On 
00 


o 


>.u  t 


r^*      c      r^  lA 


c  u 


f*>^  O  V 


u    C    A 

"  r:  c 
c    f    C 


•  vo    IA*0  ^O 


ac 

s 

00  •£ 

O  o  S   >.in 


o  y. 


5-- 5 


r:  ~  =  -  u  \o  S 

t-~  H  "  >.''  X 

«~  -  -  Ado°° 
o—  u  t.  °-«  - 

«  =.2>2  2  "  — 
•£«  o-o  ^o  ° 

u  o  o  o  o  Jij  t; 

g  c  c  c  c  >  > 
"c  6  6  d  6  5  5 
OS  J  —  J  _:  u  CJ 


o  u 

.5-0 
•a  c 


c-uT 
C.2  "  o 

y)     ,/l    W  ^ 

'•Cos 
S  P—  o. 

C   "-^      ' 

'■5  C  ti  2 

t^    C  "O  — 

a  '  ^  n 


g-sii 

.2  »i-c-| 


:—  2  u  s 

'  u  ?S  a  rj' 


cS^o  c  S  « 
—  r-'-'  =  c 

3.2  rt  3  MS 

:-2  c<—  "^5 
t  ^  o  a  <i>  -^ 

^   D.   -   .    ^  *- 

!;  c  >  °  " 


ac 


I  ;; 


T3^ 

~  e 
.£••2 

'c  o 

3'E 

o  — ,         — 

00   c 


u'.; 


=  =  3 

o  « 


,  j;-a  2  aj;.::  u 


)    '>;    (A    t) 


bs 


s-l  HI 

--  X  X  X  a. 


lpost=©fficc  ant>  cTelcorapb  Scrricc. 


223 


POST-OFFICE    AND    TKLKGRAPH    SERVICE. 

I  append  a  statement  containing  the  number  of  post-offices,  and 
postal  agencies  in  each  of  the  Mexican  states  in  1895,  and  the  num- 
ber of  postal  pieces  transj)orted  by  Mexican  mails  from  the  years 
1878-1879  to  1894-1895.      (See  page  225.) 

I  have  prepared  a  statement  of  the  earnings  and  expenditures  of 
the  i)ost-office  and  telegraph  services  in  Mexico  during  the  twenty- 
seven  fiscal  years  elapsed  from  July  i,  1869,  to  June  30,  1896.  It  was 
not  possible  to  obtain  full  data  of  the  earnings  of  the  telegraph  lines 
during  the  first  ten  years  of  that  ])eriod,  on  account  of  the  defective 
way  in  which  the  books  were  kept  by  the  Federal  Treasury  of  Mexico. 
With  that  exception  the  data  embraced  in  the  following  statement  is 
correct,  as  it  has  been  taken  from  the  official  accounts.     (See  p.  224.) 

POST-OFFICES  IN   MEXICO   IN    1 895    BY  STATES. 


STATES. 

\gnascalientes.  .  . 

( 'ampeche 

( 'hiapas 

( 'hihiiahua 

{ 'oahuila 

Colinia 

Durango 

Federal  District.  . 

(iuanajuato 

(iuerrero  

Hidalgo 

Jalisco 

Lower  California. 

Mexico 

Michoacan 

Morelos 

\ew   Leon 

( )axaca 

I'uebla 

(^)iieretaro 

S.m  Luis  Potosi .  . 

Sinaloa 

.Sonora .    

Tabasco 

Tamaulipas 

Tepic 

IMaxcala 

Veracruz    

Yu(\atan 

Zacateca.s 

Total 


rosT- 

OFKICE. 

POSTAL  AGENCIES.     TOTAL. 

5 

5 

10 

8 

3 

1 1 

7 

24 

31 

24 

58 

82 

25 

26 

I       52 

2 

9 

1 1 

'9 

42 

61 

I 

8        I 

0       19 

27 

38 

65 

13 

31 

44 

'9 

43 

62 

.^5 

83 

118 

7 

17 

24 

14 

21 

35 

2  2 

59 

fei 

9 

9 

18 

18 

33 

51 

22 

39 

61 

27 

77 

I       105 

7 

10 

«7 

18 

34 

52 

16 

28 

44 

14 

75 

^0 

5 

16 

21 

'7 

36 

53 

7 

13 

20 

9 

7 

16 

36 

82 

iiS 

16 

40 

5^ 

20 

23 

I       44 

469 


<)R() 


'3 


1471 


224 


Statistical  IRotes  on  /IDcyico. 


EARNINGS  AND  EXPENDITURKS  OF  THE  POST-OFFICE  AND  TELEGRAPH 
SERVICES  DURING  THE  LAST  TWENTV-SEVEN  FISCAL  YEARS,  FROM 
JULY    I,     1869,  TO   JUNE    30,    1896. 


1 

POST-OFFICE. 

TELEGRAPH. 

BOTH   SERVICES.— TOTAL. 

VKARS. 

Dr. 
Expenditure. 

$      132,399  06 
154,574  90 
340,324  63 
4S7ii53  '9 
491,199  48 

Cr. 
Earnings. 

$      120,120  24 
167,348  85 
265,440  22 
474,819  II 
523,583  09 

Dr. 
Expenditure. 

Cr. 

Earnings.' 

$          1,809  53 

Dr.          1           Cr. 
Expenditure.!      Earnings.' 

1869-1870.  .  . 
1870-187I... 
187I-I872... 
1872-1873... 
1873-1874... 

Total  in 

five  years.. 
Average 

per  annum. 

$        29,212  73 

84,150  00^ 

48,379  77 
72,418  96 

174.504  32, 

$     161,611  79 
238,724  90 
388,704  40 
529.572  IS 
665,703  80 

$  ',575.651  26 

$  1.551,3"  51 

$      408,665  78| 1  $  1,984,317  04 

$      315,130  25 

$      310,262  30 

$       81.733  16 

$     396,863  41 

1874-1875.-- 
1875-1876... 
1876-1877... 
1877-1878... 
1878-1879... 
Total  in 

five  years.. 
Average 

per  annum. 

§      641,836  35 
480,299  37 
530,032  95 
682,076  21 
867,789  75 

$      549,820  14 
455,473  12 
441,329  10 
590,384  36 

$      190,366  06 
161,795  66 
134,830  02 
241,200  00 

■>rr,r^c    Rfi 

$     832,202  41 

642,09s  03 

664,862  97 

923,276  21 

1,126,885  61 

$         1,789  15 

$  3,202,034  63 

$  2,716,398  78]  $      987,287  60 

$  4.189.322  23 

$      640,406  93 

$       543.279  76  $       197,457  52 

$     837,864  45 

1879-1880... 
1880-1881... 
1881-1882... 
1882-1883... 
1883-1884... 
Total  in 

five  years.. 
Average 

per  annum. 

$      892,856  73 
983,606  17 
873,201  78 
840,354  70 
878,519  75 

$      702,080  39  $      348,290  24 
833,830  87           196,542  94 
704,766  47           570,155  25 
795,122  86          916,657  53 
698,019  36          677,729  50 

$      101,064  69  $  1,241,146  97 

135,144   02|          1,180,149    II 

174,301   24        1,443,357  03 
219,384  91  j       1,757,012  23 
239,051  45!       1,556,249  25 

$      803,145  08 

968,974  89 

879,067  71 

1,014,507  77 

937,070  81 

$  4,468,539  13 

$  3,733,819  95 
$      746,763  99 

$    2,709,37s    46 

$      868,946  31  $  7.177.914  59 

$  4,602,766  26 

$      893,707  83 

$         541.87s   09 

$      173,789  26J  $  1,435.582  92 

$      920.S53  *5 

1884-1885... 
i88s-i886... 
1886-1887... 
1887-1888... 
1888-1889... 
Total  in 

five  years. . 
Average 

per  annum. 

$  1,411,183  03 

751,227  37 

943,332  74 

956,701  47 

1,049,880  10 

$      642,660  19  $      618,829  54 
672,329  80           622,858  67 
739,732  65           718,821   70 
793,873  74           799,074  24 
880,530  931          820,072  05 

$      180,820  77 
155,442  82 
197,478  87 
275.856  95 
329,493  13 

$  2,030,012  57 
1,374,086  04 
1,662,154  44 

1.755,775  71 
1,869,952  IS 

$      823,480  96 

827,772  62 

937,211  52 

1,069,730  69 

1,210,024  06 

$  5,112,324  71 

$  3,729,127  31   $  3,579,656  20 

$  1,139,092  54'$  8,691,980  91 

$  4,868,219  85 

$  1,022,464  94 

$      745,825  46]  $      715,931   24 

$      227,818  SI 

$  1,738,396  18 

$      973,643  97 

1889-1890... 
1890-1891 . . . 
1891-1892. . . 
1892-1893. . . 
1R93-1894. .. 
Total  in 

five  years.. 
Average 

per  annum. 

1894-1895..- 
1895-1896--- 
Total  in 

tv^o  years. . 
Average 

per  annum. 
Total  in  the 

27  years  . . . 
Average 

per  annum. 

$  1,126,436  69 
1,196,329  63 
1,342,437  II 
1,278,587  20 
1,250,855  82 

$      994,112  87  $      872,316  89 
1,084,153  40           972,164  06 
1,127,563  18        1,045,726  44 
1,153,401   20        1,073,105  81 
1,213,309  46           954,864  48 

$      388,926  07 
462,076  59 
501,802  33 
528,881  96 
524,634  33 

$  1,998.753  58 
2,168,493  69 
2,388,163  55 

2,351,693  01 
2,205,720  30 

1  1.383,038  94 
1,546,229  99 
1,629,365  51 
1,682,283  16 
1,737.943  79 

$  6,194,646  45 
$  1,238,929  29 

$  5,572,540  11 
$  1,114,508  02 

$  4,918,177  68 

$  2,406,321  28 

$11,112,824  13 

$  7.978,861  39 

'$      983,635  54 

$      481,264  26  $  2,222,564  83 

$  1.595.772  28 

$      633,201  36 
1,228,784  30 

1$  1,861,985  66 

$  1,337,691  40  $       531.949  48 
1,062,415  99|      1,025,347  29 

$      547,308  67 
622,340  69 

$  1,165,150  84 
2,254,131  59 

$  1,885,000  07 
1,684,756  68 

$  2,400,107  39  $  1,557,296  77 

$  1,169,649  36 

$  3,419.282  43 

$  3.569,756  75 

$      930,992  83 

$  1,200,053  70  $      778,648  38 

I      584,824  68  $  1,709,641  21 

$  1,784,878  38 

$22,415,181  84 

$19,703,305  05  $14,160,459  49 

$  5,584,009  49  $36,575,641  33 

$21,019,604  25 

$      830,191  92 

$      729,752  04  $      524,461  46 

$      328,471  14,  $  1,354.653  38 

$  1,236,447  30 

'  The  totals  and  averages  per  annum  in  the  colums  marked  "  Earnings"  and  "  Total  Earnings" 
only  embrace  seventeen  years,  as  the  returns  for  the  first  ten  years  being  very  incomplete  are  not 
computed. 


Banl^s. 


225 


NUMBER   OF  PIECES  TRANSPORTED   BY  MEXICAN  MAILS  FROM   1878-1879 

TO   1894-1895. 
FISCAL  YEARS.  NUMBER  OF  PIECES. 

1878-1S79 5,992,611 

1879-1880 5,786,790 

1880-1881 6,141,790 

1881-1882 6,732,504 

1882-1883 10,640,516 

1883-1884 10,488,518 

1884-1885 I  1,905,209 

1885-1886 13,289,591 

1886-1887 16,504,034 

1887-1888 27,429,018 

1888-1889 43,052,800 

1889-189O 95.852,939 

189O-189I I  II, 406, 893 

189I-1892 116,778,853 

1892-1893 122,821,359 

1893-1894 35,818,148 

1894-1895 24,773,636 

Total 665,415,209 

Printed  matter,  samples,  and  parcel  post  articles  in  tlie  year  1894- 
1895,  \veighed  in  grammes,  1,107,755,679. 

The  notable  reduction  which  appears  in  the  last  two  years  is  due  to 
the  fact  that  in  the  preceding  years  all  correspondence  was  counted, 
namely  :  such  pieces  as  were  received  and  sent,  and  such  as  came  in 
transit,  while  in  the  last  two  years  only  are  accounted  such  as  were  sent. 

BANKS. 

The  following  statement  contains  a  list  of  all  the  banks  existing  in 
Mexico  up  to  December  31,  1895,  and  their  respective  condition  : 

LIST    OF    MEXICAN    BANKS. 


STATE. 

LOCATION. 

NAME   OF   BANK. 

DATE   OF 
CHARTER. 

Federal  District. 
Chihuahua 

Mexico  City. . . . 
Chihuahua  City.. 
M  erida 

National  Bank  of  Mexico 

International  and  Hypothecary 

Bank  of  Mexico 

Bank  of  London  and  Mexico. . 
Mexican  Chiluiahua  Bank. .  .  . 

February,  1882. 

May,  18S3. 
October,  iS36. 
Se]itember    i833. 

Chihualiua   Mining   Bank 

September,  1SS8. 

.. 

Cliihualiu.i  Bank 

December,  1889. 
December,  1890. 
February,  1S90. 
March,  1890. 
June  I,  1S91. 
December,  1891. 
February  18,  1892. 

Yucatan 

Cliihuahua  Commercial  Bank. . 
Vucatcco  Bank 

Yucatan  Mercantile  Bank 

Durango  Bank 

Durango 

Durango  City. . . 
Zacatecas  City. . 
Monterey 

Zacatecas 

Zacatecas   Bank 

New  Leon 

226 


Statistical  IRotes  on  /IDcjico. 


SITUATION    OF    THE    MEXICAN    BANKS    ON    DECEMBER    3 1,   1894. 


NATIONAL 
BANK    OF 
MEXICO. 

BANK   OK 

LONDON    AND 

MEXICO. 

INTERNA- 
TIONAL AND 
HYPOTHECARY 
BANK    OF 
MEXICO. 

CHIHUAHt;A 
MINING 
BANK. 

MEXICAN 

CHIHUAHUA 

BANK. 

CHIHUAHUA 

COM- 

MEKCIAL 

BANK,  ON 

FEBRUARY 

15,  1895. 

Social  capital.... 
Unpaid  capital. 
Accumulated 

$20,000,000  00 
13,000,000  00 

$3,000,000  00 

$5,000,000  00 
1,500,000  00 

$     600,000  GO 

$610,000  00 

$600,000  00 
300,000  00 

50,342   62 
108,600  00 

6,928   00 

100,855  86 
265,630  62 
281,713  84 

Reserve  funds. . 
Emergency 

1,796,100  51 

2,500,000  00 

190,000  00 

20,630,086  80 

11,962,994   35 

3.093.5SS  21 

1,100,000  00 

34,500  00 

105,000  00 
22.729  55 

5,000  00 

111,266  94 
7,783,647   78 
8,892,749   25 

242,662    76 

656,496   33 

1,581,974    19 

292,555  01 
1,167,942   29 

52,026  61 
229,199   13 

Cash  in  hand  . . . 
Guarantee      ad- 

Advances         on 

2,788,527  85 
I.854.417   78 

94,124  01 
786,198  62 
287,133  28 

Debtors'        cur- 
rent accounts. 
Bills   in   circula- 

12,605,302  02 
16,417,061  00 

5,318,895  6g 
9,i95iS3S  00 

264,538   80 
538,429   25 

222,115   58 
122,782  00 

Mortgage  bonds 

1,947,200  00 
1,642,378   91 

Deposits        and 
creditors'  cur- 
rent accounts. 

21,768,776  96 

8,811,024  66 

458,877   30 

465,519  05 

75.559  32 

CHIHUAHUA 

BANK, 
ON  JANUARY 

IS,  1895. 

YUCATECO 
BANK. 

YUCATAN 

MERCANTILE 
BANK. 

DURANCO 
BANK. 

ZACATBCAS 
BANK. 

NEW  LEON 
BANK. 

Social  capital 

Unpaid  capital. 
Reserve  funds. . 
Real  estate,  fur- 

$500,000  00 

200,000  00 

5,666  25 

$1,000,000  00 

$     750,000  00 

$500,000  00 

$600,000  00 

240,000  00 

6,500  00 

$600,000  00 

22,654   71 

17,716   89 

3,396  88 

8,278   82 

175.619   63 
240,066   38 
600,323   71 

231,094   10 

118,521   36 

565,418   00 

191,928   26 

Cash  

40,174  41 
109,113  II 

475.519  43 
1,346,715  63 

508,805  68 

1,001,457   81 

178,282  55 
603,039  90 

71,894  13 

322,927  09 

227,079  00 

445,667  79 

25o,37'5  35 
565,032  52 

98,196  13 

339.306  74 

185,346  00 

701,065  74 

Cash  in  hand. . . 
Guarantee      ad- 

Debtor's  current 

accounts 

Bills    in   circula- 

285,441  59 
98,885  00 

30,277  86 

172,391  75 
658,726  00 

313,246  10 

426,601    32 
658,312  00 

510,83s  92 

Deposits        and 
creditors'  cur- 
rent accounts. 

PUBLIC    LANDS. 

I  append  four  statements  of  the  titles  of  public  lands  issued  by  the 
Mexican  Government.  The  first  one  embraces  a  resum^  of  the  titles 
issued  without  cost,  and  under  the  act  of  December  14,  1874,  of  the 
Indian  town  lands  held  in  common,  called  in  Spanish  "  Ejidos"  to  the 
respective  inhabitants  of  the  said  towns,  from  1877  to  1895  :  the  second 
embraces  a  resume  of  the  titles  issued  in  1894  and  1895  for  public 
lands  held  by  private  parties  as  portions  of  public  land  bought  from 
the  government  but  which  were  in  excess  of  the  respective  titles,  which 
we  call  in  Spanish  "  Demacias  "  :  the  third  one  embraces  a  resume  of 
the  titles  of  public  lands  issued  to  jjrivate  parties  in  the  years  1894 


public  Xan&s. 


227 


and  1895  :  and  the  fourth  contains  a  r^sum^  of  the  titles  issued  by  the 
Mexican  Government  to  surveying  companies  for  one-third  of  the  land 
respectively  surveyed  by  them  in  1894  and  1895,  according  to  law  and 
the  respective  contracts. 

FREE    TITLES    ISSUED    UNDER    THE    ACT    OF    DECEMBER    14,    1874,    OF 

THE    INDIAN    TOWN    LANDS    TO    THE    RESPECTIVE 

INHABITANTS    FROM     1877    TO     1895. 


1877 

1878 

1879 

1880 

1882 

1883 

1884 

1885 

1886 

1887 

1888 

1889 

1890 

189I 

1892 

1893 

1894 

1895 

Total 


I 

195 

72 

2 

195 

259 

1.932 

383 

774 

254 

1.524 
2,237 

1. 130 
499 

1.449 
452 
791 
273 


12,422 


Hectares.         Ares.       Cts, 


85 

3.572 

128,144 

5,000 

5.629 

14,616 

61,497 

13,068 

20,662 

2.999 

20.547 

100,627 

68,086 

6.516 

15,807 

17.709 

6,262 

6,160 


496,994 


06 
71 
94 
00 
29 
14 
56 
18 
93 
85 
73 
65 
31 
74 
30 
59 
71 
03 


79 


41 
56 
00 

69 
13 

94 
08 
12 
98 
16 
32 
86 
22 

95 
08 

49 
65 


64 


TITLES   ISSUED    FOR    UNWARRANTED     POSSESSION    BV    PRIVATE    PARTIES 
OF    PUBLIC    LANDS    IN    1894    AND    1895.  


YEARS. 

Number 
of  Titles. 

AREA. 

VALUE. 

Hectares. 

Ares. 

Cts. 

iSoa 

17 
10 

34.781 
69.557 

98 
33 

31 

04 
21 

$21,554  91 

i8q^ 

20,254    13 

27 

104,339 

25 

$41,809  03 

TITLES    OF    PUBLIC    LANDS    ISSUED    TO    PRIVATE    PARTIES    IN 
1894    AND    1895.  


YEARS. 

Number 
of  Titles. 

AREA. 

VALUE. 

Hectares, 

Ares. 

Cts. 

I  %Qt 

21 
19 

40 

86,385 
59.265 

63 
24 

26 

84 

$140,067  72 

iSciK 

81,883  95 

145.650 

88 

10 

$221,951  67 

228 


Statistical  1Hotc5  on  /IDcjico. 


TITLES    ISSUKl)    IN     1894    AND    1895    TO    SURVEYING    COMPANIES    FOR 
ONE-THIRU    OF    THE   LAND    SURVEYED    BY    THEM. 


YEARS. 

Number 
of  Titles. 

AREA. 

Hectares. 

Ares. 

Cts. 

1894 

I  8q? 

32 
29 

61 

484,257 
243.576 

30 
II 

70 
81 

7'^7.833 

42 

51 

EDUCATION. 

The  following  official  data  received  by  the  Census  Bureau  of  the 
Mexican  Government  contains  the  number  of  schools  in  the  different 
States  of  Mexico,  supported  by  the  Federal,  State,  and  municipal  ad- 
ministrations, and  the  number  of  students  attending  the  same.  That 
statement  does  not  include  the  States  of  Mexico  and  Veracruz,  which 
are  among  those  having  the  largest  number  of  schools  and  attendance. 

I  also  append  a  statement  of  the  number  of  schools  supported  by 
private  parties,  with  the  number  of  pupils  attending  the  same  and 
their  cost  ;  and  finally  a  detailed  statement  of  the  public  libraries  ex- 
isting in  Mexico,  and  newspapers  published  in  the  country,  taken  from 
the  publication  of  the  Census  Bureau  in  1895. 

NEWSPAPERS    PUBLISHED    IX    MEXICO    IN    1895. 


Aguascalientes 10 

Campeche    4 

Chiapas 4 

Chihuahua   19 

Coahuila 6 

Colima 13 

I)urango 7 

Federal  District,  City  of  Mexico. ...  115 

Guanajuato 14 

(iuerrero 6 

1  liflalgo 3 

Jalisco 43 

Lower  California  (Territory) 5 

Mexico II 

Michoacan 30  

Morelos 5  Total 454 

These  are  published  in  several  languages,  namely  : 

English 12       German i 

French 2       Spanish 439 


New  Leon 8 

Oaxaca 5 

Puebla 17 

Queretaro i 

San  Luis   Potosi 6 

Sinaloa ...    14 

Sonora 12 

Tabasco 14 

Tamaulipas 20 

Territory  of  Tepic , 6 

Tlaxcala 2 

Veracruz 24 

Yucatan 18 

Zacatecas 12 


Dailies 44 

Semi-weekly 33 

Tri-weeklv 5 

Weekly..' 185 

Semi-monthly 79 

Monthly 87 


Total 454 

Bi-monthly 3 

Quarterly 5 

Yearly 3 

Unknown 10 

Total 454 


JEDucation. 


229 


■I«oj, 


'lEUOIS 


10  m  n  moo  00  ^o  m  i^oo 


^^o  000  ^M  fnei  ^io«  «  ^riMOO  •* 


^t^fo^e^w  »*  ei^c  -xco  «  M  i#oo  **  *>/^vo  ts.M  f*jfo«  0'0»c 


M       M  w  M  m  c 


■  «  «  f*i»o  w  M  m  c 


'iOcpU033^ 


'Xjeuiuj 


««C(»-NMMMMf*>h* 


WVO       ■     -    M 


"IWOX 


'saxas  qiog 


•sajBuiaj 


fO  M    M    m  t^>0    N    0-mu^O'Vf>«    MOO    «    r^O    M    M    I^O''*00    mw    MOO 

■^r^m-^rvM  M  -*o  M  ts.oo  N  M  moo  m  •♦  u^\o  t%Mm««ONO»ci 
M       MMMmnm-^cin  m»o  MMmWM       Mcim-^n 


O        ■     M 


.  m\n 

" 

t^   •  NO  o>o 


« \o  •*  m  w 


C(  o>vo  OvOO 


•sai^ij^ 


•I«iox 


'59X3S  4309 


00  o> » 


O  ♦OO  00    «^ 


«oo  CO  «  00  000  m  moo  "^oo  n  v> -^oo  vo  m 


^   t^   tM     M     MNO 


m  M    U^  "T  M    M         \0 


-^■O*     ■«     ••<•«     .00     .     '"O 


*S3|lCai9J 


00    •Mr^*-oor^t>.'*0*'*'*'MMroOM 
■«roromtN.oooO'»o      o       rooo 


n  C4  «o  c4  «  «0 

M         «0    €> 


•sapej^ 


O  mw  M  M  ONOOO  «  ■^'«»-m-^«  •-■  ovo  i-i 
m      M  m  rs.  t>.NO  oo«oou^      m^oooo 


<UUC 


1  3  t  c-,.  .,. 
I  5  S  3:2  = 
;QOOX> 


U    V 


C'C 

£  ° 
c-c 


■-in 


03  n  3  3  =.£  5  rt  nJ3  3  S  C  c  o  o 
SZO0.O'xu^xHHH>«NU.HJmJ 


230 


statistical  Botes  on  /IDejico. 


55  u 

2  S 

^  s 

■<  ^ 

w 


•pajcnpcjo 


^  tv  i*»oo  CO  <»j  O  M  *n 
M  o  o*^  in  »-  m      w 

M  M  •♦  *       00 


«    m'O    ♦  N    PI    f 

I  M  o>  m      MM. 


^  o   m  t 


•uoij 
-Buitu'cxa 
Su'tssEd 
luiiiniv 


•pauuuExa 
iuuin[y 


irt  •^\o  00  000  N  .-  ■^mcor^'^irM  .rm'*-o  000  «  io«  ^  000  m  no 
t^O«vo  i-.0"00_u^  fnoo_  1^  r^  M  o  1^  «  m^  0*00  »nvo  ci  00  ^  Cl 
«  m"  tC  m"       t^  ir!\o  hT  -^no"  -^       t^  m  cT  «  ■♦oo"  c*J      -^oo"  cT  «  en  w" 


I  r^oo  o  en  •-•  m  m  t^  o 


I  h-   O,  t^  0*00 


•  fn  o  vo  vo 


o^o^^■♦     oomor^.^OM  t-voo  .-  -.r  en  i/^i  cnco       o  n  00  n  00  (^  < 


i^co  t^  o  m  O"  r^  moo  00 


1  O'  N  ^    *♦  « 


Si  jsaq 


■sjBoX  Si 

OJ  01    lUOJ  j 


^0  ^0    *  ■«■ 


CO  r«.^  o  moo  vo 
,0  o\  c*  m  o  «  M 


^\0  ^O  00  00 


o^o  mM  000  -.ro 


I  '^  o  •-  vo^o  00  10 


m  o  r«.vo  ir.  o  ^c  moo  r^  «  00 
I  r^oo  t^  O  o  'rl^o 
i  t^vo  r^      d"  »n  en  hT  -^  rn  rCoo"Qd^  m" 


Z  K 
<  < 


O  3 

til  a 
z 


5  < 


•sJBaX  OI 
o)  S  uiojj 


N  00  O  o  VI  r^oo  ri  o 
CO  N  lor^M  iniomt^ 
«  t..  c  *  o*  ■*  m  io»o 
-♦00  m"  loxd"  -^focT  cT  tn 


m  o*  o  "^o  00  o  iri  i^  -♦  t 
M  o  ".r  wivo  moo  vo  ■«*-  mv^ 
tC  ,f  m  cT  -^vo  -^  1000"  rn 


S  J3AQ 


.  HI  XO  r*  O  m 


O  00  m  «  w  moc  ( 
M  ■♦  o  m  ■*■■,»•  c.  ( 


■I«i"X 

00  vo  00  m 
0  •♦  t-i  m 
0  00  -   m 

u->ao  -  i^vo   o»oo  00  ro  t>.  moo  CT-'-QNTi-.m'^-MMM 
o-  u-ivo  M   f*  -^rco  ■♦  ■*  0   •«•  -^  mvo   0  oo   -^  -   -^oo  vo  oo  o 
M  rNfOfoe*  woo  0  t>.a>o^  ct-^o  \o  oo  tN.oo  «  w  o  oo  o  w 

mM  0'  « 

tCNo"oo  o  <>  c>vo  <>  ■*■  fooo  m  oi  c>oo"  mmoTfo'-  cow 

■S3IBU13jI 

m"  m"  4  M*" 

r^oo  0  o  mm-+t^M  mm«  (^o  o  «oo  «  w  -  o\0  0 
t^\o  c>«vo  -^ru-ifomiN  -^^  r*Nvo  oo  t^o  ct*«  iO'«**« 
c^c>^<>m-*t^-^  ^1^  'V  9.  *;  1  "*°°  ^  H.  "^°^  '0  ^^ 
cf  cT  cf  00  vo  -^vo"  «^  lO  'f  «"  m'oo  ^  -^       «  ro  ^oo"  cf  m" 

t^ 

■S3IKJ\; 


0   lO  o  o 

CT  «    O^  « 

t^  r^  M  M 

000  M  r^m-^^H  (N  «  «vo  IN 

M    a-t^CT>M    C    rOM    CTNOO    O  CO  00 

«  rN.00  mrN.rN.-vo   Tf«cooooo 

M     Q    M  -O    O  N    fO 

0  Q  «  vo  0  mvo 
mvo  CTv  r^  N  vo   « 

0        '^     t>N     fN. 

fo  ►-   m  M 

M     M     ID   M 

■^rnmM  tn   4-  d  4^  6-  avo"  cT  o 

m  -<*■  -r  ro  tN  o*  M 

""       1 

'I^IOX 


'safEj^ 


ov  N  00  -^  -^  -^oo  o  ■*  rN  o  'O  o 
0000  «»0  o-^o  rs.o  mso  o  m 


M  en  «  ro  N 


o  o 
_   _      .   ,   _  -^  »n  _ 

'"f  00   o^  ^    w   "^l*©^  t^ 

o^vo"  -"f  in  lo  cT  ^ 


■^o  -^  moo  t^co  r-N 


o-^movfOM  o  i^c 


» \o  f^  ■*  t-N  -(^  en  ^s 

)   i/~,  IN  00   mvo   ■^'O 


CT  t^  o  t^oo  o  oo  o  CO  -^  o 
(T)  M  m  t^  o  fooo  M  OOO  M 
O   -^  ro  O   mvo   ro  tN.  o  M  vo 


'O  <N  M  o  tN.Tht-NrN.mM  M  w  o^fom  mo  m  «  mo  O  o  m  oo  ■*  m  o 
.N  t^-rj-Moo  -^c*  m  -^roo  m  rN  m  M  q  n  n^o  mvo  ^O^O  onw  lorno 
im^r^mfoo  -^oo  m  co  o^m  t-.o  rNO*foo  •-•  tvovM  in.«  m  o-c* 
pTvcT  m"  t-To'  m  ^  tC  t^  CT-  4<^  fO^t^forniCmfomtC^intNt-o 


r.  b  C 


?  MO  5^ 

2:2". ;i  o 


QQ 


TJ^ 


■  a.  _    ■ 
oa  "5  c 

2  O  hLh  Ci^  c«  c«  H  H  H  >< 


cj  rt 


B&ucation. 


231 


Q  ft! 
a  2 


3  ft! 
■<  Q 


•icjox 


u^  ir>  O  CD 


•S3[BIU3J 


■S3fBJ^ 


O  f*i  moo 
00  00  e^  o 


i-i   ^  ir>  ceo  c  «  w  in 
>r^o**irimroi-ioo  a* 


o  «vo  < 
«  inoo  » 


>^   '*■  O  «  trt  ts.  r^ 


oOMO-Cl^QMOiMr^  m'vo' 
•-'   "C  "   ^  "^  S.  *Q°°  O   O*  irt  «   ►* 


m  O  CO    t^QO    N    O    •*  O* 

t~  t~  ■«■  •roo'O  lOM 


«   -^  W    t-  \o   o« 


«   «   M   O  >n  M   t^ 


'S3X3S  i{)og 


'S9[CUI»J 


t^  W     .    M  \o 


IVO      •    0>    •      .    M    «    M      .    M 


•sarej^ 


•l«'Oi 


S  o 

O  ft! 

0.  Id 

^  -i 


00  «  ^mcnt^o^n 


'S3X9S  ijiog 


'S3[eU3J 


•sajEj^ 


"♦•OMMfO*.    jJ-0;O.««M«-«-M       .„^      •MMt^NOlrtM 


00  00    li^  * 


■F'OX 


V0>0  ■«■  O   t^  ■«■ 


.    "  "    *<  *  M  CO 


'S3X3S  qiog 


•    ■  m  ■»■.«■♦  > 


'S3[CU3J 


M  fn  o»  r^  1^  ^00  to  t-t  o  m  o  o  > 


4  00  00  O^O  M 


■S3[BJ^ 


m  M  >o  moo  mHinHMM^M       cimmitim 


vH> 


rt 

0 

"a 

_rt 

c 

rt 

u 

^ 

c 

E 

X 

n 

•n 

n 

t« 

!-• 

—' 

H 

-" 

N 

f-_rt 

o 
o;r 

o  ^ 

it 


232 


Statistical  IRotct?  on  /IDejico* 


'pajenpcjo 


•passnj 


4\o  •  >0    tv  '«■ 


•  >osooo  mco>o 


*o^  •*  b» " 


'pauiuicx^ 


M  m  M  M 


m  w  ro  ■*  tN.  M  •- 


(3 


5< 


Si  jsaq 


"ZZ' 


'SJBSit  Si 

O)  OI  UIOJJ 


fn  m  ■  w 


'Sje9i(  OI 
o)  S  aioj  j 


■SJESX  SAIJ 


•IBJOX 


roor<i.»oot^O     •oor- 


J  mO  O    •  o  t^  <> 


«  t^  -♦  in 

M    O"  MOO 


r  u^oo  00  ^  M  CO  u^  » 
oo  ^  m  m^o  oo  'tf-  ► 


i  '♦'O  00    •  ^o  ■*  t^ 


M  vo  r-  t>.  o  M 


»nso  N  oo  r^  ( 


coo^ci  «  o*«  o»0  »oco  ooo  o  ro  «  rs.  m  m  ■♦oo  oo  *0  r^  «  «  mm 
CO  fo  00  n  M  t^so  r^  w  o  o*  0»  ■♦  ■^  » -  ^ -^ 


m  ■*■  «  -^  m  -^  <^ 


*|BUOIS 


'XjIBpUODdg 


M  t^  «  m  •  in  • 


•Xjcuiuj 


•l^iox 


*Sa|BtU3J 


■*  O  r^  O  "^vo  O  >o  m  m  m  m  m  I 
00  N  w  r^^c  t^  «  o^  a-oo  •*  -^  » 


I  '^OO  00  O    "^  O 


fO  M  m  t^ 


•  -*oo  «  -<j"oo  M  0  m 

M  N  o  m 

m  M    MVO    M    >-. 

m  M  tfi  mvo  \o  M 

N  in  M  rn 

M                    «     Ul 

t^  •  O*  O  fn\o    •  mo  ts.  o  m  mvo  t*»  co 


«  m   •  M  o  w  « 


ooo  NcnoM  b    •  cnrh^o  ■  «'s5  ^  «  '•^  o  ■♦vb'  m'      ? 
-  ts.  m  •  o^  m  r>.oo    •      oornci^mwoo 


mo  ts.  o  m  < 


•sajBi^ 


•00  o  m\o  ooo 
O  o  m  m  «  m 
.  '^  "^^^  *t  "^^ 

fO   M     O   (^ 


m   •  00  o  t^  tN. 


o  p  3 


o  o 

moo 


•f  l^\0  00    o  ► 


)QOOKHA^^;2;OCL,0'(^c^t/3HHH>*NfeH.-3 


{public  Xibrartes. 


233 


c 
3 

CJ 

Ex 

.    3    O 
i-g     U  _ 

"—  3  a;  1)  '*-  -3  n 
1).-    £    3    u    Q    u 

S  S  «-r  S-g  o. 
c/)  — I  CJ  ^.  c/:  v:  O  : 


CO  in 

o  - 


^  ^ 


t/j  J.    ./ 


3    3    tU)"-    2 
g  .  ti  1)  u  i) 

fa  >5  U  7)  b 


<;  W  p  tfl 

D    B5    H    H 

^  S  '"  Z 


n  [I, 
S  o 


N     •  >n  o   N   O 
O      •   u-1  >n  N    in 

I-        •     CO  CO  CO  •^ 


nn      *^      <L> 


_y_ 


0 

1| 

cs  jS 

c/)HU 

QS 


'-'-Si: 
c  2-  3 


o  00  j;  •- 

CC    —  'tj    s-. 

_       c  c 
•5  >^5' 


c  3  ^  z  3 


S.iio    3    rt 


0  rt   cj 


3  ^ 


2  o 


'-^    c«   w    3 


5  S 


O    O  I 


i2'C  3 


=  i;  -     < 


3  T5     t''     l/l 

rt  =  >  > 

/'.  J:  ;a  :e  g  g 

rt    <J   u    3    ^ 

"o  •-  -^  Ji^  ~  ~ 

°  4=  ^  ^  X  X 


M    rt    rt    rt    rt    »-. 


3   -^     ^      (L>      H 


■  ^  .i!  ;s  j;  b/j.y 


f/^OCj'<(y.ivjCMCM;/)a<a.u<i-;u^ 


^>cu 


U 


a.      3 
2  -   "5 

•O       CJ 


234 


Statistical  IKotes  on  /IDerico. 


•o 

c 

1) 

i> 

cJ5 

•£30 


■c  c  -    -    -    - 


OOc^OooOCSu^NooO 


2o 


«    ^    ,,    #H    4J  'w 

c3    D    u    t^^J 


2-G      -i^cs  i>  y.S-'^ 

^  r:  o  c«  cj  >^^  e  c 
3j=rt330t:S::^ 


O 


•=■:=  o 


rt  .'ti    rt    o    e 


Ji'^ 


0    o 

3  ;- 


o  c 


o  2  3;  «   3  ^ 


S  5  -.  >  <u    •  J3 

-  ^1  I  S  3^ii.-5  § 


3-1 


5  '-^  b  •'s 


■U 


b-|S 


(U   w   w 


O    'J  ,     .      .     ^ 


D    J-    G    1>    — 

u  5  •-  'o  2  ,^ 


<  j5i-3c«(i«S 


5^ -^^3. 5 
i  6  6  S  i^'S. 


^O. 


public  Xibrauies. 


235 


T3  - 

c  - 

.H 

V 

rt  - 
■jr. 

o 
» 

a. 

Is  "5 " 

-a  . 

.  . 

,   -  .  - 

'    ^-5^ 

3 

cJ5 

:  : 

Junta 
State 

Juarez  S 
State  fur 

l-i  c<i  c»^  Tt-        m"  i-T  «*        i-T  c<i        (>  i-<   c< 


fk 


m 


.^2  5 


2    3    f1    O 


13  g-5 


cS     ^NUSO-J^UB     6-^'l     u?.H>HOoA        <£h 


2  "  -^ 


^  -r  S  ^  :   : 


rt 

c  o  : 


-C  ■:;:  -3  o  "  y  i> 
^,  >  ,^  CLc  -1  NJ  U, 


J5    N 


J  I  =  2 1  '-^  ^ 

CUjcfjCQ^.  :    CJC/5 


-Si  3  'J'  -z:  -a 

O  '-'    c    c    rt 
O  •—    O  >-H    3 

2  Tl    rt    N  LlJ 

C  «,5-o  ^ 
O    O-O    g    3 

c/3  m  w  I— >— 


>^:s 


■^-rt 


(J 


•oc3 


o  o  v:  o  >^fq 

rt   n  —;   rt   b    _ 

;(ij^.  -^--rtrtCrtCC 

£3i'33i;t;°u;i;rt 
-  I— ,o cuOiaiOi^guc/^o 


2'^  n 
c  a- 1: 

(U    4j    3 


f  § 

o  ^ 

U< 

■^.2-E 

"o  So  o  .y 

rt    3   L,   3  - 


2   3   rt 
■ii  ^    o 


3 

rt    I. 

«  " 

o   o 

E 

X    rt 
rt    ^ 

H 

H> 

ft 


2^6 


statistical  Botes  on  /IDejico. 


•V^OX 


-»u;m  sdEjQ 


•301 


•3J3  'sajn  's^ouq 
'sums    jEpyijjy 


•S3IPUE3 


°suiS  uo}]03 


•HDJBJS 


•SSBIO 


•BUI43 


•jtianoj 


rv  1003  o  (^vc  vo 


•SJ3 
-3JDEID  pUE  351E3 


•japMOJ 


•saijojEiv 


•ODDEqOX  c) 


•dBOg 


'jadEj 


•3}EIODOt{3 


sjDnp 

-Ojd      JEDIU13q3 


■jaag 


•jEDzai^ 


•XpuEjg 


IN    •    M   ro  »0  c*) 


4  00     •    O  M    -^f  »0      •    M 


-  \0  00    M    CO  « 


•  o  ■»*-*o  -<*■  M  r^ 


00    ■*  OVO  00 


fot^w  M  rotvt^wco 


tNO^^t^-^-^OOOMOOM-^tN.NMiHfO'^lOfO       ^         ^ 


IRavigation.  237 

MANUFACTURING    ESTABLISHMENTS    IN    MEXICO    IN    1893. 

I  take  from  Les  Finances  des  Etats-  Unts  Mexicains  of  Mr.  Prosper 
doner  the  following  table,  which  purports  to  give  the  number  of  some 
of  the  manufacturing  establishments  in  Mexico  during  the  year  1893. 
Mr.  doner  acknowledges  that  his  table  is  very  deficient,  as  he  says  in 
a  note  that  appears  at  the  foot  of  it  that  he  failed  to  receive  the  data 
from  117  districts  in  different  states  of  Mexico,  and  that  besides  the 
*  manufacturing  establishments  mentioned  in  his  table  there  are  in  the 
City  of  Mexico  the  following  :     (See  page  236.) 

Carriages  and  wagons 11 

Wax  works 28 

Agricultural  implements 9 

Wall  paper i 

Coloring  substances 2 

Mineral  and  soda-waters 4 

Carriage  varnishes 2 

Jewelry  boxes,  etc 9 

Mucilage  and  paste 11 

Card-board 6 

Scientific  instruments i 

Playing  cards i 

Pianos,  organs,  and  harmonicas 4 

Passementeries 6 

Type  foundries i 

Gold  and  silver  ribbons 2 

Perfumeries 6 

Hats 49 

Musical  instruments 6 

Total 159 

NAVIGATION. 

The  total  number  of  vessels,  both  steamers  and  sailing  vessels, 
which  arrived  at  and  departed  from  Mexican  ports  during  the  year 
1895,  appears  in  the  following  statement. 

I  also  append  a  statement  showing  the  number  of  passengers  who 
arrived  in  and  departed  from  Mexico  by  sea  and  rail  during  the  year 
1895,  mentioning  both  their  nationality  and  the  port  of  their  arrival. 
The  number  appears  exceedingly  small  when  compared  with  the  very 
large  number  coming  from  Europe  to  the  United  States  ;  but  I  feel  sure 
that  before  long  we  will  have  a  large  immigration. 


238 


Statistical  IRotcs  on  /IDejico. 


I 


00 


.  to  o  »n  CT  avo 
o  oo>o  o      ►- 


t^  O  oo   '^^  O  ^O 


•  rO  '^   CT*  N     MO 

■  •-«_  a-  q^  <-    ^  ' 


moo   r*l  «   M   tv%o  11 


P-)  m  o  »n  t 


8r»  o  g  o  -  o 


>  s 


^  O  (^00    O*  t 


•  CO  m  t*-.      w 


O"  t^oo  ^  o  O  M 
00  00  "O  in  c>  o«oo 


«  vo    ■*  M    lO  C  ■ 


*o  ccn-^M  mtoHi 


o  w  'O  -^  r^.  w 


o  t^  O  «  fO^O  to  C»  fO  o 

N    lOOO    0  0*0    IN.  »0  t^  M 

iorN,»nN  lotN-o  ■-•CO  *o 
lo  i-_  fo  q^  O  -^00  ^^<i  co_ 

^  -'       no'  tC  ro        m"        m 


<2'gS  8 


•     tN.    -        tN.    fO    ^ 

■^  N    «    «  CO 
lOOO    M    O    O 


O   O   O    tN.  Tj-vo 
CO    »0  t^  lO  o>  « 

00  rCvo  tC  M  00 


CO^    -*C3O0O    a*  O    «    M    N    '♦00    » 


»o  lo  o  r^ 


■    W  MM 


00   i^  ■ 


■  o  < 


to  < 


lOVO 


m  o 

OinO'-(NIN0O0O-*-M'*l-<NMO 

r>o  ioi-^t-^t^'<r>-i'00'*-  -^00  00  o 


O   tooo   ro  t-. 


■«j-\0  lo  «  m  lo 

*j-\o  rs  to  r^  ■^ 

.  _     M  r->  o  M  CO  r-» 

O  O'  r^.  -^00   M  \o    o 


>  Oi  c 


to 


"tf-vo  M  w  fo  ro  ^ 


O    M    ■-■  00    to  t'sNO  ^D  \0    O 


cx.: 


isi  j  i| 


•S-bS 


5  clH 


tSnsg    "2«c6?2 

rt  c  u~  2  g. 3>2  lire  c 


IRavigation. 


239- 


-  om  ■•■ 

.  ^ 

.    0   I~  ( 

«*;        m 

> 

►<.g«2,g«HM 

.  lO 

:  -  K"  '  -  1  ? 

Si 
u 

a>  CI 

^ 

1 

mo  ifl  o  0  o>o 

m  m  0  t-  0  >o  m 

8 

8'S'5-c£-8    ^ 

• 

0  Q^o  vo  CO  «  m 
moo?  N  -^  u^  g\ 
m  m  0  0  m  t^>o 

00 

^    li^    0      ^       ^               M 

< 

C 

1^ 

■fl-  N  ~  «  Ov       t; 

H 

f 

z 

♦  M 

o  m  m*£>  N  iH  M 

4              M 

v>  u> 

•* 

>  s 

^  « 

'O 

■" 

" 

>        M 

^ 

t^  ir>       H 

O*  0^        m  0»  w 

CO    0          M 

H                     M     0 

vo' 

Q 
M 

1 

CO  -i"  t^yn 

8!JS8??8 

■«• 

B 

o>oo  -  « 

CT' 

9 

0^'0  00   o 

o 

H 

J.J2 

>  « 

" 

m 

Q;\n 

o 

lO  •♦  oco  vo    •  o  vo  >o  o\  r 

1        0 

^ 

in  w 

Cl  «    N 

m 

V 

00    M 

M 

M 

« 

u 

^ 

J 

<0  M 

8 

>o  mO  ^ 0 

0>O  oo  t^  c 
«  \n  ^00  c 

1       ^ 

> 

c 

;!|^ 

O'  « 

tv'O    CTi>0    O 

Z 

H 

oS 

S "'' 

J 

< 

1 

>o  rx 

en 

J,  m 

lO  fO 

foro« 

lO 

t^S 

•^ 

" 

rooiouic-     •     -voaiOmM     •     • 

» 

«  -r  M  o 

u^oo        w  « 

^2     « 

M 

Os 

S^Tcg^g 

8  8  ooo  H 

^ 

Id 

< 

B 

H 

t^  ^ 

m 

o 

M 

cT 

\0    «    M    t^  0 

VO 

:^S 

" 

m 

M    10\0    lOOMO^C^i^O  U^OO  VO    0>  o 

-,       ^ 

g 

o>vo  H  0                     ►■  CT'      m  •«■ « 

u 

HI 

H 

a 

oo-^OOOOvooinNOOMoot^C 
H  t^oo  oO>ocnO'«-ooot~  -"f  00  c 

■<- 

3 

5 

H 

o 

^ 

1  s 

iJi  w 

S"^      en      "           'S'  m'^  mo-et  "  " 

>  s 

■* 

1  *" 

Id 

X 

2 

r- 

o 

3 

„ 

H 

0 

c 
c 
(. 

■J 

-c 

1 

"c 

3 

n 
: 

•T3 
C 
O 

a: 

(5 

c 

3 
r 

1 
> 

7 

•c 
c 

c 

> 

c 

O 

J 

n 

1 ' 

c 

■■« 

I. 

o 

T3 
r 

C 
0 

c 
c 

Ai 

■  oo«  m 

1 

Q  Z 

u 

u 

■ 

vo  >n 

^    V 

. 

^ 

Tota 

numb 

of 

vessel 

f»)  O  «  •♦  Oi 

^VO     lO   U1  M 

lom  mvo  in 

:  :  >  :  : 

a 

> 

Q 

Id 

H 

00  00  00  00  05 

OS 

•< 

Qj; 

m  t^ 

4> 

ooo  - 

to 

OS 

•    II 

U 

00 

o  E  o  S 

m>o  0  N  0  0\ 

n 

-g      ^ 

•*  ■«•  ir>  m  ui  <«- 

H 

lO 

00 

i 

00 

M 

> 

w 

mxo  tvoo  o-  o 

Pi 

< 

u 

>« 

u 

1^  o  >o 

w 

M  to 

X 

y 

H 

V 

vo  in 

o 

C  rt 
u 

S, 

otal 
mber 
of 
ssels. 

t3 
(/J 

Si5 

M   vo   'O     ■«-   IH 

mmtrnntn 

Pi 

^ 

>« 

Q 

> 

i  s 

00  >o 

< 

" 

.  i 

u 

sJ^I 

°  E  °  S 
Ha      *) 

n       >■ 

n 

>< 

mvo  t^oo  o»  6 

00 

t! 

00 

00 

00 

'H 

II 

I 


240 


statistical  IRotes  on  /IDejico. 


00 


0 

K 
b 

Id 

S 
0 

u 

> 
*  Id 
X 
H 
lii 

u 
» 

s 

■suopEu  Jamo 

•aopEAiEg 

f 

■J- 

■  mniSpg 

t^ 

r» 

•Biqnioio3 

0 

0 

•E3l^  BJS03 

" 

- 

•XjEJI 

- 

- 

•Aireuusf) 

" 

s> 

s 

•EjEHiajBnj) 

i 

•SDOBJ^J 

en 

Ov 

v§ 

•puBiSng 

M     ff 

M 

§ 

•sajBjg  pajiuQ 

« 

M     .  0  o>       m 

0 

•uTEdg 

H 

t^ 

M 

•saijip 
-uoijEU  iaqio 

? 

f 

•SUEiqUlOIOQ 

m 

cn 

•s>ijnj. 

00 

VO 

0 

•suEUjsny 

- 

0 

« 

i  I 

< 

z 

•SSIMS 

N    M 

en 

VO 

•soEissn-^ 

•qsiuEdg 

M  VO  m  0  w  1/^ 
Of       00 

00 

VO__ 

•SUEIJBJI 

■*  t~ 

00 

•3S3Uiq3 

■a-  0 

N 

hv 

•suBnuaQ 

« 

\r,  M 

■<(■ 
VO 

00 

•qouajj 

<N 

t^  m 

? 

VO 

•qsi^Sug 

«    «  VOOO 

0 

•suBiUHD 

« 

« 

•sweoxMuiy 

^ 

fO 

in  f  oovo 

0- 

•sweoixay^ 

*  ^ 

<M 

VO  10  •  0 

m 

'sjaSnsssed 

JO  Jaqmnvt  pjoj, 

«   w 

\n 

1 

< 

:  « 

>  j: 

3   t 

•  c 

c 

c 

i 

•    4 

:  E 

J 

■ 

i'c 

'-1 

1 

1 

s 

00 

00 

M 

» 

s 

ov 

« 

« 

VO 

VO 

M     f 

« 

tv 

t^O  M  t^M  fOM   fOt-*  en 

Iv 

Ov 
00 

a 

" 

" 

- 

- 

" 

H 

t/2 

H 

0 

0 

b 
0 

" 

■^ 

^ 

m 

0 

? 

•  t^ 

IV 

iri 

00 

tv 

N    -mo 

ro 

" 

Ov 

•  «  m  f 

N 

0 

0 

m  •«- «  M 

" 

Ov 

^ 

;  I  r  t» 

t^ 

0m00O>m1OM00« 

s 

^o 

«    •       0    •        •  «           t^ 

s 

SS'S  0."  ^"(S-S  "^J" 

VO 

s 

c 
c 
< 

c 

c 

-< 
c 

S 

c 

X 
r 

-c 
c 

cr 

^  ct 

cr 

C 

C 
ct 

c 

1 

c 

c/: 

c 

-a 
0 

0 
H 

IRaviQation. 


241 


'suopcu  i9I{)0 


■jopcAjEg 


•uini3pg 


•Biqui0[03 


•BOl^  CJS03 


•Xieji 


'AueuiJ9Q 


•EJBUISJBnQ 


•aouEj^j 


•puEi3ua 


•S3JBJS  pajiun. 


•uredg 


•S3;iI[B 

-uopeu  iamo 


•suBiquioio^ 


•s^nx 


•suBuisny 


•SSIMg 


•suEissn^ 


'qsiucdg 


•SUEJIBJI 


■3sauin3 


•SUBU1J3Q 


•ijDuajj 


•ijsii3u3 


•SUETII113 


•SUB0U31UV 


•suBOtxaj^ 


'sjsSusssEd 

}o  jsqiunu  Jejoj, 


CO  00  m  o 


m\o  fnvo 


<-v    —    «      'f^      -      •     •      • 
^   u  (J   iH_«   ui   o   C   p 

-"•not:—  t;n'3u 


t^  O    f^  *  t^OO  00  00    w    ^  f^ 


^   •  H  H  m 


00   ^t^-^M   n^M^O 


■^  0*00    O^Ht    «    t^'*©    ■^■^ 


m  o  m  **■  c^  o»oo  ^t-  w  •*  m 
roc*ien«        m        ^o  it  \o 


•<Oi-jSft.tf3!/3C«C«HH 


242 


Statistical  Botes  on  ^Dejico. 


i 

< 

a 

•snopEU  JsqiO 

00   w 

.8    1 

o 

•jopcAieg         5 

fn            ro 

•uiniSiag 

t~ 

r* 

r^ 

•Biquioio3 

o 

8 

o 

•KOI-a  BJS03 

- 

M         1 

M 

•^F'l 

M 

M 

M 

•XUEUUSQ 

^M 

5- 

•BjeinajEnQ 

CO  t^ 

\0     M 

0 

^0 

■aonBJji 

|5 

?    1 
"'    1 

•puBjana 

|S 

«§! 

^ 

•saiBJS  P3'!"ri 

•«-  o 
00  >n 

1 

CO 

o 

•UIEdg 

0_^ 

in 

< 
z 

o 

% 

z 

-uouEU  iaqjo 

00  ro 

w 

•suBjquioiOQ 

mx 

'^ 

« 

•sn-inx 

0  m 

M  00 

H 

5 

•suEujsny 

N    0 

g 

« 

•ssiAig 

\o<o 

« 

o 

•suEjssn'^ 

•  « 

M 

M 

•qstuEdg 

M    i-T 

o_ 

8 

•SUEJIBJI 

o>oo 

oo 

O 

M 

•3S3Uiq3 

00    •« 

m 

^ 

CO 

•SUEUIJOQ 

s:: 

•qDUSJ^ 

CO  ■«• 
00  »o 

00 

•qsnSua 

s 

•suEHiqo 

2  : 

2 

M 

M 

00 

l> 

•suEOixaj^ 

in 

« 

•sjaSuassvd 

JO  jaquinu  Jeiox 

o' 

0 

% 

< 

•o 

0) 

"a 

o 
H 

u 
c 
u 

(5 

2       t 
5"         j^ 

M       0  1       */•-          0       ^'^      »o 

O^  fo  ro      o\m  t 


00    ^ 


m  C7«  ;:r 


.5  b-^ 

t-  2  rt 
•c  n  rt 


CO   ^   u 

bJD  CO 


rt  c  e 
tH  o  c 


s      S  5  c      <ii 


H     O     S.-S 


V 


aS     H     O 


Bavioation, 


243 


VESSELS    ARRIVED    AT    AND    DEPARTED    FROM    MEXICAN  PORTS    DURING 
THE    FISCAL    YEARS    1 894-95    TO    1895-96. 


ARRIVED. 

DEPARTKD. 

Steamers. 

Sailing  vessels. 

Steamers. 

Sailing  vessels. 

Ves- 
sels. 

Ton- 
nage. 

Ves- 
sels. 

Ton- 
nage. 

Ves- 
sels. 

Ton- 
nage. 

Ves- 
sels. 

Ton- 
nage. 

Total   navigation   in 

the  fiscal 

4,078 
4,471 

3,083,050 
3,300,444 

5,497 
5,723 

345,923 
395,041 

3,399 
4,378 

979 

3,026,964 
3,242,711 

5.566 
5,856 

332,720 

Total  navigation   in 

the  fiscal 

390,765 

393 

217.394 

226 

49,118 

215,747 

290 

58.04s 

AGRICULTURAL    PRODUCTS. 

I  take  from  the  Amiario  Estadistico  de  la  Republica  Mexicana  of  1895 
the  following  table,  which  gives  the  total  production  of  some  of  our 
agricultural  staples,  although  I  feel  perfectly  satisfied  that  they  are 
very  much  under-rated  in  said  table,  because  of  the  difficulty  in  obtain- 
ing complete  data  about  our  agricultural  productions,  both  for  want  of 
a  proper  machinery  to  collect  it,  and  because  manufacturers  conceal 
the  extent  of  these  products  for  the  purpose  of  avoiding  taxation.  I 
think  if  the  figures  in  said  table  are  duplicated  they  will  be  nearer 
the  true  production. 

RESUME    OF    AGRICULTURAL    PRODUCTS    IN    MEXICO. 


POUNDS  AND 
OTHER    MEASURES. 


Cereals  : 

Rice 

Barley 

Indian  corn 

Wheat 

Leguminous : 

Chickling  vetch  (Arvejon). , 

Beans 

Chick-peas 

Lima  beans , 

Lentils 

Root  plants  : 

Sweet  potatoes 

Huacamote 

Potatoes 

Solanaceous  : 

Dried  pepper 

Green  pepper 

Cane  products  : 

Sugar  cane 

Sugar 

Brown  sugar 

Molasses 


27,174,320  59 


4.752,239 
71,900,598 
10,034,328 

251,230 

4.319-834 

774.351 

561,159 

34,123 

2,051,854 
235.939 


29,472,894  45 
9,724.443  98 


1,007,049 


5,924,612,232  56 

316,531,239  02 

152,300,903  95 

12,748,079  24 


5  1,400,299  40 

3,587,682  65 

75,695,383  21 

13,273,790  50 

336,771  40 

7,269,123  25 

932,608  60 

624,530  22 

64.441  25 

859,461  50 
108,348  82 
879,430  15 

1,731.857  67 
758,199  90 

25,692,281  25 

10,283,994  38 

7,942,787  60 

3.304,787  82 


244 


Statistical  IFlotes  on  /IDejico. 


ARTICLES. 


Oleaginous : 

Sesame  seed 

Peanuts 

Coquito  de  Aceite. 
Cocoanuts 


Linseed 

Palma  Christi 

Turnip  seed 

Lime-leaf  sago 

Alcohol  and  Fermented  Drinks: 

Rum 

Pulque  whiskey 

Mezcal 

Pulque 

Tlachique    or     unfermented 

pulque 

Textiles : 

Henequen 

Ixtle 

Cotton 

Grape  Products : 

Grape 

Wine 

Brandy 

Dyeing  Plants : 

Indigo 

Brazil 

Campeachy 

Moral 

Tanning  Plants : 

Cascalote 

Tanning  bark 

Tropical  Plants : 

Cocoa 

Coffee 

Tobacco 

Pepper 

Vanilla 


Gums  : 

Chewing  gum. . 
India  rubber.  . . 
Mesquite  gum. . 

Copal  gum 

Medicinal  Plants : 

Jalap 

Sarsaparilla. . . . 


BUSHELS. 


214,469 

357,569 
69,388 


303.425 

59,4to 

20,708 

9,968 


POUNDS  AND 
OTHER    MEASURES. 


(3 10. 953. 000  cocoa- 
nuts) 


12,768,716  gals. 

270,876  gals. 

6,01 1,602  gals. 

54,624,835  gals. 

24,013,901  gals. 

93.427,740  04 

9,608,026  79 

78,511,486  26 

3,114,519  05 

162,816  16  gals. 

91,656  69  gals. 

299,761  56 

632,135  85 

171,604,086  41 

19,826,253  38 

4,798,994  96 
33,036,812  04 

5,346,718  17 

42,019,015  76 

124,852,597  69 

119,273  60 

(10,714,000  vanilla 

beans) 

3,996,630  32 

1,354,851  48 

139,896  97 

21,485  47 

50,099  00 
1,514,331  90 


1:5  144,773  00 
325,413  00 
130,955  00 

3,522,789  00 

373,115  00 

83,434  00 

34,806  00 

20,168  00 

5,056,474  82 

199,935  00 

3,078,372  00 

3,562,435  05 

1,294.575  00 

4,104,096  00 

325,250  95 

10,176,050  50 

161,372  25 

146,028  70 

83,724  80 

285,530  00 

64,795  00 

2,110,098  50 

195,300  00 

242,070  25 
457,167  26 

1,123,180  00 

11,565,519  28 

6,464,733  50 

14,055  00 

667,145  50 

549,865  50 

410,290  00 

7,292  75 

10,313  55 

6,945  00 
100.730  00 


CONCLUSION. 

It  has  taken  me  a  great  deal  of  time  and  required  a  great  deal  of 
effort  to  obtain  and  prepare  the  data  contained  in  this  paper.  I  am 
sorry  I  have  not  been  able  to  make  it  more  complete  than  it  is  ;  but  I 
hope  my  article,  by  giving  a  general  and  superficial  idea  of  Mexico, 
may  promote  the  desire  to  read  other  papers  and  books  treating  on 
that  subject  in  a  fuller  and  more  complete  manner. 


ADDENDA. 

Since  this  paper  has  been  printed  the  Federal  Treasury  of  Mexico 
finished  the  accounts  of  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1897,  and  I  give 
below  the  general  results,  showing  the  total  amount  of  the  Federal 
revenues  and  expenses  during  that  year,  I  also  give  a  statement,  taken 
from  the  Statistical  Bureau  of  the  Treasury  Department  of  Mexico, 
published  since  this  paper  has  gone  to  press,  of  the  imports  and  ex- 
ports in  the  same  year,  both  by  countries  and  custom  houses,  these  two 
statements  completing  the  data  contained  in  this  paper,  and  finally 
some  data  of  the  trade  of  both  countries  during  the  first  nine  months 
of  the  present  calendar  year. 

FEDERAL    REVENUE    AND    EXPENSES    OF     MEXICO    IN    THE    FISCAL     YEAR 

1896-1897. 

RECKIPTS. 

Duties  on  imports  and  exports $23,639,580.91 

Internal  revenue 24,323,798.46 

Public  services 2,057,409.92 

Extraordinary  and  incidental 2,084,496.30 

$52,105,285.59 
Extraordinary  revenues  proceeding  from  contracts 

and  other  sources 2,819.17 

$52,108,104.76 
EXPENSES. 

1.  Legislative  power $     989,758.38 

2.  Executive  power 62,100.26 

3.  Judicial  power 428,687.46 

4.  Department  of  Foreign  Affairs 470,122.37 

5 .  Department  of  Interior 3.354.888.95 

6.  Department  of  Justice  and  Public  Education.  2,184,556.52 

7.  Department   of   Fomento,  Colonization,  and 

Industr)' 61 1,863.83 

8.  Department    of  Communications  and  Public 

Works 5.494,593-34 

9.  Department    of    the    Treasury    and    Public 

Credit 24,218,207.75 

IV.     Department  of  War  and  the  Navy 10,550,955. 18 

Total I48. 365.734-04 

Surplus $3,742,370.72 

245 


246 


statistical  IRotes  on  /iDejico. 


IMPORTS    AND    EXPORTS   OF    MEXICO    15Y    COUNTRIES    AND   CUSTOM 
HOUSES    IN    THE    FISCAL    YEAR    1 896-97. 


1 


COUNTRIES. 


Algiers 

Arabia 

Argentine 

Republic.  . 
Australia. . . . 

Austria 

Belgium 

Bolivia 

Brazil 

Canada  

Chili 

China 

Colombia. . .  . 
Costa  Rica.  . 

Cuba 

Denmark .. .  . 
Ecuador . . . . 

Egypt 

England  .  . .  . 

France  

Germany.  . .  . 

Greece 

(juatemala  . . 

Hawaii 

Holland 

Honduras...  . 

India  

Italy, 


Japan  

Nicaragua. .  . 

Norway 

Persia 

Peru 

Portugal  .... 

Russia 

Salvador  .... 
San  Domingo 
Senegambia  . 

Spain 

Sweden  

Switzerland.. 

Turkey 

United  States 
Uruguay  .... 
Venezuela . .  . 
Zanzibar  .... 

Total 


S02 

282 


I, 

24, 
128, 

479. 


833 
367 
850 
214 
240 

356 
203 

357 
317 


3 

53 

lO 

6,S8i 

4,989 

4.003 

I 

46 


363 
,614 

1 249 
,271 
,701 
,082 
,263 
,660 
,323 


132 

210 

184 

23 


72S 

3 

,845 

,186 

.673 


41 


1,983 

29 

163 

3 

22,593 


670 

784 
108 

.653 
.387 
452 
,071 
902 

794 
,078 

1 293 
,267 
,860 

33 

,608 

,456 


12,204,095 


1-134,325 


17 

20 

5,396 

17,675 
31,658 
53,503 


14,280,527 

1,873,522 
4,416,744 


1.197,247 

1,200 

57,906 


10,765 
1,660 
2,110 


19,690 


294,165 

12,185 


1,192,328 

180 
720 


86,742,951 


$111,346,494 


CUSTOM 
HOUSES. 


Acapulco  ... 

Altata , 

Camargo 

Campeclie. . . , 
City  of  Juarez 
City  of  Porfirio 

Diaz 

Coatzacoalcos 

Frontera 

Guaymas. . . . 
Guerrero  .... 
Isle  of  Carmen 
La  M  orita . . . 

La  Paz 

Laredo 

Las  Palomas. 
Manzaniilo  , . 
Matamoros . . 
Mazatlan  .. . . 

M  ier 

Nogales 

Progreso  .... 
Puerto  Angel 
Salina  Cruz.. 
San  Bias. . . . 
Sta.  Rosalia. 
Soconusco. . . 
Tampico .... 

Tijuana 

Todos  Santos 

Tonala 

Tuxpam  .... 
Veracruz  .... 
Zapaluta .... 


Total. 


)      206,275 

101,159 

6,897 

175,027 

2,910.359 

4,710.415 
105,148 
246,918 

451,959 

6,863 

89,894 

24.943 

62,937 

4,693,818 

18,794 

77.395 

185,370 

1,572,^68 

8,i57 

944,312 

1,463,515 

15,150 

11,676 

152,643 

547,726 

231,078 

8.773,275 

14,297 
140,268 
106,494 

76,926 
14,036,136 

35.703 


EXPORTS. 


123,481 
813,899 

8,735 

747,710 

17.929.521 

2,888,535 

285,195 

418,352 

40,307 

15,754 
1.693,767 

498,765 
430,144 

3,701,086 
420,011 
221.551 
312,987 

5,808,037 
78,609 

5,776,575 
8,443,130 

525,075 
68,114 

638,398 

3,279,390 

1,608,446 

29,952,441 

116,238 

199,367 

255,582 

1,154,313 

22,484,633 

408,346 


$42,204,095  $111,346,494 


A  comparison  between  the  foreign  trade  in  the  fiscal  year  1896-97 
with  the  year  before,  1895-96,  gives  the  following  results  :  During 
the  year  1896-97  Mexico's  exports  increased  $6,329,592,  but  the  value 
of  the  exports  sent  to  the  United  States  increased  $7,091,256.     The 


HDDenDa.  247 

total  of  Mexico's  imports  for  the  year  1896-97  shows  a  falling-off  of 
$49,843,  but,  notwithstanding  this  fact,  Mexico's  imports  from  the 
United  States  increased  $2,448,097.  During  the  year  England's  ex- 
ports to  Mexico  decreased  $1,023,315,  and  her  imports  from  Mexico 
show  a  loss  of  $2,186,622,  a  combined  loss  of  over  12  per  cent,  in  her 
commercial  relations  with  the  Republic.  Imports  to  Mexico  from 
France  fell  off  $i,no,ioi,  a  loss  of  one-sixth  of  all  France's  exports 
to  Mexico.  In  1895-96  the  United  States  imported  75.8  per  cent, 
of  the  total  exports  from  Mexico  ;  in  1896-97  American  exporters  fur- 
nished 53^  per  cent,  of  all  that  Mexico  bought  abroad,  and,  more 
than  this,  the  United  States  took  47.67  per  cent,  of  all  that  was  ex- 
ported from  Mexico.  These  figures  sustain  the  prediction  made,  that 
any  unsettlement  or  diminution  of  Mexico's  importations  either  be- 
cause of  fluctuating  silver  or  the  increased  production  of  home  manu- 
factories would  affect  American  exporters  less  than  those  of  any  other 
country.  The  statistics  given  above  show  that  these  causes  have  affected 
them  less  than  those  of  all  the  other  countries  combined  ;  in  fact,  their 
loss  has  been  the  gain  of  the  United  States. 

TRADE   BETWEEN   MEXICO    AND    THE    UNITED    STATES  DURING    THE 
FIRST    NINE    MONTHS    OF    THE    CALENDAR    YEAR    1 897. 

The  following  data,  taken  from  the  publications  of  the  Statistical 
Bureau  of  the  United  States  Treasury  Department,  shows  the  results 
of  the  trade  with  Mexico  in  the  nine  months  ended  September  30, 
1897,  as  compared  with  the  similar  period  ended  Sei)tember  30,  1896. 

Mexican  Exports  to  the  United  States. — In  the  following  items  the 
first  group  of  figures  represents  the  amounts  and  values  exported  in 
the  first  nine  months  of  this  year,  and  the  second  those  of  the  similar 
period  in  1896  : 

Coffee,  30,016,967  pounds,  worth  $4,574,252  gold,  against  19,715,264 
pounds,  worth  $3,333,385.  The  much  lower  price  of  coffee  this  year 
accounts  for  the  disproportionate  valuation. 

The  people  of  the  United  States,  besides  being  Mexico's  chief  cus- 
tomers for  coffee,  are  buying  more  and  more  of  our  tobacco,  which 
they  now  know  and  appreciate  on  its  merits.  The  amount  exported  to 
the  United  States  was  600,987  pounds,  worth  in  gold  $294,536,  against 
191,303,  worth  $78,769. 

Mexico  exported,  in  the  period  under  consideration,  to  the  United 
States,  hides  and  skins  to  the  value  of  $1,534,306  gold,  against  $1,055,- 
299.  The  quantities,  respectively,  were  11,764,000  pounds,  and  7,102,- 
465  pounds.     No  diminution  of  activity  there. 

It  is  worth  noting  that  oranges  were  shipped  out  to  the  value  of 
$22,444  gold  against  $19,359. 


248  Statistical  IRotes  on  /iDcjico. 

Mexico's  great  argentiferous  lead  business  did  not  fall  behind,  the 
nine  months'  exportation  being  108,776,560  pounds,  worth  in  gold 
$1,226,525,  against  97,818,833  pounds,  worth  $949,926.  The  bulk  of 
the  American  purchase  of  lead  is  from  Mexico. 

Yucatan  is  Mexico's  henequen-growing  region,  and  the  exportation 
has  been  heavy,  standing  at  48,410  tons,  worth  in  gold  $2,889,003, 
against  35,746  tons,  worth  $2,323,585,  a  noteworthy  increase.  The 
henequen  or  sisal-grass  trade  into  the  United  States  is  overwhelmingly 
Mexican,  "  other  countries  "  furnishing  but  399  tons  in  the  first  nine 
months  of  this  year  ! 

Mexico  both  exports  and  imports  coal,  and  shipped  into  the  United 
States  85,890  tons,  worth  in  gold  $182,416,  against  52,674  tons,  worth 
$115,015. 

Logwood  exports  were  $44,028,  against  $15,250. 

Mahogany  fell  off,  being  $290,044  gold,  against  $306,715,  but  this 
trade  is  always  variable. 

Mexicari  Imports  from  the  United  States. — It  is  worthy  of  note  that, 
in  spite  of  the  extraordinarily  heavy  gold  premium,  Mexico  should  be 
increasing  her  buying  abroad  of  electrical  apparatus,  the  purchase  from 
the  United  States  alone,  in  the  firfet  nine  months  of  this  year,  amount- 
ing to  $228,000  gold,  as  against  $200,000  in  the  same  period  last  year. 
Sewing  machines  went  in  to  the  value  of  $164,000  gold  in  the  nine- 
month  period,  against  $154,000  last  year.  Builders'  hardware  fell  off 
from  $556,600  gold  value,  in  the  first  nine  months  of  last  year,  to 
$424,000  this  year,  but  lumber  for  builders  ran  up  to  $1,079,000  gold, 
against  only  $544,000  last  year,  all  coming  from  the  United  States. 
Furniture  increased  slightly,  $141,000  gold,  against  $126,000. 

Carriages,  cars,  and  other  vehicles,  in  the  nine-months'  period, 
came  from  the  United  States  to  the  value  of  $664,000  gold,  as  com- 
pared with  $463,000  last  year.  Bicycles  amounted  to  $56,000  gold,  as 
against  $37,700- 

Other  importations  were  as  follows  : 

9  Mos.,  1897.  9  Mos.,  1896. 

Cotton  : 

Bales 9,936  23,127 

Value *  $41 1,973  *  $1,020,000 

Crude  petroleum  imports  : 

Gallons 6,260,164  5,486,667 

Value *  $277,300  *  $299,422 

Refined  petroleum  : 

Gallons 734.466  588,242 

Value $136,180  $122,447 

("otton  seed  oil : 

Gallons 1,010,580  912,905 

Value *  $199,000  *  $195,000 

♦Gold. 


I 


BppcnMj.  249 

APPENDIX. 

In  the  preceding  paper  I  stated  that  I  would  give  as  an  appendix 
some  data  concerning  several  subjects  treated  in  the  same,  and  I  now 
append  the  documents  mentioned  ;  the  first  one  being  a  paper  pub- 
lished in  the  Bulletin  of  the  American  Geographical  Society  of  New 
York  for  March  31,  1894,  under  the  title  of  "Mexico  a  Central 
American  State,"  the  second,  some  itineraries  of  the  principal  roads 
in  Mexico,  which  show  the  broken  surface  of  that  country,  and  the 
third  and  last,  a  paper  on  the  "  Drainage  of  the  Valley  of  Mexico," 
published  by  the  Engineering  Magazine  of  New  York,  Vol.  viii..  No.  4, 
for  January,  1895. 

MEXICO  A  CENTRAL  AMERICAN  STATE. 

In  the  chapter  of  this  paper  entitled  "  Location,  Boundaries,  and 
Area,"  I  referred,  (page  9)  to  an  article  under  the  above  heading,  which 
I  published  in  the  Bulletin  of  the  American  Geographical  Society  of  New 
York  of  March  31,  1894,  and  offered  to  give  it  in  the  appendix.  That 
paper  is  the  following  : 

MEXICO    A    CENTRAL    AMERICAN    STATE.' 

There  is  in  this  city  a  social  gathering  of  ladies  and  gentlemen 
called  "  The  Travellers'  Club,"  meeting  weekly  during  the  winter  of 
each  year,  for  the  purpose  of  studying  a  foreign  country,  on  the  sup- 
position that  its  members  are  then  travelling  in  that  particular  country, 
and  with  that  view  papers  are  read  referring  to  the  same,  and  they  are 
illustrated  with  an  exhibition  of  views  and  objects  manufactured  in  the 
country  under  study,  and  of  everything  else  that  may  contribute  to 
impart  more  or  less  complete  information  regarding  the  place  supposed 
to  be  visited. 

During  the  winter  of  1887-88  Mexico  was  chosen  as  the  country  un- 
der study  by  the  club,  and  for  that  reason  I  received  at  the  beginning 
of  the  year  1888  an  invitation  to  attend  some  of  its  sessions,  and  to  say 
something  about  the  Republic.  I  accepted  the  invitation  to  attend 
some  session,  but  stated  to  the  invitation  committee  that,  not  having 
time  to  prepare  a  paper,  I  would  only  give  some  general  notions  on 

'  This  article  was  published  in  the  Bulletin  of  the  American  Geographical  Society 
of  New  York  oi  March  31,  1894,  and  it  is  inserted  here  without  any  changes.  Al- 
though the  data  contained  in  this  article  was  published  in  the  };ears  1887  and  1893,  as 
it  refers  to  the  area  which  has  not  changed,  I  have  not  thought  it  necessary  to  revise 
the  same.  So  far  as  the  Mexican  States  are  concerned,  I  have  later  and  more  accu- 
rate data  ;  but  the  differences  are  insignificant,  and  it  is  not  worth  while  to  notice 
them.  As  regards  the  population,  the  increase  has  been  proportionate  ;  in  respect  to 
all  the  countries  mentioned  in  this  article  there  is  no  marked  change  in  the  general 
proportions. 


250  statistical  Motes  on  /IDejico* 

Mexico,  in  a  conversational  form,  and  would  be  glad  to  answer  any 
question  that  might  be  j)ut  to  me  by  those  attending  the  meeting  who 
felt  the  desire  to  have  further  information  and  more  details. 

Accordingly,  the  evening  of  tlie  i6th  of  January,  1888,  I  attended  the 
meeting  of  the  club  and  spoke  for  about  an  hour  on  the  geographical 
position  of  Mexico,  its  physical  conditions,  its  natural  resources,  and 
other  matters  connected  with  the  situation  of  the  country,  but  carefully 
avoiding  to  touch  any  political  question,  especially  of  an  international 
character. 

With  a  view  to  leave  a  record  of  what  I  intended  to  say,  I  had  with 
me  a  stenographer  to  take  down  what  I  would  say,  and  although  his 
notes  were  not  complete,  by  using  them,  and  those  taken  by  reporters, 
some  extracts  of  my  conversation  were  prepared  and  published  the 
next  morning. 

Speaking  of  the  geographical  position  of  Mexico,  I  naturally  stated, 
what  is  a  fact,  although  not  generally  realized,  that  while  the  main 
portion  of  the  territory  of  Mexico  is  located  in  North  America  it 
occupies  a  considerable  portion  of  Central  America,  although  politically 
it  is  considered  as  wholly  situated  in  North  America.  On  this  subject 
I  made  the  following  remarks,  taken  from  the  newspapers,  but  which 
were  correct: 

"  The  isthmus  of  Panama  divides  the  New  World  into  two  continents,  one  sit- 
uated on  the  northern  and  the  other  on  the  southern  hemisphere,  but  as  the  position 
of  that  isthmus  does  not  correspond  with  the  line  of  the  equator,  and  lies  considerably 
north  of  that  line,  a  large  portion  of  Soutli  America  proper  lies  in  the  boreal  hemi- 
sphere. North  America  proper  is  divided  by  the  isthmus  of  Tehauntepec  in  two  sub- 
divisions— Central  America  from  Panama  to  Tehauntepec,  and  North  America  from 
Tehauntepec  to  the  North  Pole. 

"Central  America  in  its  present  political  organization  includes  the  following 
States:  Guatemala,  Salvador,  Honduras,  Nicaragua,  and  Costa  Rica,  but  from  a  geo- 
graphical standpoint  it  has  a  much  larger  area,  since  it  begins  at  the  isthmus  of  Panama 
and  ends  at  the  isthmus  of  Tehuantepec.  Taking  this  view,  Mexico  exercises  sov- 
ereignty over  a  large  portion  of  Central  America,  larger  still  than  any  single  State  of 
the  five  which  are  generally  considered  as  the  only  components  of  the  same,  and 
representing  a  third  of  the  total  territorial  area  of  Central  America. 

"  The  Mexican  State  of  Chiapas  and  a  part  of  Oaxaca,  on  the  Pacific  ;  of  Yuca- 
tan, Campeche,  and  Tabasco,  and  a  portion  of  the  State  of  Vera  Cruz  on  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  are  situated  in  geographical  Central  America. 

"The  following  re'sum/ oi  the  territorial  area  and  population  of  the  several  sec- 
tions of  Central  America,  taken  from  the  Statesman's  Year  Book,  London,  1887,  shows 
that  Mexico  is  a  Central  American  as  well  as  a  North  American  power: 
FIVE   STATES   OF   CENTRAL   AMERICA. 

Area  in  sq.  miles.       Population. 

Guatemala 46,800  1,224,602 

Salvador 7,225  634,120 

Honduras 46,400  458,000 

Nicaragua 49,500  275,815 

Costa  Rica 23,200  213,785 

Total 173,125  2,806,322 


/IDejtco  an^  Central  Bmerica.  251 

MEXICO. 

State.  Area  in  sq.  miles.        Population. 

Chiapas 16,048  242,029 

Oaxaca  (one-fifth) 6,718  152,255 

Yucatan 29,567  302,319 

Campeche 25,832  90,413 

Tabasco 11,815  I40.747 

Vera  Cruz  (one-fourth) 6,558  145,610 

Total 96,538  1.073,373 

This  shows  that  36  per  cent,  of  the  total  area  of  Central  America  belongs  to 
Mexico. 

In  the  foregoing  list  I  omitted  to  take  into  account  that,  besides  the  States 
referred  to,  there  are  in  Central  America  proper  the  British  Colony  of  IJelize  or  British 
Honduras,  and  that  part  of  the  State  of  Panama,  in  Colombia,  which  lies  north  of  the 
isthmus  of  Panama. 

Taking  the  area  and  population  of  those  places  from  the  statistical  and  geographical 
data  published  by  the  Almanack  de  Gotha  for  1893,  and  from  some  official  information 
in  possession  of  Senor  Doctor  Don  Manuel  M.  de  Peralta,  Costa  Rican  Minister  to 
Washington,  a  gentleman  very  well  versed  in  Central  American  affairs,  the  following 
results  are  obtained  : 

Area  in  square  Area  in  square         r>        1  »• 

miles.  kilometers.  Population. 

Chiapas 16,048  41.565  270,000 

Oaxaca  (one-fifth) 6,718  17,400  158,800 

Yucatan 29,567  76,579  330,000 

Campeche 25,832  66,905  94,000 

Tabasco 11,815  30,600  140,747 

Veracruz  (one-fourth) .. .  6,558  16,986  181,000 

96,538  250,035  1,174,547 


Guatemala 48,300  125,100  1,520,000 

Honduras 46,262  119,820  400,000 

Salvador 8,135  21,070  800,000 

Nicaragua 47,857  123,950  320,000 

Costa  Rica 24,000  62,000  270,000 

Panama  (two-thirds) 19,278  50,000  200,000 

British  Honduras 8,300  21,475  31.500 

202,132  523.415  3,541,500 


GEOGRAPHICAL   EXTENSION    OF   CENTRAL    AMERICA. 

Square  miles.        Square  kilometers. 

Mexican  Central  America 96,538  25(1,035 

Five  Republics  of  Central  America 174,554  451,940 

British  Honduras 8,300  21,475 

Panama  (two-thirds) 19,278  50,000 

298.670  773.450 

The  foregoing  table  shows  that  a  little  more  than  32  per  cent,  of  the  whole  of 
Central  America,  geographically  speaking,  belongs  to  Mexico. 


252  Statistical  Botes  on  /IDejico. 

When  those  statements  were  translated  into  Spanish  and  published 
hy  Zas  JVoz'edadrs,  of  New  York,  in  its  issue  of  the  i8th  of  January,  1888, 
they  were  read  by  Seiior  Don  Manuel  Montufar,  Secretary  of  the 
Guatemalan  Legation  in  Washington,  who,  in  the  absence  of  the 
Minister,  Senor  Don  Francisco  Lainfiesta,  was  acting  as  Charg^ 
d'Affaires,  and  he  considered  my  statements  in  this  connection  as  a 
geographical  heresy,  and  as  an  evidence  of  the  design  of  Mexico 
against  the  several  States  of  Central  America.  His  alarm  was  so  great 
that  he  called  the  attention  of  the  other  representatives  of  the  Central 
American  States  in  Washington  to  this  incident,  in  order  to  point  out  to 
them  the  serious  dangers  which  he  foresaw  for  their  respective 
countries  on  account  of  my  views,  which  he  considered  as  more  than 
extraordinary. 

Fortunately,  one  of  them,  the  representative  of  Costa  Rica,  Sehor 
Doctor  Don  Manuel  M.  de  Peralta,  had  attended  the  meeting  of  the 
Travellers'  Club  at  which  I  spoke,  and,  I  think.  Doctor  Don  Horacio 
Guzman,  the  Nicaraguan  Minister,  was  also  present,  although  I  am 
not  sure  of  this,  and  both  failed  to  see  anything  in  what  I  stated  in  this 
connection  that  was  not  a  geographical  fact,  and  that,  consequently,  it 
could  not  be  disputed;  and  therefore  this  incident,  that  threatened  to 
assume  certain  proportions,  died  in  its  very  cradle. 

Senor  Montufar  showed  himself  over-sensitive  at  my  remarks  when 
there  was  not  the  slightest  ground  for  such  feeling.  If  I  had  made  a 
geographical  mistake  in  averring  that  a  portion  of  the  territory  of 
Mexico  was  in  Central  America,  geographically  speaking,  I  would  be 
the  only  sufferer  by  my  mistake,  because  I  would  have  been  the  laugh- 
ing-stock of  everybody,  including  the  school-boy  studying  geography; 
and,  on  the  contrary,  if  I  had  stated  a  fact,  nobody  had  reason  to 
complain,  and  much  less  to  be  alarmed. 

My  object  in  now  mentioning  this  incident  is  to  show  the  extreme 
sensitiveness  of  some  Guatemalan  gentlemen  in  regard  to  Mexico, 
which  goes  so  far  that  they  cannot  listen  sometimes  to  indisputable 
facts  without  umbrage,  and  without  ascribing  it  to  purposes  and  designs 
against  their  country.  Fortunately  this  incident  happened  when  the 
long-pending  boundary  dispute  between  Mexico  and  Guatemala  had 
already  been  settled  for  several  years,  as,  had  it  taken  place  before, 
when  that  question  was  opened,  the  situation  would  have  been  still 
more  embarrassing  and  unpleasant. 

M.  Romero, 

Washington,  December  2g,  i8gj. 


Utineraries. 


253 


MEXICAN     PROFILKS. 

In  the  chapter  on  Orography  of  this  paper  (page  31)1  stated  that  I 
would  give  some  profiles  of  the  Mexican  surface,  which  would  show  in 
an  exact  manner  the  different  altitudes  from  the  sea-level  to  the  high 
plateaus  of  the  country.  I  have  selected  for  that  purpose  the  principal 
measurements  by  railroads  built  in  Mexico,  as  they  naturally  followed 
the  easiest  ascent  and  descent,  both  from  the  coast  to  the  interior  and 
back  to  the  coast.  I  will  also  supplement  those  measurements  with 
others  made  for  wagon  roads  to  and  from  important  places. 


FROM    VERACRUZ    TO    MEXICO   BY  ORIZABA, 
BY  THE   MEXICAN    RAILWAY. 


Distance  between 
each  station. 


Veracruz 

Tejeria 

Purga 

Soledad 

Camaron 

Paso  del  Macho. 

Atoyac  

Cordova  

Orizaba 

Maltrata 

Boca  del  Monte. 

Esperanza  

San  Andres  . . . . 

Rinconada  

San  Marcos  .  . . . 

Huamantla 

Apizaco 

Soltepec 

Apam 

Irolo 

Otumba. .    

Teotihuacan. . . . 

Tepexpam  

Mexico 


Kilom's. 

15-500 
15.250 
11.250 
21.250 
12.750 
10.000 
19-750 
26.250 
20.250 
20.250 
6.500 
24.250 
20.  500 
18.000 
17.250 
25.500 
27.000 
19- 500 
15.500 
22.000 
11.500 
11.250 
32.500 


Miles. 


9-63 

9.48 

6.99 

13.21 

7.92 

6.22 

12.27 

16.52 

12.58 

12.59 

4.04 

15.07 

12.74 

11.19 

10.72 

15-84 

16.79 

12.12 

9-63 

13-67 

7.15 

6.99 

20.20 


Distances. 


Kilom's.         Miles 


0.000 

15.500 

30.750 

42.000 

63.250 

76.000 

86.000 

105.750 

132.000 

152.250 

172.500 

179.000 

203.250 

223.750 

241.750 

259.000 

284.500 

311.500 

331.000 

346.500 

368.500 

380.000 

3  So.  000 

423-750 


0.00 

9.63 

19.11 

26.10 

39-31 

47.23 

53-45 

65-72 

82.04 

94.62 

107.21 

111.25 

126.32 

139.06 

150.25 

160.97 

176.81 

193.60 

205.72 

215.35 
229.02 
236.17 
236.17 
263.36 


Altitudes. 


Metres. 


32.34 

44-77 

93.08 

340.76 

475-55 

400.77 

827.88 

1227.63 

1601.79 

2415-36 

2451.79 

2430.42 

2357-32 
2373.21 
24S8.06 
2411.51 
2507.62 
2486.92 
2452.58 
2349.41 
22S1.57 
2244.99 
2239.83 


Feet. 


6.20 

106.10 

146.89 

305-39 
1116.47 
1560.25 
1314.91 
2713.61 
4027.80 
5255-40 
7924.66 
8044.20 
7974.08 
7734-24 
7786.37 
8164.97 
7912.03 
8227.37 

815945 
8046.78 
7708.28 
7485-71 
7365-69 
7348.76 


FROM    APIZACO    TO    PUEBLA,  A    BRANCH    OF 
THE    SAME    ROAD. 


Mexico . . .  , 
Apizaco. . . . 
Santa  Ana. 
Panzacola. . 
Puebla 


139.250 
16.750 
18.250 
12.000 


86.54 

10.41 

11.29 

7.52 


0.000 
139.250 
156.000 

174.250 
186.250 


0.00 

86.54 

96.95 

108.24 

115.76 


2239.83 
2411.51 
2288.31 
2192.01 
2154.63 


7348.76 
7912.03 
7507-82 
7191.86 
7069.22 


254 


Statistical  litotes  on  /iDejico. 


1 


FROM  VERACRUZ  TO  MEXICO  BY  JALAPA,  BY  THE  INTEROCEANIC  RAILWAY. 


STATIONS. 


Veracruz 

Santa  Fe 

La  Antigua 

San  Francisco 

Rinconada 

Colorado 

El  Palmar 

Chavarrillo 

Pacho  

Jalapa 

Banderilla 

San  Miguel 

Cruz  Verde  

Las  Vigas 

Perote 

Tepeyahualco 

Virreyes 

Ojo  de  Agua 

San  Marcos 

La  Venta 

Acajete 

Amozoc 

Puebla 

Los  Arcos 

Analco 

San  Martin  Texmelucan. 

Atotonilco 

Nanacamilpa 

Calpulalpam 

San  Lorenzo 

Irolo  

Soapayuca  

Otumba 

Texcoco 

San  Vicente 

Los  Reyes 

Mexico 


Distance  between 
each  station. 


Kilom's. 


20.234 
1 5 . 200 

9.820 
21.644 
16.312 

9.781 

i4-f>75 
8.558 
10.510 
14.227 
14.S70 
16.569 
20.827 
29.476 
17.041 
17.064 

11.303 
14.014 

10.357 

"•344 

19  391 

7.919 

15.586 

15.231 
12.721 

24.259 
23.275 

9.302 

9.648 
15.617 

4.724 
31.209 
11.452 

9-353 
17.495 


Miles. 


12.58 
9.46 
6.09 

13.45 
10.14 
6.07 
9.70 
9.12 
5.32 
6.53 
8.84 

9-25 
10.29 

12.95 
18.31 

10.59 
10.61 
7.02 
8.71 
6.44 
7.05 
12.05 
4.92 
9.69 

947 
7.91 

15.05 

14.49 
5-78 
5.99 
9.71 
2.94 

19.39 
7.92 
5.19 

11.50 


Distances. 


Kilom's.    Miles. 


0.000 

20.234 

35-434 

45-254 

66.S98 

83.210 

92.991 

108.594 

123.269 

131.827 

142.337 
156.564 

171.434 
188.003 
208.830 
238.297 
255-338 
272.402 
283.705 
297.719 
30S.076 
319.420 
338-811 
346.730 
362.316 

377-547 
390.268 

414.527 
437-802 
447.104 
456.752 
472.369 

477-093 
508.302 

519-754 
529.107 
546.602 


0.00 
12.58 
22.04 
28.13 
41.58 
51-72 
57.79 
67.49 
76.61 

81.93 

88.46 

97-30 

106.55 

116.84 

129.79 
148.10 
158.69 
169.30 
176.32 
185.03 

191.47 
198.52 
210.57 

215-49 
225.18 

234-65 
242.56 
257.61 
272.10 
277.88 
283.87 
293- 58 
296.52 

315.91 
323.03 
328.22 
339-72 


Altitudes. 


Metres.    Feet 


2.00 

28.60 

5-50 

24.44 

254.00 

520.70 

690.08 

941.24 

1170.44 
1336.18 
1490.00 
1780.22 
2073  09 
2421.10 
2390.30 
2321.50 
2346.40 
2348.33 
2412.60 

2559.05 
2469.25 
2312.04 
2155.60 
2130.96 
2197.50 
2258.61 
2472.10 
2740.16 
2576.10 
2484.22 
2447.25 
2409.05 
2361.30 
2249.10 
2235.20 
2240. 10 
2240.00 


6.56 
93  84 
18.04 
80.18 

833-36 
1708.39 
2264.12 
3088  16 
3S40.15 
4383-94 
488S.62 
5840.82 
6801.70 
7943-50 
7842.44 
7615-23 
7O98.41 

7704.74 
7915.61 
8396.10 
8101.48 
7585.67 
7072.39 
6991.56 
7209.88 
7410.38 
8110.83 
8990.31 
8990.31 
8150.60 
8029.30 
7903.96 
7747.29 
7379.13 
7333.52 
7349.60 
7349-27 


FROM  THE  CITY  OF  MEXICO  TO  MORELOS,  A  BRANCH  OF  THE  SAME  ROAD. 


Mexico 

Los  Reyes 

Ayotla 

La  Compania 

Tenango 

Amecameca 

Otumba 

Nepantla 

Yecapixtla 

Cuautla  de  Morelos 

Calderon 

Yautepec 

Ticuman 

Tlaltizapan 

Tlalquitenango 

Jojutla 

San  Jose 

Puente  de  Ixtla 


17.495 

24.500 

33.800 

46.700 

57.500 

69.700 

92.600 

119.400 

135.900 

144.100 

158.100 

176.100 

184.300 

193.000 

195.300 

207.400 

215.000 


0.00 

2240.00 

11.50 

2240.10 

15.23 

2243.30 

21.00 

2244.50 

29.02 

2324.20 

35.73 

2466. 50 

43-32 

2324.45 

57.55 

1968.65 

74.21 

1570.20 

84.46 

1216.48 

89.56 

1258.15 

98.26 

1154.72 

109.45 

968.22 

114.54 

934-10 

119.95 

900.20 

121.38 

890.64 

128.90 

992.35 

133.63 

896.99 

7349-27 
7349.60 
7360.09 
7364.03 
7625.53 
8092.42 
7626.33 
6459.04 
5151-75 
3991.20 
4127.92 
3788.59 
3176.69 
3064.73 

2953-51 
2922.15 

3255.84 
2942.99 


1 


•(Itineraries. 


255 


FROM     PUEBLA    TO     IZUCAR    DE    MATAMOROS,    A    BRANCH     OF    THE    SAME 

ROAD. 


STATIONS. 

Distance  between 
each  station. 

Distances. 

Altitudes. 

Kilom's. 

Miles. 

Kilom's. 

Miles. 

Metres. 

Feet. 

Puebla 

7.919 
5.000 
8.900 

18.100 
5.850 

19.150 
8.S50 

10.543 

4.92 
3-11 

5-53 
11.25 

3-64 
11.90 

5-49 
6.56 

0.000 

7-919 
12.919 
2i.8ig 

39-919 
45-769 
64.919 
73-769 
84.412 

! 

0.00     21CC  6n 

7072.36 
6991.52 
7037-58 
6955-89 
6660.94 

392599 
552S.99 
5200.10 
4737-03 

Los  Arcos 

Cholula 

Santa  Maria 

4.92 
8.03 
13-56 
24.81 
2S.45 
40-35 
45-84 
52.40 

2130.96 
2M5-00 
2120.10 
2030.20 
iig6.6o 
1685.18 
1584.94 
1443.80 

San  Augustin 

Atlixco 

San  Jose  Teruel 

Tatetla 

Matamoros 

FROM    MEXICO    TO   EL    PASO    DEL    NORTE    OR    CIUDAD    JUAREZ,  BY    THE 
CENTRAL    MEXICAN    RAILROAD. 


Mexico 

Tlalnepantla. ... 

Barrientos 

Lecheri'a 

Cuautitlan 

Teoloyucan 

Huehuetoca 

Nochistongo 

El  Salto 

Tula 

San  Antonio 

Lena 

Marquez 

Nopala 

Daiiu 

Polotitlan 

Cazadero 

Palmillas 

San  Juan  del  Rio 

Chintepec 

Ahorcado 

Hercules 

Queretaro 

Mariscala 

Apaseo 

Celaya 

Guaje 

Salamanca 

Chico 

Irajiuato 

Vilialobos   

Silao 

Trinidad 

Leon 

Francisco 

Pedrito 

Loma 

Lagos 


11.700 

5-900 

3-300 

6.800 

8.300 

10.500 

6.000 

9.900 

17.600 

13.500 

24.300 

3.800 

8.300 

8.000 

14.000 

g.2oo 

10.900 

18.600 

13.300 

12.200 

24.400 

5.000 

18.500 

14.500 

13.000 

18.200 

22.800 

1 1 . 1 00 

g.200 

16.600 

13.200 

19.000 

14.200 

16.400 

15.400 

13.700 

13.600 

10.600 


7.27 

3.67 
2.05 
4- 23 
5-15 
6.52 

3-74 

6.15 

10.96 

8.39 
15.10 

2.37 
5-15 
5 -04 
8.63 
5-72 
6.77 
11.57 
8.26 

7-59 
15-16 

3- 1 1 

11.50 

9.01 

8.08 

II. 31 

14.17 
6.90 
5-72 

10.31 
8.20 

11.82 
8. 82 

10.19 
9-58 
8.51 
8.55 
6.59 


0.000 

I I . 700 

17.600 

20.900 

27.700 

36.000 

46.500 

52.500 

62.400 

80.000 

93.500 

117.800 

121. 600 

129.900 

137.900 

151.900 

161,100 

172.000 

I  go.  600 

203.900 

216.100 

240.500 

245.500 

264.000 

278.500 

291.500 

309.700 

332.500 

343.600 

352. Soo 

369.400 

382.600 

401.600 

415.800 

432.200 

447.600 

461.300 

474.900 


0.00 

7-27 
10.94 

12.99 

17.22 

22.37 

28.89 

32.63 

38.78 

49.72 

58. II 

73-21 

75-58 

80.73 

85-77 

94.40 

100.12 

106. 8g 

118.46 

126.72 

134-31 

149-47 

152.58 

164.08 

173.09 

181.17 

192.48 

206.65 

213-55 
219.27 
229.58 
237.78 
249.60 
258.42 
286.61 
278.19 
2S6.70 
295-15 


2240.00 

2250.10 
2298.50 
2253.20 
2252.50 

225  V  20 

2258.80 
2248.00 
2162.60 
2030.00 
2167.00 
2471.80 
2426.50 

2341.40 
2387.70 

22g2.30 

2249.50 

2162.00 

905.50 

8g4.90 
907.70 
843-90 
8 1 3. 20 
788.20 
767.40 
757-40 
740.00 
721-50 
720.80 
723.70 
746.10 
776.50 
8i8.oo 
785.80 
765.00 
795.00 
Sgo.40 
871.00 


7349-32 
7392.46 
7541-26 
7392.63 
7390.33 
7392-63 
7411.00 
7375.57 
7095.37 
6660.32 

7175-43 
8109.84 
7961.22 
7682.00 
7833-92 
7520. gi 
7380.49 
7093.40 
6251.84 
6217.07 
6259.07- 

6o4g.74 
5  949 -02 
5867.00 
5798.75 
5765-94 
5708.85 

564S.15 
5645-85 
5655-37 
572S.87 
5S28.61 
5964-77 
5859.12 
5790.88 
5889.30 
6202.31 
6138.66 


256 


statistical  IFlotes  on  /IDejico. 


FROM     MEXICO    TO     EL    PASO    DEL    NORTE     OR    CUIDAD    JUAREZ,  BY    THE 

CENTRAL  MEXICAN  RAILROAD. — Continued. 


STATIONS. 


Serrano  (Altamira) 

Los  Salas 

Santa  Marfa 

Encarnacion 

Penuelas 

Aguascalientes .... 

Pabellon 

Rincon  de  Romos. 

Soledad 

Guadalupe 

Zacatecas 

Pimienta 

Calera 

Fresnillo 

Mendoza 

Gutierrez 

Canitas 

Cedro 

La  Colorada 

Pacheco 

Guzman 

(joiizalez 

Camacho 

San  Isidro 

Symon 

La  Mancha 

Calvo 

Peralta 

Jimulco 

Jalisco 

Picardias 

Matamoros 

Torreon 

Lerdo 

Noe 

Mapimi 

Peronal 

Conejos 

Yermo 

Cevallos 

Zavalza 

Escalon 

Rellano 

Corralitos 

Dolores 

Jimenez 

La  Reforma 

Diaz 

Bustamante 

Santa  Rosalia 

La  Cruz 

Concho 

Saucillo 

Las  Delicias 

Ortiz 


Distance  between 
each  station. 


Kilom's. 


10.300 
24.700 
16  700 
26.400 
21.500 
30.100 

8.500 
20.500 

5.800 

9.900 
13-500 
16.100 
28.000 
15-500 
15.000 
22.100 
13-500 
20.  700 
25.800 
19.000 
19.700 
21.400 
21.900 
23.200 
24.000 
21.000 
23.900 
15-500 
14.400 
14.300 
25.200 
16.400 

5.200 
17.700 
20.000 
24,000 
22.200 
22.700 
18.900 
18.500 
14.600 

iS.ooo 
21.400 
19.400 
14.700 
19.100 
18.800 
19.200 

15.700 

16.000 
20.400 
15.600 
16.100 

7.300 

24.300 


Miles. 


6.77 
15-35 
10.38 
16.41 
13-36 
18.71 

5.28 
12.74 
32.20 

6.15 

8.39 
10.00 

17.41 
9.63 

9.32 
13.74 

8-39 

12.86 

16.04 

II. 81 

12.24 

13-30 

13.61 

14.42 

14.92 

13-05 

14.85 

9.64 

S.95 

8.88 

15.67 

10.01 

3.16 

It. 25 

12.43 
14.92 

13.79 
14. II 
11.75 
11.55 

9-07 
10.57 
13.30 
12.06 

9.13 
11.87 
11.69 

11-93 
9.76 

9-94 
12.63 

9.70 
10.00 

4-54 
15.08 


Distances. 


Kilom's.    Miles 


485.500 
495.800 
520.500 
537-200 
563.600 
585.100 
615.200 
623.700 
644.200 
696.000 
705.900 
719.400 
735.500 
763.500 
779.000 
794.000 
816.100 
829.600 
850.300 
876.100 
895.100 
914.800 
936.200 
958.100 
981.300 
005.300 
026.300 
050.200 
065.700 
080. 100 
094.400 
119.600 
136.000 
141.200 
158.900 
178.900 
202.900 
225.100 
247.800 
266.700 
2S5.200 
299.800 
317.800 
339- 200 
358.600 
373-300 
392.400 
411.200 
430.400 
446. 100 
462.100 
482.500 
49S.100 
514.200 
521.5001 


301-74 
308.14 

323-49 
333-87 
350.28 
363.64 
382.35 
387-63 
400.37 

432.57 
438.72 
447.11 
457-11 
474-52 
484-15 
493-47 
507.21 
515.60 
528.46 
544.50 
556-31 
568.55 
581.85 
595-46 
609.88 
624. So 

637-85 
652.70 
662.34 
671.29 
680.17 
695-84 
705-85 
709.01 
720.26 
732.69 
747.61 
761.40 

775-51 
787.26 
798.76 
805.83 
819.02 
832.32 
844-38 
853-51 
865.38 

877.07 
889.00 
898.76 
908.70 
921.38 
931.08 
941.08 
945.62 


Altitudes. 


Metres.    Feet 


2015.80 

2035.00 

1844.50 

1851.00 

1878.60 

1884.00 

1908.50 

1296.60 

1979.00 

2330.20 

2442.00 

2306.50 

2152.60 

2091.50 

2103.20 

2087.10 

2006.60 

962.40 

957.20 

889.00 

810.60 

757-30 

664.60 

582.30 

568.90 

557-60 

525-00 

353-10 

267.20 

232.10 

205.10 

145-30 

140.30 

135.50 

116.90 

125.70 

114.20 

146.50 

158.70 

188.50 

201.60 

263.20 

330.00 

442.70 

379-90 

381.20 

347-60 

298.90 

257.70 

226.00 

216.60 

219.90 

210.20 

170.30 

157.10 


6613.68 
6676.68 
6051.71 
6073.04 
6163.60 
6181.31 
6261.69 
6321.08 
6493.00 
7645.22 
8012.03 
7567.46 
7062.52 
6862.06 
6900.44 
6847.63 
6583.51 

6438-53 
6421.48 
6197.72 

5940-49 

5765.60 

5461-47 
5191.44 
5147-48 
5IIO.4I 
5003-44 
4439-45 
4157-63 
4042.46 

3953-87 
3757-66 

3741-13 
3725.51 
3664.49 
3693.36 
3657-63 
3761.61 
3801.64 
3899.41 

3942.39 
4144-50 
4363.66 
4733.43 
4527.38 
4531.65 
4421.41 
4261.63 
4126.46 
4022.45 
3991.61 
4002  43 
3970.61 
3839.69 
3796.39 


I 


.>J 


■fftineraries. 


257 


FROM     MEXICO    TO    EL     PASO     DEL    NORTE     OR    CIUDAD    JUAREZ,  BV  THE 

CENTRAL  MEXICAN   RAILROAD. — Continued. 


STATIONS. 


Bachimba  ... 
Horcasitas  . . . 

Mapula , 

Chihuahua.. . . 
Sacramento  . . , 

Ferragas 

Sauz 

Encinillas  . . . . 
Agua  Nueva. . 

Laguna , 

Puerto 

Gallego 

Chivatito 

Moctezuma. . . 
Las  Minas  . . . , 
Ojo  Caliente. . 

Carmen 

San  Jose 

Ranchen'a. . . . 
Los  Medanos. . 
Samalayuca  .  . . 
Tierra  Blanca . 

Mesa 

Ciudad  Juarez. 


Distance  between 
each  station. 


Kilom's. 


17.400 
22.400 
22.900 
23.100 
15.100 
ri.6oo 
19.Q00 
13.900 
13.400 
20.400 
20.200 
29.000 
15.400 
13.100 
13500 
ir.300 
22.800 
24.100 
28.700 
18.200 
16.100 
14.400 
17.600 


Miles. 


10.76 

13-91 

14.24 

14.36 

9-3S 

7.21 

12.37 

8.64 

8.33 
12.67 
12.56 
18.02 

9-57 
8.14 

8.33 
7.09 
14.17 
14.97 
17.84 
11.32 
10.00 

8.95 
10.94 


Distances. 


Kilom's.    Miles 


1545. Soo 

1563.200 
1585.600 
1608.500 
1631.600 
1646.700 
1658.300 
1678.200 
1692.100 
1705.500 
1725.900 
1746.100 
1775.100 
1790.500 
1803.600 
1817.IOO 
1828.400 
1851.200 
1875.300 
1904.000 
1922.200 
1938.300 
1952.700 
1970.300 


960.70 
971-54 
985-45 
999.69 
1014.05 
1023.43 
1030.64 
1043.01 
1051.65 
1059.98 
1072.65 
1085.21 
1103.23 
1112.80 
1120.94 
1129.27 
1136.36 

1150.53 
1165.50 
"83.34 
1194.66 
1204.66 
1213.61 
1224.55 


Altitudes. 


Metres. 


264.10 
366.50 
514-40 
412.30 
519.90 
591-50 
564.40 
533-60 
527-50 
535-70 
618.90 
622.00 
480.50 
382.80 
318.10 
233-30 
216.00 
194.60 
281.80 
298.30 
274.50 
263.50 
207.10 
133-10 


Feet. 


4147.45 
4483.42 
4968.66 

4633-68 
4986.71 
5221.63 

5132.71 
5031.66 
5011.65 
5038.55 
5311-53 
5321-71 
4857-45 
4536.89 
4324.62 
4046.39 
3989.64 
3919.42 
4205.52 
4259-66 

4181.57 
4145.48 
3960.40 
3717-64 


FROM    AGUASCALIENTES    TO    TAMPICO,  A    BRANCH    OF    THE    SAME    ROAD. 


Aguascalientes 

Chicalote 

Caiiada 

Gallardo 

ElTule 

San  Gil 

San  Marcos 

Garcia 

La  Honda 

Peiion  Blanco 

Salinas 

Zotol 

Espiritu  Santo 

Solana 

San  Louis  Potosi 

Laguna  Seca 

Corcovada 

Peolillos 

Silos 

Puerto  de  San  Jose 

San  Isidro 

Cerritos 

Santa  Toribia  (El  Gato).. 

San  Bartolo 

Tanque  de  la  Tinajilla. .  . 

Cardenas 

La  Labor 


14.300 
6.200 
10.500 
4.600 
15.200 
8.200 
1 1 . 000 
12.800 
ri.ooo 
16.200 
13.600 
13-500 
25.400 
62.200 
17-300 

27. TOO 

15.100 

7-500 

6.450 

15-650 

13.400 

1 1 . 200 

17.300 

43.300 

14.200 

14.700 

8.200 


8.90 

3-84 
6.52 

2.86 

9-45 
5.10 

6.84 

7.95 

6.84 

10.07 

8.44 

8.39 

15.79 

38.65 

10.96 

16.84 

9.37 

4-69 

4.00 

9.72 

8.33 

6.97 

10.76 

26.90 

8.82 

9.14 

5.10 


14-300 

20.500 

31.000 

35.600 

50.800 

59.000 

70.000 

82.800 

93-800 

no. 000 

123.600 

137.100 

162.500 

224.700 

242.000 

269.100 

284.200 

291.700 

298.150 

313.800 

327.200 

338.400 

355-700 

399.000 

413.200 

427.900 


0.00 

8.90 
12.74 

19.26 

22.12 

31-57 

36.67 

43-71 

51-46 

58.30 

68.37 

76.81 

85-20 

100.99 

139.64 

150.40 

167.24 

176.61 

1S1.3O 

185.30 

I95-O2 

203.35 

210.32 

221.08 

247.98 

256.80 

265.94 


1S84.OO 
1891.00 
I92I-5O 
1955-75 
1962.75 
2011.50 
2031.25 
2117.40 
2138.50 
2100.75 
2075.63 
2120.50 
2038.25 
2234.80 
1877.00 
1S27.OO 
1700.00 
1740.00 
1509.00 
1566.00 
1257.00 
1136.00 
1100.00 
1030.00 
1190.00 
1200.00 
1200.00 


6181.31 
6204.28 

6304- 34 
6416.71 
6439.68 
6599.62 
6664.42 
6947.07 
7016.30 
6S92.44 
6S10.91 

6957-24 
6687.39 
7332.25 
6158.35 
5994.30 
5577-62 
5708.86 
4950.95 
5137-97 
4124.16 
3727.16 
3609.04 
3379.38 
3904.33 
3937.14 
3937-14 


i 


258 


Statistical  Botes  on  /IDcjtco. 


FROM    AGUASCALIENTES    TO  TAMPICO,   A  BRANCH  OF  THE  SAME  ROAD. 

Continued. 


STATIONS. 


Las  Canoas 

Los  Llanos  (Zacate). . 
Tamazopo  (La  Garita). 

Rascon 

Las  Crucitas 

El  Salto  (Micos) 

San  Mateo 

Valles 

San  Felipe 

El  Abra 

Taninul 

Las  Palmas 

Chijol 

Salinas  (Chila) 

Tamos 

Tampico 


Distance  between 
each  station. 


Kilom's. 


7.900 

1S.800 

16.S0O 

15.100 

9,500 

10.700 

13.800 

11.900 

2.300 

4.000 

8.000 

68,700 

13.700 

17.900 

13.100 


Miles. 


4.91 

11.68 

10.44 

9.38 

5-9Jt 

6.65 

8.58 

7-39 

1-43 

2.49 

4.98 

42.68 

8.52 

II. 13 

8.14 


Distances. 


Kilom's.        Miles 


436.100 
444.000 
462.800 
479.600 
494. 70Q 
504.200 
514.900 
528.700 
540.600 
542.900 
546,900 
554.900 
623.600 
637.300 
655.200 
668.300 


271.04 

275-95 
287.63 
298.07 
307.45 
313.36 
320.01 
328.59 
335-98 
337.41 
339.90 
344-88 
387.56 
396.08 
407.21 
415.35 


Altitudes. 


Metres. 


990.00 

825.00 
350.00 
295.00 
275.00 
218.00 
175.00 

75.00 
160.00 
165.00 
125.00 

50.00 

65.00 
5.00 

20.00 
0.00 


Feet. 


3248.14 
2706  78 
1148.33 
967.88 
902.26 
715.25 
574-16 
246.07 

524-95 

541.35 

410.  II 

164.05 

213.25 

16.40 

6.56 

0.00 


FROM    IRAPUATO    TO     GUADALAJARA,    A    BRANCH    OF     THE    SAME    ROAD. 


Irapuato 

San  Miguel 

Rivera 

Cuitzeo 

Abasolo  (Rio  Turbio). 

San  Rafael 

Penjamo 

Villasenor 

Palo  Verde 

Cortez 

La  Piedad 

Patti 

Yurecuaro 

Negrete 

La  Barca 

Feliciano 

Limon 

Ocotlan 

Poncitlan 

Atequiza 

La  Capilla 

El  Castillo 

Guadalajara 


5.100 
11.300 

7.600 

8.000 

6.200 

11.600 

14.300 

7.100 

13.500 

6. 600 

20.100 

14.300 

21.000 

6.400 

4.700 

8.300 

13.200 

17-500 

21.600 

8.300 

7.600 

24.800 


3-17 
7.02 

4-73 
4.96 
3.85 
7.22 
8.89 

4.41 
8.40 
4.10 

12.49 
8.89 

13-05 
3.97 
2.93 
5.15 
8.21 

10.8S 

13.41 
5.17 
4.73 

15.40 


0.000 

0.00 

1724.00 

5.100 

3.17 

1721.00 

16.400 

10.19 

1712.00 

24.000 

14.92 

1700.00 

32.000 

19.88 

1695  00 

38.200 

23.73 

1690.00 

49.800 

30.95 

1700.00 

64.100 

39-84 

1690.00 

71.200 

44-25 

1685.00 

84.700 

52.65 

1675.00 

91.300 

56.75 

1675.00 

1 1 1.400 

69.24 

1665.00 

125.700 

78.13 

1540.00 

146.700 

91.18 

1531.00 

153.100 

95.15 

1537.00 

157.800 

98.08 

1540.00 

166.100 

103.23 

1543.00 

179.300 

III. 44 

5525.00 

196.800 

122.32 

1522.00 

218.400 

135.73 

1512.00 

226.700 

140.90 

1515.00 

234-300 

145.63 

1525.00 

259.  ICO 

161.03 

1543-00 

5656.36 
5646.52 
5616.99 

5577.62 
5561.21 
5544.81 
5577-62 
5544-81 
5525.40 
5495.59 

5495-59 
5472-78 
5052.56 
5023.13 
5042.82 
5052.66 
5062.50 

5003.44 
4993.60 
4960.79 
4970-63 
5003.44 
5062.50 


FROM    MEXICO    TO    LAREDO    TAMAULIPAS,  BY    THE     MEXICAN     NATIONAL 

RAILWAY. 


Mexico 

Tacuba 

Naucalpan.  . . 
Rio  Hondo.  . 
San  Bartolito 
Dos  Rios.  . . . 

Laurel 

Cumbre 


4.600 

2,86 

0.000 

0.00 

2240.00 

4.800 

2.93 

4.600 

2.86 

2250.00 

3.900 

2.42 

9.400 

5.84 

2280.00 

8.700 

5.41 

13.300 

8.26 

2300.00 

5.500 

3.42 

22.000 

13.67 

2460.00 

5.500 

3.41 

27.500 

17.09 

2680.00 

5.900 

3. 68 

33.000 

20.50 

2820.00 

2.500 

1.55 

38.900 

24.18 

3050.00 

7349.32 

7382.13 
74S0.56 
7546.17 
8071.13 
8792.94 

9252,27 
10006.89 


Iftineraries. 


259 


FROM  MEXICO  TO  LAREDO  TAMAULiPAS. — Continued. 


STATIONS. 


Salazar 

Carretera  de  Toluca 

Fresno 

Jajalpa 

Ocoyoacac 

Lerma 

Toluca 

Palmillas 

Del  Kio 

Ixtlahuaca 

Tepetitlan 

Flor  de  Maria 

Basoco 

Venta  del  Aire 

Tultenango 

Solis 

Tepetongo 

Agua  Buena  (Buena  Vista) . 

Mayor 

Pateo     

Pomoca  

M  aravatio 

San  Antonio 

Zirizicuaro 

Tarandacuao 

San  Jose 

Providencia 

Acambaro 

San  Cristobal 

Salvatierra 

Cascalote 

Ojo  Seno 

Celaya 

Santa  Rita 

San  Juan 

Soria 

Chamacuero  

Rinconcillo 

Begona 

San  Miguel  de  Allende 

Atotonilco 

Tequizquiapan 

Dolores  Hidalgo 

Rincon  

Pena  Prieta 

Trancas  

Obregon 

Ciudad  Gonzalez(SanFelipe) 

Chirimoya 

Jaral 

Villa  de  Reyes 

Jesus  Maria 

La  Pila 

San  Luis  Potosl 

Penasco 

Pinto 

Bocas 

Enramada 

Moctezuma 


Distance  between 
each  station. 


Distances. 


Kilom's. 


3.200 

3.400 

2.500 

5.600 

3.000 

13.900 

7.400 

16.700 

14.700 

12.300 

g.8oo 

20.200 

4.000 

5.800 

11.200 

lo.yoo 

7.100 

7.800 

4.800 

3.400 

14.100 

12.000 

8.700 

12.000 

8.400 

8.500 

12. goo 

12.500 

17.500 

15.500 

8.900 

14.200 

5.200 

7.400 

3.800 

7.200 

8.900 

13.000 

g.ioo 

11.600 

11.300 

12.800 

7.200 

11.300 

9.100 

g.ooo 

18.700 

14.400 

13.200 

16.700 

10.000 

14.800 

15.000 

13-400 

15.1 00 

12.500 

13.600 

1 5 . 200 

18.900 


Miles. 

1.99 
2. II 
1.56 
3.48 

1.86 
8.64 
4.60 

10.38 
9.14 
7.64 
6.09 

12.56 
2.48 
3.60 
6.97 
6.77 
4.41 

4.85 
2.99 
2.10 
8.76 
7-47 
5-40 
7.47 
5.22 
5.28 
8.02 

7-7^' 
10.88 

9-63 
5-53 
8.84 
3.22 
4.60 
2.37 


•47 

•  57 
.08 

•65 
.21 

7.03 
7-95 
4.48 
7.02 

5-65 

5-59 

11.63 

S.95 
8.20 

10.38 
6.22 
9.19 
9.33 
8.33 
9-37 
7-78 
8.45 
9.45 

"75 


Kilom's. 


41.400 
44.600 
48.000 
50.500 
56.100 
59.100 
73.000 
80.400 
97.100 
111.800 
124.100 
133.900 
154.100 
15S.IOO 
163.900 
i75^ioo 
186.000 
193.100 
200.900 
225.700 
209.100 
223.200 
235.200 
243.900 
255.900 
264.300 
272.800 
285.700 
298.200 
3i5^7oo 
331.200 
340.100 
354-300 
359.500 
366.900 
370.700 
377.900 
386.800 
399.800 
408.900 
420.500 
431.800 

444 .  ()00 

451.800 
463.100 
472.200 
48 1 . 200 
499.900 
514.300 
527.500 
544.200 
554.200 
569.000 
584.000 

597.400 

612.500 
625.000 
638.600 
653. Soo 


Miles. 


25.73 
27.72 
29.83 
31^39 
34.87 
36.73 
45-37 
49-97 
60.35 
69.49 

77.13 
83.22 
95. 7S 
98.26 
101.86 
108. S3 
115.60 
120.01 
124.86 
127. 85 
129.95 
138.71 
146.18 
151.58 
159.05 
164.27 

169.55 
177-57 
185.33 
196.21 
205.84 
211.37 

220. 21 

223.43 
228.03 
230.40 
234.87 
240.40 
248.48 

254-13 
261.34 

268.37 
276.32 
280.80 
287.82 

293-47 
299.06 
310.69 
319.64 
327.84 
338.22 

344.44 
353.63 
362.96 
371.29 
3S0.66 

388.44 
396.89 
406.34 


Altitudes. 


Metres. 


3000.00 
2900.00 
2800.00 
2720.00 
2600.00 
2540.00 
2640.00 
2630.00 
25S0.00 
2540.00 
2520.00 
2520.00 
2580.00 
2560.00 
2540.00 
2430. CO 
2320.00 
2240.00 
2160.00 
2100.00 
2040.00 
2010.00 
2080.00 
2010.00 
920.00 
860.00 

880.00 

860.00 
840.00 
760.00 
760.00 
770.00 
740.00 
760.00 
780.00 

785.00 

790.00 
810.00 
825.00 
870.00 
S60.00 
870.00 
Sgo.oo 
900.00 
030.00 
950.00 
990.00 
2050.00 
S60.00 
840.00 
830.00 
810.00 
goo.  00 
860.00 
840.00 
820.00 
700.00  I 
680.00  I 
660.00 


Feet. 


9842.84 

9514-74 
9186.75 
8924.18 
8530.46 
8333.60 
8661.70 
8628.89 
8464.84 
8333.60 
8267.98 
8267.98 
8464.84 
8399.22 
8333.60 
7972.70 
76 1 1 . 79 
7349.32 
7086.84 
68S9.98 
6693.13 
6594.70 
6824.37 
6594.70 
62g9.42 
6102.57 
6168.19 
6102.57 
6036.95 
5774.48 
5774^48 
5S07.29 
5708.86 
5774.48 
5840.10 
5856.50 
5S72.91 
5938.52 
59S7-73 
6135.38 
6102.57 
6135.38 
6201.00 
6233.88 
6332.23 
6397.85 
6529.09 

6725.94 
6102.57 
6036.  gs 
6004.14 
593S.52 
6233.88 
6102.57 
6036. gs 

5971.33 
5577.62 
5512.00 
5446.38 


26o 


statistical  iRotes  on  /IDcyico. 


FROM    MEXICO    TO    LAREDO    TAMAULIPAS. — Cotltinuea. 


El  Venado . . 
Los  Charcos . 
Laguna  Seca 
Uerrendo. . . . 
La  Maroma. 
Wadley 


Catorce 

Poblazon 

Vanegas 

La  Trueba  (La  Parida). 

San  Vicente 

El  Salado 

Lulu 

La  Ventura . . 

Santa  Elena 

Gomes  Farias 

El  Oro 


i^arneros 

Agua  Nueva 

Encantada 

Buena  Vista 

Saltillo , 

Los  Bosques 

Ramos  Arizpe 

Santa  Maria 

Ojo  Caliente 

Los  Muertos 

La  Mariposa 

Rinconada 

Los  Fierros , 

Soledad 

Garcia 

Santa  Catarina , 

Leona 

San  Cieronimo 

Gonzalitos 

Monterey 

Ramon  Trevifio 

Topo 

Salinas 

Morales 

Stevenson  (Palmito) . . . 

Palo  Blanco 

Alamo 

Villa  Aldama 

Guadalupe 

Bustamante 

Huizache 

Golondrinas 

Salome,  Botello 

Brasil 

Lampazos 

Mojina 

Rodriguez 

Camaron 

Huizachito 

Jarita 

Sanchez 

Laredo  de  Tamaulipas. 


Distance  between 
each  station. 


Kilom's. 


OCX) 

300 
.600 
.400 

000 
.600 
.800 
00 
.400 

800 
.700 
.700 

200 

000 
.900 

200 

300 
.(JOO 

200 

300 

700 

500 

500 

300 

700 

000 

.300 

400 

.700 

.500 

200 

100 

800 
700 
.900 
.500 
.600 
100 
.900 
.  100 
.300 
.700 
.200 
,600 
.100 
,400 
800 
400 
000 
100 
goo 
300 
200 
400 
500 
500 
100 
100 


Miles. 


10.56 
10.13 
7.20 
9-5S 
9-94 
5-35 
4-23 
9-44 
10.20 
9.81 
9.76 

9-75 
12.56 

12.43 

13.00 

8.20 

10.77 

5-94 
8.21 
3-92 
6.03 

7-15 
2.17 

4-55 
6.02 

4-35 
1.40 
6.46 
4.78 
3-42 
6.34 

1311 
1.74 
2.87 
r.79 
r.56 
4-73 
3-79 

12.99 

503 

10.13 

5-40 

8.20 

7.84 

I-3I 
2. II 
6.09 
7.03 
7.46 
7-52 
5.53 

14.48 

13-18 
7-71 
7-15 

10.25 
8.14 

10.01 


Distances. 


Kilom's.    Miles 


672.600 

689.700 

706.000 

717.600 

733.000 

749.000 

757.600 

764.400 

779.600 

796.000 

811.800 

827.500 

843.200 

863.400 

883.400 

904.300 

917.500 

934.800 

944.400 

957-600 

963.900 

973.600 

985.100 

9S8.600 

995.900 

1005.600 

10x2.600 

1014.900 

1025.300 

1033.000 

1038.500 

1048.700 

1069.800 

1072.600 

1077.300 

10S0.200 

1082.700 

1090.300 

1096.400 

1 1 1 7 . 300 

1125.400 

114 I. 700 

1150.400 

1163.600 

1176.200 

1178.300 

1181.700 

I 191. 500 

1 202 . goo 

I 2 14 . 900 

1227.000 

1235.900 

1259.200 

1280.400 

1292.800 

1304.300 

1320.800 

1333.900 

1350.000 


418.09 
428.65 
438.78 
445.98 
455-56 
465-50 
470-85 
475.08 
484-52 
494-72 
504-53 
514-29 
524.04 
536.60 

549-03 
562.03 
570.23 
580.99 
586.93 
595-14 
599-06 
605.09 
612.24 
614.41 
618.96 
624.98 
629.33 
630.77 
637.23 
642.01 
645-43 
651-77 
664.88 
666.62 
669.55 
671-34 
672.90 

677-63 
6S1.42 
694.41 
899.44 
709-57 
714-97 
723-17 
731.01 
732.32 

734-43 
740.52 
747.60 
755-06 
762.58 
768.11 
782.59 
795-77 
803.48 
810.63 
820.88 
829.02 
839-03 


Altitudes. 


Metres.    Feet 


740.00 
8SO.OO 

2020.00 
990.00 
S80.OO 
840.00 
820.00 
780.00 
720.00 
720.00 
700.00 
720.00 
720.00 
720.00 
760.00 
940.00 
980.00 

2080.00 
920.00 
S40.OO 
750.00 
600.00 
430.00 
400.00 
320.00 
220.00 
160.00 
120.00 
000.00 
930.00 
820.00 
740.00 
640.00 
600.00 
590.00 
580.00 
560.00 
510.00 
480.00 
430.00 
460.00 
580.00 
560.00 
490.00 
420.00 
420.00 
440.00 
470.00 
410.00 
380.00 
340.00 
300.09 
240.00 
200.00 
200.00 
210.00 
200.00 
160.00 
130.00 


5708.86 
6168.19 
6627.51 
6529.09 
616S.I9 
6036.95 

5971-33 
5840.10 

5643-24 
5643.24 
5577-62 
5643.24 
5643.24 
564324 
5774-48 
6365.04 
6496.28 
6S24.37 
6299.42 
6036.95 
5741-67 
5249-52 
4691.76 

4593-33 
4330.85 
4002.76 
3S05.90 
3674.66 
32^0.95 
3051.28 
2693.38 
2427.91 
2099.81 
1968.57 
1935.76 
1902.95 

JS37-33 
1673.28 
1574-86 
1410.81 
1509.24 
1902.95 

1837-33 
1607.67 
1378.00 
1378.00 
1443.62 
1542.05 

1345.19 
1246.76 
1115  52 
984.28 
787-43 
656.19 
656.19 
689.00 
656.19 

524.95 
426.52 


Iftinecaries. 


261 


FROM    ACAMBARO    TO    pAtZCUARO,    A    BRANCH   OF   THE   SAME    ROAD. 


Acambaro.  . 
La  Cunibre. 
Andocutin.  . 

Huingo 

Querendaro  . 
Zinzimeo. . . 

Quirio 

Charo 

La  Goleta. . 
Atapaneo. . . , 
Morelia.  . . . , 

Jacuaro 

Coapa , 

Lagunillas  . . 

Ponce 

Chapultepec. 
Patzcuaro.. . . 


Distance  between 
each  station. 


Kiloin's. 


13250 

17.610 
6.170 

12.360 
4.000 

10  000 
7.610 
5.920 
3-150 

11.200 

19.900 
9.610 
6.800 

10.380 
2.910 

12.530 


Miles. 


8.23 
10.96 

3.83 
7.68 
2.49 
6.22 

4.73 

3-(J7 
1-95 
6.96 
12.37 
5.98 
4.22 
6.46 
1.80 
7-79 


Distances. 


Kilom's.    Miles. 


0.000 
13-250 

30.860 

37.030 

49.390 

53-390 

63.390 

71.000 

76.920 

80.070 

91.270 

III. 170 

120.780 

127.580 

137.960 

140.870 

153-400 


0.00 

8.23 
19.19 
23.02 
30.70 
33.19 
39-41 
44.14 
47.81 
49.76 
56.72 
69.09 
75-07 
79-29 
85-75 
87-55 
95-34 


Altitudes. 


Metres. 


Feet. 


1840.00 

T960.OO 

1S40.00 

1840.00 

1840.00 

1840.00 

I S  60. 00 

1870.00 

1S70.OO  i 

18S0.00  ' 

1S90.00 

2000.00 

2060.00 

2100.00 

2120.00 

2100.00 

2040.00 


6036.95 
6430.66 
6036.95 
6036.95 
6036.95 
6036.95 
6102.57 
6135-38 
6135.38 
6168.19 
6201  00 
6561.89 

6753.75 
6889.98 
6955.60 
6S89.98 
6693.13 


FROM    PIEDRAS   NEGRAS   OR    CIUDAD     PORFIRIO     DIAZ    TO    DURANGO,    BY 
THE    MEXICAN    INTERNATIONAL    RAILWAY. 


Ciudad  Porfirio  Diaz 

Fuente 

Ro.sa 

Nava 

Allende 

Leona  

Peyotes 

Blanco 

Sabinas 

Soledad 

Baroteran 

Aura 

Obayo,s 

Baluai  te 

Hermanas 

Adjuntas 

Estancia 

Monclova 

Castano 

Gloria 

Bajan 

Joya   

Espinazo 

Reata 

Trevino  (Venadito). . 

Saiiceda 

Jaral 

Pastora 

Carmen 

Paila 

Mimbre 

Rafael 

Pozo 


6.540 

7.060 
26.200 
11.960 

14.940 
15.640 
21.430 
12.850 

15.850 

10.650 
14.120 
15090 
15-330 

10.690 
21.230 

13-570 

4-770 

18.560 

14.920 
19.590 
12.420 
20.410 
12.080 
22.S60 
26.040 
24.760 
23.020 

21. 610 

23.970 
19.670 
16.540 
12.970 
11.290 


4.06 

4-39 
16.29 

7.44 
9.28 

9-71 

13,32 

7.99 
9-85 
6.5i 
8.78 

9-39 

9-52 

6.65 

13.18 

8.44 
2.97 

11-54 

9.29 

12.16 

7-71 
12.68 

7-52 
14.21 
16.16 
15.40 
14-31 
13-44 
14-89 
12.23 
10.28 

8.05 

7.02 


o  000 

6.540 
13.600 
39.800 
51-760 
66.700 
82.340 
103.770 
116.620 
132.470 
143.120 
157.240 
172.330 
187.660 
198.350 
219.580 
233.150 
237.920 
256.480 
271.400 
290.990 
303.410 
323.820 
335-900 
358.760 
384.800 
409. 560 
432. 5S0 
454.190 
478.160 
497. S30 
514-370 
527.340 


0.00 

4.06 

8.45 

24.74 

32.18 

41.46 

51-17 

64.49 

72.48 

82.33 

88.94 

97.72 

107. 1 1 

116.63 

123.28 

136.46 

144.  QO 
147-87 
159.41 
168.70 
ISO.S6 

188.57 
201.25 
208.77 
222.98 
239-14 
254.54 
268. 85 
282.29 
297.18 
309.41 
319.69 
327.74 


220.00 

232.00 

278.00 

324-00 

375-00 

45500 

486.00 

387.00 

340.00 

371.00 

425.00 

453.00 

396.00 

373.00 

396.00 

465.00 

547.00 

587.00 

748.00 

823.00 

843.00 

829.00 

817.00 

900.00 

890.00 

997.00 

1144.00 

1157-00 

1182.00 

1188.00 

1132.00 

1102.00 

1105.00 


721.81 

761.17 

912. II 

1063.02 

1230.35 

1492-83 

1594-55 
1269.73 

1115.52 

12'  \23 
1394.40 
1486.27 
1299.26 
1223.79 
1299.26 
1525-64 
1794.68 
1925.92 
2454-16 
2700.22 
2765. 84 

2719-91 
2680.54 
2952-85 
2920.05 
327111 
3753-40 
3796.06 
3S78.08 

3897. 77 
3714-03 
3615.60 
3625.44 


262 


statistical  IFlotes  on  /IDejico. 


FROM    PIEDRAS   NEGRAS    OR    CIUDAD     PORFIRIO     DIAZ    TO    DURANGO,  BY 
THE    MEXICAN    INTERNATIONAL    RAILWAY. Continued. 


Bola 

Mayran  . .  .  , 
Hornos  .  . . . 
Colonia. . . . 
Matamoros , 
Torreon  .  . . 
San  Carlos  . 

Loma 

Chocolate.  . 
Huaricliic  . 
Pedricena. . 

Pasaje 

Yerbanis  . .  , 

Noria   

Cataliiia. .  . 
Tapona  . . . 
Gabriel  .  .  . 
Chorro.  . .  . 

Labor 

Durango .  . . 


Distance  between 
each  station. 


Kilom's. 


13.480 
IO.S70 
13.410 
17.620 
22.540 
8.050 
15-740 
19.280 
20.870 
15.200 
25.640 
24-540 
21.580 
12.760 
12.150 
22.040 
16.930 
26.420 
11.760 


Miles. 


8.38 

6.75 

8.35 

10.95 

14.00 

5.00 

9.18 

11. 98 

12.98 

9-45 

15-93 

15.25 

13-41 

7.93 

7.56 

13.70 

10.52 

16.42 

7- 30 


Distances. 


Kilom's.    Miles 


53S.630 
552.110 
562.980 

5 76  390 
594.010 
616.550 
624.600 
640.340 
659.620 
6S0.490 
695.690 
721.330 
745-870 
767-450 
780.210 
792.360 
814.400 
831.330 
857.750 
869.510 


334.76 
343-14 
349-S9 
358.24 
369.19 

383-19 
388.19 

397.97 
409-95 
422.93 

432.38 
448.31 
463,56 
476.97 
484.90 
492.46 
506.16 
516.68 
533-10 
540.40 


Altitudes. 


Metres.  Feet 


1089.00 
1094.00 
1096.00 
1105.00 
III2.00 
1134.00 

1137-71 
I181.52 

1377.25 
1325.37 
1318.85 
1605.28 

1908.73 
1895.00 
1969.47 
1982.72 
1955.20 
1S68.IO 
1864.38 
1880.13 


3572.96 
3589-36 

3595-93 
3625  44 
3648.41 
3720.59 
3732.77 
3876.51 
451S.69 

4348-45 
4327-07 
5266.84 
6262.53 
6217.40 
6461.73 
6505.21 
9414.91 
6129.15 
6116.93 
6168.62 


FROM    SABINAS    TO    HONDO,    A    BRANCH    OF    THE    SAME    ROAD. 


Sabinas.  . . 
San  Felipe. 
Hondo.  .  . 


17.530 

2.380 


10.83 
1.48 


0.000 

0.00 

17.430 

10.83 

19.810 

12.31 

340.00 
313.00 
319.00 


III5-52 

1026.93 
1046.62 


FROM    THE    CITY    OF    MEXICO    TO   CUERNAVACA    AND    ACAPULCO. 
LI.NE  FINISHED. 


Mexico 

Contreras 

Ajusco 

La  Cima 

Xacapexco  (Tres  Marias). 


28.060 
17-883 
15.191 
12.966 
18.400 


17.44 

11.11 

9.44 

8  07 
11.43 

0.000 

28.060 

45.943 
61.134 

74. 100 


0.00 

17.44 

28.55 

37-99 
46.06 


2240.00 
2480.00 
2840.00 
3040.00 
2800.00 


7349.27 
8091.75 
9272.89 
9974.08 
9186.75 


LINE  I.N   CONSTRUCTION. 


San  Juanico 

Cuernavaca 

Jiutepec 

San  Vicente 

Xoxocotla 

Puente  de  Ixtla.  .  . 
Rio  Amacusac .... 

Buena  Vista 

Iguala 

Tepecoacuilco .... 

Xalitla 

Mexcala 

Venta  del  Zopilote 
Zumpango 


31-250 

19.42 

7.250 

4-51 

6.750 

4.20 

21.000 

13-05 

14.050 

8.73 

8.950 

5.56 

23.250 

14.45 

21.000 

13.05 

11.000 

6.84 

34.750 

21.13 

12.050 

7.91 

28.700 

17.84 

11.500 

7.15 

13.000 

8.08 

92.500 
123.750 

131.000 

137.750 
I5S.750 

172.800 
181.750 
205.000 
226.000 
237.000 

271.750 
283.800 
312.500 
324.000 


57.49 

2290.00 

76.91 

1520.00 

82.42 

1300.00 

85.62 

1260.00 

98.67 

1030.00 

107.40 

900.00 

112.96 

890.00 

127.41 

1200.00 

140.46 

720.00 

147.30 

800.00 

168.47 

620.00 

176-38 

480.00 

194.22 

760.00 

201.37 

1000.00 

751337 
4987.04 
4265.23 

4134.00 

3379.38 
2952.85 

2920.05 

3937.14 

2362.29 
2624.76 
2034. 19 

1574.86 

2493.53 
3280.95 


Utinerarics. 


263 


FROM    THE    CITY    OF    MEXICO    TO    CUERNAVACA    AND    ACAPULCO. 
LINE  IN  CONSTRUCTION.      [Continued.) 


Tierras  Prietas. . . 
Chilpancingo.  . . . 
Cima  do  Valadez. 

La  Imagen 

Los  Cajones 

El  Rincon 

Dos  Caminos.  . . . 
Tierra  Colorada. . 

Rio  Omitlan 

Peregiiiio 

Cacahuatepec. . . . 

Marquez 

Acapulco 


Distance  between 
each  station. 

Distances. 

Altitudes. 

Kilom's. 

Miles. 

Kilom's. 

Miles. 

Metre 

Feet. 

4.800 

2.98 

337.000 

209.45 

1320.00 

4330.85 

15.200 

9-45 

341.800 

212.43 

1200.00 

3937.14 

8.250 

5-12 

357.000 

221.88 

1300.00 

4265.23 

11.750 

7-31 

365.250 

227.00 

1060.00 

3477-81 

6.000 

3.72 

377.000 

234.31 

1000.00 

3280.95 

12.000 

7.46 

3S3.OOO 

238.03 

670.00 

2190.24 

12.000 

7.46 

395.000 

245.49 

600.00 

1968.57 

9.000 

5.60 

407.000 

252.95 

300.00 

984.28 

4.000 

2.4S 

416.000 

258.55 

180.00 

59".57 

32,000 

19.89 

420.000 

261.03 

140.00 

459.33 

24.500 

15-23 

452.000 

280.92 

60.00 

196.86 

16.500 

10.25 

476.500 

296.15 

20.00 

65.62 

493.000 

306.40 

0.00 

0.00 

FROM    PUEBLA    TO    OAXACA,    BY    THE   MEXICAN    SOUTHERN   RAILWAY. 


Puebla 

Amozoc 

Santa  Rosa 

Tepeaca  

Rosendo  Marquez. 
Tecamachalco  . . . . 

Las  Animas 

Tlacotepec 

Carnero 

Tehuacan 

La  Huerta 

Santa  Cruz 

Pantzingo 

Nopala 

Venta  Salada 

-San  Antonio 

Mexia 

Tecomavaca 

Quiotejjec 

Cuicatlan 

Tomellin 

Alnioloyas 

Santa  Catarina. .  . . 

El  Parian 

Las  Sedas 

San  Pablo  Huitzo. 

Villa  de  Etla 

Oaxaca 


18.400 

7.600 
11.200 
17.400 
10.500 
12.600 

9.400 
31.300 

8.900 
14.700 

6.300 
10.900 
14.600 

6.400 
15.200 

S.700 
20. 300 
10.900 
17.000 

4.  Boo 
19.200 
16.500 
16.200 
13.700 
12.800 
13.100 
i8.o(jo 


11.43 
4-73 
6-95 

10.82 

6-53 

7-83 

5. 84 

19.46 

5-53 
9-13 
3-92 
6.76 
9.09 

3-97 
9.46 
5.40 

12.62 
6.78 

10.56 
2.9S 

"•93 

10.26 

10.06 

S.52 

7.96 

8.13 

11.19 


0.000 

1S.400 

26.000 

37.200 

54.600 

65.100 

77.700 

87.100 

118.400 

127.300 

142.000 

14S.300 

159.200 

173.800 

I  So.  200 

195.400 

204. 100 

224.400 

235.300 

252.300 

257.100 

276.300 

292.800 

309.000 

322.700 

335.500 

348.600 

366.600 


11.43 
16.16 
23.11 

33.93 

40.46 

48.29 

54.13 

73.59 

79.12 

88.25 

92.17 

98.93 

108.02 

111.99 

121.45 

126.85 

139.47 
146.25 
156.81 

159.79 
171.72 
181.98 
192.04 
200.56 
208.52 
216.65 
227.84 


2157.00 
2312.00 
2295.00 
2244.60 
2055.00 
2014.10 
2000.00 
198S.25 

1752.37 
1662.57 

1453.29 
1370.31 
1246. CO 
1060.56 

972.07 
787.92 

695.00 

559.71 
540.00 
592.00 

672.00 
1055.00 
1332.00 
1495.00 
1927.00 
1695.00 
1642.00 

1545.00 


7077.00 

75S5.54 
7529.77 
7364.41 
6742.34 
6608.15 
6561.89 
6523-35 

5749-43 
5454-81 
476S.18 
4405.91 
40S8.07 
3479.65 
3189.31 

2585-13 
22S0.26 
1836.38 
177I-71 
1942.32 
2204.80 
3461.40 
4370.22 
4905- 02 
6322.39 
S561.21 
5387.32 
5069.06 


FROM    COATZACOALCOS    TO    SALINA    CRUZ,    BY    THE    NATIONAL 
TEHUANTEPEC    RAILWAY. 


Coatzacoalcos 
Los  T-lmones, 
Chinameca  . . , 

Jaltipan 

Ojapa  

Almagres.  . .  . 


21.749 
15.140 

5.407 
20.547 
12.568 
11.589 


13.51 
9.42 

3.35 
12.77 

7.83 
7.19 


0.000 

21.749 
36.889 
42.296 
62.S43 
75.411 


0.00 

13.51 
22.93 

26.28 

39.05 
46,88 


2.00 
16.00 

6.00 
40.00 
32.00 
48. 00 


264 


statistical  IRotes  on  /iDejico. 


Juile 

Medias  Aguas    . 

Tortugas 

Santa  Lucrecia.. 
Los  Muertos.. .  . 

Ubero 

Tolosa 

Palomares 

i\Iogone 

Rincon  Antonio. 

Lagunas 

Chivela 

Rio  Verde 

San  Geronimo. . 
Tehuantepec.  .  . . 

Santa  Cruz 

Salina  Cruz 


Distance  between 
each  station. 


Kilom's.        Miles 


9.284 

9.672 
21.044 

7.000 
10.000 
14.801 

7.199 
20.570 
15.176 

13.254 

17.764 
10.236 
17.186 
28.218 

3.596 
17.617 


5.77 
6.01 
13.08 
4.36 
6.21 

9.20 

4-47 
12.78 

943 

8.25 

11.04 

6.35 
10.68 

17.54 

2.24 

10.94 


Distances. 


Kilom's.   Miles. 


87.000 
96.284 
105.956 
127.000 
134.000 
144.000 
158.801 
166.000 
186.570 
201.746 
215. 000 
232.764 
243.000 
260.186 
2S8.404 
292.000 
309.617 


54.07 

59.84 

65.85 
78.93 
83.29 
89.50 
98.70 
103.17 

115-95 
125.38 

133-63 
144.67 
151.02 
161.70 

179-24 
181.48 
192.42 


Altitudes. 


Metres.  Feet. 


40.00 
32.00 
44.00 
30.00 

35-00 

25.00 

52.00 

88.00 

92.00 

1 76. 00 

260.00 

244.00 

115.00 

56.00 

36.00 

36.00 

2.00 


131.24 

104.99 
144.36 

98.43 
114.83 

82.02 
170.61 
28S.73 
301.85 
577-45 
853-05 
800.55 
377.30 
183.74 
108.12 
108.12 
6.56 


FROM     THE     CITY    OF     MEXICO     TO     PACHUCA,     BY    THE      HIDALGO     AND 

NORTHEASTERN    MEXICAN    RAILWAY. 

LINE   FINISHED. 

NORTHEASTERN    RAILWAY    FROM    MEXICO    TO    TIZAYUCA. 


Mexico 

Canal 

Ojo  de  Agua. 
Santa  Ana. . . 
Tizayuca.  . . . 


19.000 

11.400 

5.200 

14.800 


11.80 
7.10 

3.23 
9.20 


0.000 
19.000 

0.00 
It. 80 

2264.76 
2266.01 

30.400 
35.600 
50.400 

IS.90 
22.13 

31.33 

2272.96 
2271.36 

2294.65 

7430.56 
7434.66 

7457.46 
7452.21 

7528.62 


HIDALGO    RAILWAY    TO    TUXPAN. 


Tizayuca 

Tezontepec.  . , 
San  Augustin. 

Tepa 

Tecajete 

Somo  Ricl.  . . 
Las  Lajas.  . . . 
Los  Romeros. 

Santiago 

Tulancingo.  .  . 
Sototlan 


16.100 

10.00 

10.800 

6.52 

6.000 

3.92 

8.400 

5.23 

11.900 

7.38 

10.600 

6.60 

7.000 

4.34 

11.700 

7.28 

5.700 

3.54 

7.200 

4.48 



66. 500 

77.300 

83.300 

91.700 

103.600 

114.200 

121.200 

132.900 

138.600 

145.800 


41.33 

47-S5 
51-77 
57.00 
64.38 
70.98 
75-32 
82.60 
86.14 
90.62 


2344.87 
2390.00 
2438.08 
2538.00 
2638.50 
2504.80 
2392.80 
2221.72 
2187.29 
2171.46 


7693.38 
7841.46 
7999.21 
8327.04 
8656.78 
82x8.10 
7850.64 
7289.33 
7176.39 
7124.44 


FROM    TEPA  TO    PACHUCA,  A  BRANCH    OF    THE    HIDALGO  RAILROAD. 


Tepa I      8.700 

Xochihuacan I    17.300 

Pachuca 


5-41 
10.75 


0.000 

8.700 

26.000 


0.00 

5.41 
16.16 


2438.08 
2380.06 
2420.99 


7999.21 
7808.85 
7493.15 


FROM    SAN    AUGUSTIN  TO    IKOLO,  A  BRANCH  OF  THE  HIDALGO  RAILWAY. 


San  Agustin. 
Tlanalapa ... 
Irolo 


14.600 
13-700 


9.08 

8.51 


0.000 
14.600 
28.300 


0.00  i  2390.00  I  7841.46 
9.08  I  2437.39  I  7996  95 
[7.59  I  2452.58  I  8046.78 


Utiiieraries. 


FROM    DURANGO    TO    MAZATLAN    BY    BRIDLE-PATH. 


Durango 

Salitre 

El  Salto 

Arroyo  Seco 

Camino  del  Jaral. .  . . 

El  Escalon 

Las  Indias 

Calzoii  Roto 

El  Fino 

Rio  Chico 

La  Palniita 

Los  Cerritos 

Los  Mimbres 

Biiena  Vista 

Los  Charcos 

Los  Navios 

Navajas 

Llano  Grande 

Cruz  de  Piedra 

Coyotes 

El  Salto 

Piloncillos 

La  Florida 

Junta  de  los  Caminos. 

El  Tecomate 

Chavarria 

La  Cienega 

Las  Botijas 

La  Escondida 


Altitudes. 


Metres. 


18S0.13 
1925.00 
1900.00 
1890.00 
iSgo.oo 
1980.00 
2120.00 
2180.00 
2260.00 
2020.00 
2220.00 
2260.00 
2180.00 
2330.00 
2340.00 
2350.00 
2260.00 
2160.00 
2230.00 
2270.00 
22S0.00 
2390.00 
2440.00 
2390.00 
2100.00 
1710.00 
2160.00 
2050.00 
2035.00 


Feet. 

6168.62 
6315.82 
6233.80 
6201.00 
6201.00 
6496.28 
6955.60 
7152.46 

7414.94 
6627.51 

72S3.70 

7414-94 
7152.46 
7644.60 
7674.41 
7710.22 

7414.94 
7086.84 

7316.51 
7447.75 
7480.56 
7841.46 
S005.51 
7S41.46 
6889.98 
5610.43 
70S6.84 
6725.94 
6676.72 


La  Ramona 

El  Chapote 

Rio  del  Baluarte 

La  Ventanita 

Sotolito 

El  Carrizo  de  Adentro, 
El  Carrizo  de  Afuera. , 

Las  Loberas 

El Venteadero 

Puerta  de  los  Pilares. , 

Arroyo  del  Leon 

Palotillo 

Platanito 

Santa  Catarina 

El  Limon 

El  Tecomate 

Tagarete 

Rio  del  Presidio 

I'orras 

Sigueros 

La  Cofradia 

Confite 

La  Escondida 

Las  riigueras 

Las  Cunclias 

Carboneras 

Palos  Prietos 

Mazatlan 


Altitudes. 


Metres. 


1220.00 

950.00 

630.00 

770.00 

1550.00 

1825.00 

1860.00 

1970.00 

1930.00 

1250.00 

1120.00 

1010.00 

940.00 

210.00 

130.00 

IIO.OO 

85.00 
55.00 
65.00 
50.00 
45.00 

62.00 

68.00 

30.00 
22.30 

15.50 

1-54 
0.00 


Feet. 


4002.76 
3116.90 
2067.00 
2526.34 

50S5.47 

5987.73 

6102.57 

6463.47 

6332.23 

4101.19 

3674.66 

3313.76 

3084.09 

6S9.OO 

426.52 

360.90 

278.88 

1S0.45 

213.26 

164.05 

147.64 

203.42 

223.11 

Q8.43 
73.16 
50.85 

5.05 
0.00 


FROM   MANZANILLO    TO    GUADALAJARA    BY   WAGON    ROAD. 


Manzanillo 

Cerro  del  Vigia 

Cola  de  Iguana 

El  Ciruelo 

Canoa  Verde 

Las  Trojes 

Valenzuela 

Tecolapa 

La  Noria   

La  Presa 

Colima 

La  Puerta 

San  Joaquin 

Los  Limones 

San  Gen'inimo 

Los  Alcaracos 

La  Quesei  la 

Tonila 

Bai  ranca  Cachepehuate 

San  M  arcos 

Barranca  de  Beltran. . . 
Plava  


Barranca  Platanar. . . . 

Loma 

Barranca  de  Atenquique 

Ocote  Gacho 

Pedrcgal 


0.00 

125.00 

50.00 

75.00 

75.00 

100.00 

125.00 

175  00 

312.00 

362.00 

560.00 

650.00 

650.00 

850.00 

900.00 

1100.00 

1162.00 

1 1 75. CO 

975.00 

985.00 

850.00 

1025.00 

950.00 

1225.00 

1025.00 

1250.00 

1375.00 


410. ri 

164.05 
246.07 
346.07 
328.09 
410. II 
574.16 
1023.65 
1187.70 

1837.33 
2132.62 
2132.62 
2788.81 
2952.S5 
3609.04 
3S12.46 
3854.61 
3198.92 

3231.73 
2788.81 
3362.97 
3116.90 
4019.16 
3362.97 
4101.19 
4511.30 


Ciudad  Guzman  (Zapot. 

Ian) 

.Santa  Catarina 

La  Cuesta 

San  Nicolas 

Amatitlan 

Sayula 

Ojo  de  Agua 

Cofradia 

Techolula 

Cuevitas 

El  Cnemasate 

El  Cnicero 

Cebollas 

Los  Pozos  

Chiinaltitan 

Ofotan 

Santa  Ana  Acatlan. . . . 

Puerta 

Cofradia 

Santa  Cruz 

Arenal 

San  Agustin 

La  Caiera 

Puente  de  Santa  Maria. 
Guadalajara 


1412.00 
1412.00 
1450.00 
1300.00 
1325.00 
1350.00 
1360.00 
137500 
1375-00 
1360.00 
1325.00 
1325.00 
1350.00 
1325.00 
1325.00 
1330.00 
1350.00 
1500.00 
1512.00 
1475.00 
1600.00 
I575.t» 

1575. (X) 

1550.00 

I^OO.tX) 


4632.70 
4632.70 
4767.38 
4265.23 
4347.25 
4429.28 
4462.09 
4511.30 
4511.30 
4462.09 
4347.25 
4347.25 
4429. 28 

4347.25 
4347.25 
4363.66 
442().28 
4921.42 
4960. 79 
4987.05 
5429.52 

5167.49 
5167.49 
5085.47 
4921.42 


>66 


Statistical  IRotes  on  /IDejico, 


FROM    TEHUACAN    TO    OAXACA    AND    PUERTO    ANGEL    BY  WAGON    ROAD. 


Tehuacan 

La  Iluerta 

Arroyo  de  Buena  Vista. 

San  Sebastian 

Camino  de  Calipan. . . . 

Calaveras 

San  Antonio 

Hacienda  de  Ayotla. . . 

Rio  de  Reyes 

Tecomavaca 

Rio  Salado 

Campanario 

Organo 

Pajarito 

Gavilan 

Paraje  Blanco 

Rio  Seco  

Ciionoslar 

Rancho  de  Urrutia. .  . . 
Rancho  de  Cuagulotal . 
Rancho  de  los  Obos. .  . 
Hacienda  de  Giiendu- 

lain 

Rio  Apoala 

Rio  Tomellin 

Balconcillo 

Rancho  del  Chilar. . . . 

Infiernillo 

Don  Dominguillo 

Arroyo  Dominguillo  . . 
Arroyo  de  Nopala. . . . 

El  Pochote 

Canton  de  Buena  Vista. 

Cuspide 

Puente  de  la  Joya 

Venta  Vieja 

Paredones  

Llano  del  Timbre.... 

Cieneguilla 

Portezuelo 

Las  Trancas 

Carbonera 

Ojo  de  Agua 


Altitudes. 


Metres. 


1660.00 
1480.00 
1320.00 
1120.00 
1060.00 
960.00 
QOO.OO 
860.00 
QOO.OO 
620.00 
600.00 
730.00 
700.00 
680.00 
600.00 
580.00 
560.00 
700.00 
620.00 
620.00 
620.00 

620.00 

540.00 

540.00 

6S0.OO 

660.00 

660.00 

750.00 

720.00 

710.00 

1240.00 

1360.00 

1500.00 

1400.00 

1600.00 

1840.00 

X  900. 00 

2020.00 
2220.00 
2080.00 
2160.00 
2100.00 


Feet. 


5446.38 
4855.81 
4330.85 
3674.66 
3477-81 
3149-71 
2952.85 
2821.62 
2952.85 
2034.19 

1968.57 
2395.10 
2296.67 

2231.05 

196S.57 
1902.95 

1837-33 
2296.67 
2034.19 
2034.19 
2034.19 

2034.19 

1771.71 
1771.71 
2231.05 
2165.43 
2165.43 
2460.72 
2362.29 
2329. 48 
406S.38 
4462.09 
4921.42 
3412.19 
524952 
6036.95 
6233.70 
6627.51 
7283.70 
6824.37 
7086.84 
6889. 98 


PLACES. 


Tierra  Blanca 

Rio  Atoyac  

San  Pablo  Huitzo 

Santiago  Huitzo 

Villa  de  Etla 

Dolores 

Panzacola  

Oaxaca 

San  Agustin  Juntas. . . 

C'oyotepec 

Cuspide 

Santo  Tomas  Jaliera. . 

Ocotlan 

Magdalena 

San  Martin 

Rio  Coapa 

Ejutla 

Arrogante 

Chichovo 

Zopilote 

Cuspide 

Tlacuache 

Tepehuaje 

Miahuatlan 

Chaiianeco 

Agua  del  Sol 

San  Jose  del  Pacifico.  . 
Garganta  del  Encino. . 

Tres  Cruces 

Rancho  de  Canoas   . .  . 
San  Miguel  Xuchistepec 

Rio  de  San  Jose 

Cerro  de  Santa  Ana. . . 
Cerro  de  San  Pedro . . . 

El  Porvenir 

Garganta  del  Cerro  de 

la  Pluma 

La  Providencia 

La  Soledad 

.San  Jose  Totoltepec. . . 

Rio  Chacalapa 

Pochutla 

Puerto  Angel 


Altitudes. 


Metres. 


2000.00 
1660.00 
1700.00 
1680.00 
1660.00 
1040.00 
1540.00 
1540.00 
1530.00 
1600.00 
igoo.oo 
1S30.00 
1720.00 
1700.00 
1700.00 
1590.00 
1540.00 
1600.00 
1840.00 
1810.00 
1930.00 
1840.00 
1780.00 
1800.00 
2230.00 
2400.00 
2600.00 
2800.00 
3160.00 
3000.00 
2780.00 
2340.00 
2720.00 
2500.00 
800.00 

qoo.oo 
830.00 
750.00 
530.00 
340.00 
160.00 
0.00 


Feet. 


6561.89 
5446-38 
5577.62 
5512.00 
5446.38 
53S0.76 
5052.66 
5052.66 
5019.85 
5249-52 
6233.70 
6004. 14 
5643.24 
5577-62 
5577-62 
5216.71 
5052.66 
5249- 52 
6036.95 
593S-52 
6332.23 
6036.95 

5840.33 
5905.71 
7316.51 
7S74.27 
8530.46 
9186.65 
10367.79 
9842.84 
9121.04 
7677.41 
8858.56 
8202.36 
2624.76 

2952.85 
2723.19 
2460.72 
1738.90 
1115.52 

524-95 
0.00 


THE    VALLEY    OF    MEXICO  S    DRAINAGE. 


Mexico  is  finishing  a  great  work,  the  drainage  of  the  valley  where 
the  capital  city  is  located,  which  has  required  for  its  completion  nearly 
three  hundred  years  and  many  millions  of  dollars,  and  has  cost  the 
lives  of  hundreds  of  thousands  of  men.     The  necessity,  importance, 

'  This  article  was  published  in  the  £ngi)feerin<:^  Magazine  of  New  York  for 
January,  1895  (vol.  viii.,  No  4),  but  has  since  been  revised  and  considerably  enlarged. 


tlbe  Dallev  ot  /IDejico's  IDrainaae.  267 

and  magnitude  of  this  work,  which  will  be  classed  among  the  grandest 
achievements  of  men,  and  the  nearness  of  its  completion,  induce  me 
to  write  this  paper,  which  I  hope  will  give  some  idea  of  its  scope  and 
purpose.  I  do  not  pretend  to  originality,  as  my  work  to  some  extent 
has  been  one  of  compilation  from  different  monographs,  which  have 
appeared  from  time  to  time,  and  from  some  official  publications  of  the 
I  Mexican  Government. 

Topographical  Conditions  of  the  Valley  of  Mexico. — The  Valley  of 
Mexico  is  an  immense  basin,  of  approximately  circular  shape  with  one 
extreme  diameter  of  about  sixty  miles,  completely  bounded  by  high 
mountains,  and  having  only  two  or  three  quite  high  passes  out  of  it. 
No  water  drains  out  of  the  basin.  The  surface  of  this  valley  has  a  mean 
altitude  above  the  sea  of  7413  feet  and  an  area  of  about  2220  square 
miles. 

Mountain  ranges  rise  on  every  side,  making  a  great  corral  of  rock 
containing  dozens  of  villages  and  hamlets,  with  the  ancient  capital  in 
the  centre.  In  times  past  the  fires  of  volcanoes  licked  up  the  earth, 
and  such  fires  still  live  in  the  mammoth  Popocatapetl,  from  whose 
great  crater  sulphur  fumes  and  smoke  with  jets  of  flame  have  poured 
through  the  centuries. 

The  valley  thus  hemmed  in  with  solid  walls  of  rock  had  been  an 
inland  sea  for  many  cycles,  and  during  the  early  existence  of  man  here 
the  salt  waters  spread  over  a  large  extent  of  the  depression.  The 
waters  have  been  gradually  lessening  by  seepage  and  evaporation,  and 
the  Aztec  pilgrims  coming  from  the  north  in  the  fourteenth  century, 
having  received  a  sign  that  they  were  to  build  their  queen-of-the-world 
city  on  a  small  island  of  the  sea,  set  about  building  dikes  and  combat- 
ing the  overflow  of  the  waters. 

Evaporation  is  so  excessive  at  certain  periods  of  the  year  that 
malaria,  consequent  on  drought,  was  far  more  dreaded  by  the  inhabit- 
ants than  the  periodical  floods,  and  thousands  perished  annually,  so 
that  proper  drainage  was  an  absolute  necessity  for  the  preservation  of 
health. 

Work  done  by  the  Indians. — Nearly  fifty  years  before  the  discov- 
ery of  America,  which  took  place  in  1492,  Netzahualcoyotl,  saw  the 
necessity  for  a  drainage  canal,  and  commenced  the  work  in  1450. 
He  constructed  an  immense  dike  to  divide  the  fresh  from  the  salt- 
water lakes  of  the  valley.  The  City  of  Mexico  was  at  this  time  the 
centre  of  the  Aztec  nation,  and  was  built  on  floating  structures,  like 
rafts,  on  the  water  in  the  numerous  islets  on  the  margins  of  the  lakes, 
so  that  in  the  event  of  the  water  rising  or  the  city  being  subjected  to  a 
state  of  siege,  the  whole  city  would  float.  Mexico  City  now  occupies 
the  site  of  the  old  Aztec  capital. 

The  waters  of  these  lakes  were  liable  to  disturbances  of  all  kinds; 


268  Statistical  IRotes  on  /iDejico. 

thus  it  is  recorded  by  Prescott  in  his  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Mexico  : 
"In  1 510  the  great  lake  of  Texcoco,  without  the  occurrence  of  a 
tempest  or  earthquake,  or  any  other  visible  cause,  became  violently 
agitated,  overflowed  its  banks,  and,  pouring  into  the  streets  of  Mexico, 
swept  off  many  of  the  buildings  by  the  fury  of  its  water." 

When  Cortez  arrived  in  Mexico  from  Spain  in  15 19  to  take  posses- 
sion of  the  country  in  the  name  of  the  King  of  Spain,  he  found,  to  his 
great  surprise,  the  defense  of  the  city  admirably  arranged,  and  an 
almost  enchanting  view  of  flowering  islets  forming  the  floating  capital. 
Little  towns  and  villages  lay  half-concealed  by  the  foliage,  and  from 
the  distance  these  looked  like  companies  of  wild  swans  riding  quietly 
on  the  waves. 

A  scene  so  new  and  wonderful  filled  the  rude  heart  of  the  Spaniard 
with  amazement.  So  astonished  was  he  at  the  extent  of  the  water  of 
Lake  Texcoco  that  he  describes  it  as  "  a  sea  that  embraces  the  whole 
valley,"  but  upon  hearing  that  it  was  a  lake,  with  a  mean  depth  of  a 
few  yards,  he  gave  orders  to  cut  a  way  through  the  dike  and  destroy 
the  aqueduct  of  Chapultepec.  The  central  dike  dividing  the  fresh 
from  the  salt  water  lake  was  of  such  dimensions  as  to  serve  Cortez  as  a 
roadway  for  his  army. 

Prescott,  in  the  work  before  alluded  to,  page  297,  says:  "  Leaving 
the  mainland,  the  Spaniards  came  on  the  great  dike  or  causeway,  which 
stretches  some  four  or  five  miles  in  length,  and  divides  Lake  Chalco 
from  Xochimilco  on  the  west.  It  was  a  lance  in  breadth  in  the 
narrowest  part,  and  in  some  places  wide  enough  for  eight  horses  to  ride 
abreast.  It  was  a  solid  structure  of  stone  and  lime,  running  directly 
through  the  lake,  and  struck  the  Spaniards  as  one  of  the  most  remark- 
able works  they  had  seen  in  the  country." 

Having  cut  the  dikes  and  drained  the  lake,  the  "  floating  city  "  was 
at  once  besieged,  and  where  originally  stood  the  great  temple  of  the 
Aztecs  a  Christian  temple  was  afterward  raised.  The  Spaniards, 
finding  themselves  in  complete  possession,  proceeded  to  erect  the  new 
City  of  Mexico,  and  building  on  the  plan  adopted  by  them  at  home, 
they  cut  down  the  points  of  the  floating  islands  and  by  gradual  exten- 
sion soon  placed  the  town  below  the  mean  average  level  of  the  lake. 
Hence  arose  the  great  difficulties  of  the  drainage  of  the  Valley  of 
Mexico. 

One  of  the  immense  dikes  built  by  King  Netzahualcoyotl  was  ten 
miles  long.  It  divided  Lake  Texcoco  into  two  parts.  Of  the  two  lakes 
thus  formed  one  was  allowed  to  remain  salt,  but  the  other  was  fresh- 
ened by  letting  only  fresh  water  enter  by  the  streams  flowing  in, 
the  water  for  the  use  of  the  city  being  taken  from  this  latter.  Little  by 
little  the  waters  have  subsided  since  that  period,  and  have  been  fought 
back,  until  now  they  are  confined  to  six  great  lakes — Chalco,  Xochi- 


Ube  Dalles  of  /iDejico's  Brainacje.  269 

milco,  Texcoco,  Xaltocan,  San  Cristobal,  and  Zumpango.  Each  of 
these  lakes  is  fed  by  streams  which  have  little  volume  during  the  dry 
season,  but  which  in  the  rainy  season  swell  to  considerable  size,  and 
at  times  overflow  the  valleys.  The  lake  of  Zumpango  was  the  most 
dangerous  of  these,  for  it  received  the  waters  of  the  Cuautitlan  River, 
— a  river  draining  a  large  area  of  country,  and  having  during  the  rainy 
season  a  great  volume  of  water.  This  river  has  been  turned  into  the 
cut  of  Nochistongo,  and  has  ceased  to  threaten  Mexico  and  its  environs 
with  its  overflow. 

From  these  topographical  conditions  frequent  floodings  of  the  old 
Aztec  city  and  of  the  Spanish  capital,  situated  almost  at  the  lowest 
point  of  the  valley,  were  sure  to  come  in  times  of  unusually  heavy 
rains.  In  early  days,  wlien  the  Aztecs  lived  in  the  middle  of  Lake 
Mexico,  when  their  temples  and  wigwams  were  built  on  piles  and  the 
streets  were  often  only  canals,  the  periodical  overflows  from  the  upper 
lakes  were  a  matter  of  small  concern,  though  even  then  the  Nahua 
engineers  were  called  upon  to  protect  the  city  by  dikes.  But  when  by 
evaporation,  by  filling  in  at  the  site  of  the  city,  by  lessened  waters,  due 
to  the  fissures  caused  by  earthquakes,  Lake  Mexico  had  disappeared, 
and  the  city  had  come  to  be  built  on  the  spongy  soil,  above  all,  when 
the  short-sighted  choice  of  Cortez  had  been  confirmed  and  the  capital 
of  New  Spain  had  come  to  stand  on  the  ruins  of  the  Aztec  town, 
increasing  rapidly  in  population  and  wealth, — it  became  a  serious 
matter  that  on  an  average  of  once  in  twenty-five  years  the  streets 
should  be  from  two  to  six  feet  under  water  for  an  indefinite  time. 

Work  done  by  the  Spaniards. — From  15 19  to  1553  the  Spaniards 
were  busily  engaged  in  building  Mexico,  and  another  grand  dike, 
similar  to  that  built  by  Netzahualcoyotl  in  1450,  was  formed  around 
the  city;  this  protection  proved  insufficient,  for  in  1580  another  inun- 
dation took  place.  The  Viceroy  of  the  day,  Senor  Don  Martin 
Enriquez  de  Almanza,  assisted  by  engineers,  engaged  to  find  an  outlet 
for  the  waters  north  of  the  valley.  During  the  time  they  were  thus 
engaged,  important  facts  were  gleaned  respecting  the  River  Cuautitlan, 
and  its  curious  behavior  at  the  foot  of  Nochistongo,  whence  it  doubled 
its  course  at  a  certain  altitude  and  ran  toward  Lake  Texcoco,  instead 
of  into  its  own  lake  of  Xaltocan.  The  scheme  formed  by  Enriquez 
de  Almanza  to  remedy  this  evil  was  kept  in  abeyance,  as  his  services 
were  required  in  Peru. 

In  the  year  1604  a  serious  inundation  attacked  Mexico  City.  The 
Marquis  de  Montes  Claros  did  all  in  his  power  to  carry  out  the  plan  of 
Senor  Don  Martin  Enriquez  to  relieve  the  rivers  of  the  north  and  of 
the  valley  of  the  excess  of  water  from  the  central  and  south  lakes, 
which  are  of  higher  altitudes.  'Y\it  pros  and  cojis  of  this  plan  were 
beset  with  many  great  difficulties,  and  respecting  one  of  the  methods 


2  70  statistical  IRotes  on  /iDcjico. 

tried,  mention  must  be  made  of  a  dike  of  great  strength,  constructed 
to  prevent  any  excess  or  overflow  of  water  from  destroying  the  town 
of  Zumpango  and  washing  away  its  crops.  This  dike,  which  was  to 
check  the  strong  current  of  the  river  Pachuca,  would  also  direct  the 
river  Cuautitlan  to  Mexico,  direct  the  rivers  north  into  Zumpango,  and 
would  inundate  that  verdant  district,  and  probably  submerge  the  town; 
whereas,  to  divert  them  into  Lake  Texcoco  would  submerge  Mexico. 
To  prevent  this  evil  it  was  decided  to  make  a  tunnel;  but  here,  as  in 
all  countries  and  in  all  ages,  engineers,  when  engaged  in  any  work  of 
magnitude,  and  of  a  different  character  from  that  commonly  known, 
always  find  theorists  to  offer  objections,  and  thus  stop  the  way  to 
actual  progress.     This  was  the  case  in  Mexico  City. 

In  1607  another  inundation,  spreading  over  the  whole  valley,  oc- 
curred, and,  as  all  the  dikes  and  other  defences  were  swept  away, 
caused  a  panic  of  terror  among  the  inhabitants.  The  Marquis  de 
Salinas  was  then  Viceroy  at  Mexico  City,  and  determined  to  carry 
out  the  plan  of  Senor  Don  Martin  Enriquez,  being  assisted  by  an 
engineer  of  great  repute  named  Enrico  Martinez,  and  also  solicited 
and  obtained  the  co-operation  of  Father  Sanchez,  of  the  Society  of 
Jesus.  These  three  men,  after  many  consultations,  formulated  the 
plan  of  embracing  the  whole  of  the  lakes  of  the  plain  into  one  main 
channel  of  detention,  and  an  outlet  as  required  to  keep  the  same  under 
such  control  as  to  have  at  all  times  an  abundance  of  water  for  use. 
The  plan,  broadly  speaking,  was  to  draw  off  the  water  from  the  south 
lakes  which  are  at  higher  levels  to  those  of  the  north,  and  to  make 
them  serve,  by  the  scour  the  velocity  of  the  water  would  cause,  to 
deepen  the  passage  for  their  exit,  and,  at  the  same  time,  assist  the 
making  of  the  grand  canal 

Great  opposition  to  this  plan  was  offered  on  the  score  of  economy, 
and  many  insisted  that  the  inundations  were  solely  due  to  the  waters 
of  Cuautitlan  and  the  freshets  of  Pachuca,  and  if  these  were  directed 
north  no  more  was  needed,  while  the  people  of  Zumpango  tried  to 
show  that  no  more  was  needed  to  inundate  their  town  and  submerge 
the  district.  The  Viceroy  then  requested  Enrico  Martinez  to  induce 
Father  Sanchez  to  submit  some  modifications  of  his  former  scheme. 

The  plan  was  modified,  and  on  November  28,  1607,  Enrico  Martinez 
started  operations  on  the  modified  plan,  and  in  about  eleven  months 
66co  metres  (43V  miles)  of  tunnel,  with  a  transverse  section  of  3.50 
metres  (11^  feet)  wide,  and  a  depth  of  4.20  metres  (i3f  feet),  was 
completed.  At  the  same  time  other  important  drainage  works  were 
being  made;  the  passage  was  opened  from  Boca  de  San  Gregorio  to 
Salto  de  Tula;  this  was  8600  metres  (5-^  miles)  long,  as  well  as  two 
canals  as  aqueducts  6^  miles  long,  one  for  Lake  Zumpango  and  the 
other  for  the  river  Cuautitlan  from  Teoloyucan  to  Huehuetoca. 


Zbc  Dalles  of  /IDejico's  H)rainage.  271 

In  December,  1608,  in  the  presence  of  the  Viceroy  Don  Luis  de 
Velasco  and  the  Archbishop  of  Mexico,  Enrico  Martinez  inaugurated 
the  outlet  of  the  waters,  the  whole  of  the  work  just  described  being 
executed  in  one  year.  Humboldt  tells  us  that  fifteen  thousand  native 
Indians  were  employed  on  these  works. 

In  spite  of  the  great  good  these  works  brought  to  the  people,  there 
was  an  outcry  for  economy,  but  it  is  certain  that  other  motives 
prompted  the  disturbance  and  the  attempt  to  harass  and  hamper  the 
Viceroy.  The  object  was  to  prevent  a  grant  of  money  from  being 
made  to  pay  for  the  lining  of  the  tunnel  with  brick.  This  was  found 
to  be  necessary,  as  the  greater  part  of  the  work  was  excavated  in  marl, 
and  the  liberated  waters  ran  with  such  velocity  that  the  symmetry  of 
the  tunnel  was  soon  destroyed,  and  its  passage  and  usefulness  lessened 
by  the  debris  that  obstructed  the  fairway.  This  state  of  things  was 
brought  so  forcibly  home  to  the  objectors  that  a  small  sum  of  money 
was  reluctantly  granted,  sufficient  to  patch  up  the  tunnel  in  places 
where  the  rush  of  waters  had  made  the  most  havoc,  hydraulic  cement 
or  mortar  being  used,  but  the  sum  granted  proved  to  be  totally 
inadequate,  and  for  want  of  more  money  the  tunnel  was  rendered  per- 
fectly useless  by  falling  obstructions.  This  occurred  in  the  year  1609. 
Gossips  and  theorists  then  united  to  run  down  the  scheme,  although  it 
was  conceded  that  the  work  had  averted  a  terrible  inundation  or  sub- 
mergence of  Mexico  City. 

A  few  years  elapsed  before  the  question  of  continuing  the  works  for 
the  tunnel  again  caused  excitement;  but  a  general  feeling  grew  up  that 
the  work  of  the  tunnel  should  be  continued.  The  opposition  was  strong 
enough  to  obtain  the  hearing  of  an  appeal  in  Madrid,  with  the  result 
that  the  Spanish  Government  in  1614  procured  the  services  of  a  Dutch 
engineer,  named  Adrian  van  Boot,  to  proceed  to  Mexico  City  to 
examine  and  report  on  the  canal  works,  and  to  submit  a  plan  to 
remedy  the  evils.  As  the  result  of  his  labors  he  condemned  the  plan 
of  Father  Sanchez,  and  recommended  that  the  old  means  of  defence 
used  by  the  Indians  should  again  be  adopted,  and  that  dams  and  dikes 
should  be  thrown  up  at  once.  This  report  had  the  effect  of  annoying 
almost  everybody,  and  was  the  means  of  much  fruitless  discussion.  In 
this  dilemma  the  Spanish  Government,  when  appealed  to,  confessed 
they  were  unable  to  advise  the  Viceroy  of  Mexico  what  to  do,  but 
sent  the  Marquis  of  Gelves  to  Mexico  to  see  into  matters,  and  he, 
having  unbounded  faith  'in  the  ability  of  the  Dutch  engineer,  Adrian 
van  Boot,  and  hoping  to  keep  money  in  the  treasury,  ordered  Enrico 
Martinez  to  close  up  the  tunnel  completely,  and  to  return  the  rivers  to 
their  natural  courses ;  but  before  these  orders  were  half  executed  the 
enormous  rush  of  waters  grew  so  alarming  that  he  had  to  accept 
again  Enrico  Martinez's  plan  over  that  of  Adrian  van  Boot.      The 


272  Statistical  Botes  on  /IDcjico. 

Marquis  was  soon  after  deposed,  his  place  being  taken  by  the  Mari|uis 
de  Cerralvo,  whose  first  act  was  to  set  Martinez  free  at  the  request  of 
the  city  council  who  provided  him  with  means  of  continuing  his  work, 
on  the  canal  and  tunnel.  The  Viceroy  revoked  his  predecessor's 
order  and  issued  another  to  open  up  the  tunnel,  and  that  with  all  speed, 
on  his  personal  responsibility.  Although  Cerralvo  gave  these  orders, 
he  forgot  to  give  Martinez  the  money  to  carry  them  out,  and,  as  a  con- 
sequence, the  works  remained  in  a  deplorable  condition. 

The  tunnel  was  blocked  up  by  this  cause,  and  Martinez  was  cruelly 
scored  for  not  having  done  his  work  aright  by  the  very  ones  who  had 
refused  to  give  him  the  necessary  material  for  it.  He  bravely  essayed 
to  repair  the  damage,  but  the  water-soaked  condition  of  the  ground 
gave  no  resistance  for  the  building  of  the  needed  walls,  while  death 
mowed  down  the  enslaved  workers.  They  were  crushed  to  death  by 
the  frequent  cavings  in  of  the  loose  soil,  or  were  sent  to  the  grave  by 
the  deadly  damps.  Finally,  the  charge  being  made  that  the  builder 
was  blocking  up  the  tunnel  in  revenge,  he  was  thrown  into  prison, 
where  he  languished  for  many  months.  As  there  was  no  one  else 
available  who  could  carry  on  the  great  work,  he  was  afterwards  released 
and  again  put  in  charge.  It  was  then  decided  that,  the  tunnel  being 
completely  useless,  the  next  thing  to  be  done  would  be  to  make  a  great 
cut  down  to  the  tunnel  and  thus  open  it  out.  This  entailed  the  making 
of  an  excavation  fourteen  miles  in  length  with  an  average  depth  of  one 
hundred  and  eighty  feet  and  width  of  four  hundred  feet. 

On  June  20,  1629,  the  ever  troublesome  river  Cuautitlan  over  flowed 
and  inundated  the  north  of  the  plain,  and  swept  with  it  other  streams 
into  Lake  Texcoco.  In  the  September  following  the  increase  of  the 
water  was  greater  than  ever  had  been  known.  The  city  was  so  sud- 
denly and  completely  submerged  that  thirty  thousand  persons  perished, 
the  bodies  floating  about  the  streets  for  some  time  after.  The  destruc- 
tion of  property  and  life,  consequent  on  the  inundation,  was  so  great 
generally,  and  affected  the  tunnel  to  such  an  extent,  that  during  a 
period  of  five  years  there  was  scarcely  any  reduction  in  the  height  of 
the  water,  and  the  water  in  the  city  remained  during  all  this  time  as 
high  as  the  second  story  of  the  houses;  the  slight  difference  in  the 
heighth  of  the  water  being  caused  by  evaporation. 

The  Spanish  Government  at  Madrid  gave  orders  to  change  the 
capital  to  a  better  and  more  secure  site.  To  this  suggestion  the  citizens 
demurred,  saying,  in  effect,  that  to  insure  complete  security  an  outlay 
of  only  $3,000,000  was  necessary,  this  being  the  estimated  cost  of  com- 
pleting the  tunnel,  whereas  to  build  a  new  city  would  involve  an  outlay 
of  $50,000,000,  with  a  loss  of  another  $50,000,000  in  leaving  the  old 
one. 

Several  plans  were  now  submitted  in  opposition  to  that  of  Enrico 


Xlbe  Dallci^  of  /iDejlco's  H)rainage.  273 

Martinez,  and  one  by  Simon  Mendez  was  accepted,  his  plan  being  to 
direct  all  the  waters  of  the  valley  by  one  canal  into  the  neck  of  the 
Tula,  the  spot  selected  by  Martinez  for  his  outlet.  It  was  soon  dis- 
covered that  the  plan  of  Simon  Mendez  was  far  too  costly,  and  as  the 
money  that  could  be  spared  was  practically  melting  away  without  per- 
ceptible progress  being  made,  Enrico  Martinez  was  again  requested  to 
carry  out  the  work  as  arranged  with  Father  Sanchez. 

The  next  Viceroy,  the  Marquis  of  Cadereita,  was  most  desirous 
to  see  the  work  of  the  tunnel  pushed  on;  but  however  enthusiastic  he 
may  have  been,  lack  of  funds  prevented  him  from  giving  effect  to  his 
desires.  The  work  continued  very  slowly,  Martinez  being  unable  to 
do  any  work  at  the  tunnel,  and  he  contented  himself  with  improving  the 
canal  by  lining  it  in  bad  places  with  cement.  Martinez  struggled  on 
for  thirty-seven  years  with  this  work,  and  died  unnoticed  and  un- 
cared  for.     All  trace  of  his  place  of  final  rest  was  lost. 

In  1637  an  earthquake  made  sad  havoc  with  the  tunnel  works,  and 
for  lack  of  funds  no  repairs  could  take  place;  but  when  funds  were 
obtainable  workmen  could  not  be  procured,  the  earthquakes  and  inun- 
dations having  carried  off  many  thousands  of  these  poor  fellows.  The 
survivors  lacked  heart  to  return  to  such  an  unfortunate  and,  as  they 
thought,  accursed  work. 

In  the  year  1640  the  work  was  being  pressed  on  by  men  from  the 
prisons,  under  the  directiov,  of  the  Franciscan  monks,  and  carried  on, 
with  varying  results,  in  this 'way  for  thirty-five  years,  until  Seiior  Don 
Martin  Solis  was  made  head  of  the  municipal  council.  He  being  an 
avowed  enemy  to  the  Franciscans,  sent  them  away,  and  undertook  the 
superintendence  of  the  work  himself;  but  his  method  of  treating  the 
prisoners  was  so  harsh  and  cruel  that  they  broke  out  into  open  revolt, 
and  the  works  were  threatened.  Therefore,  to  save  the  works  and  his 
own  life,  he  consented  to  the  return  of  the  Franciscans.  It  is  estimated 
that  up  to  this  time  some  two  hundred  thousand  men  lost  their  lives  on 
this  work.  The  Franciscans  steadily,  but  slowly,  worked  on,  always 
with  a  very  limited  exchequer,  until  1767,  when  there  remained  some 
1935  metres  (i^  miles)  still  to  be  completed.  A  contract  was  entered 
into  to  finish  this  work  in  five  years  for  $800,000;  but  instead  of  five 
years  it  took  twenty-two  yeiirs,  and,  instead  of  8  metres  (25  feet  wide), 
as  contracted  for,  it  was  only  3  metres  (9  feet  10  inches)  wide. 

The  Spaniards  continued  the  work  in  other  hands  for  one  hundred 
and  fifty  years  before  the  task  of  opening  the  cut  was  completed. 
Spasmodic  work  for  a  century  and  a  half  led  at  last  to  the  accomplish- 
ment of  this  project  in  1789.  The  old  tunnel  of  Martinez  is  now  a 
gigantic  trench  from  30  to  160  feet  in  depth  and  some  300  feet  broad 
in  some  places,  and  is  known  as  the  Tajo  de  Nochistongo.  The  im- 
mediate vicinity  of  the  workings  was  depopulated  of  its  native  inhabit- 


2  74  Statistical  IRotes  on  /IDc^ico. 

ants  by  the  insatiable  demands  of  the  killing  labor,  and  recruits  were 
then  drawn  from  Puebla  and  other  thickly  populated  Indian  centres. 
Great  prison  barracks  were  built  on  the  bare  hills,  and  here  all  the 
criminals  were  sent  to  enter  the  work.  The  ones  in  charge  were  in- 
different with  regard  to  the  lives  entrusted  to  their  care,  and  the 
slaughter,  of  which  scant  record  remains  in  the  parish  burial  books, 
and  which  resulted  from  a  combination  of  defects  in  appliances  for 
both  the  safety  and  the  comfort  of  the  workmen,  was  terrific.  As  the 
burial  trenches  were  filled  with  new  dead,  the  depths  of  the  cut  were 
tenanted  by  new  laborers. 

The  victims  of  three  years  of  bondage  numbered  fully  two  hundred 
thousand  ere  the  work  was  done.  Yet  the  results  were  but  slight,  only 
the  excess  of  water  from  the  highest  lakes  and  streams  being  carried 
off.  However,  the  danger  from  inundations  of  the  city  has  been  very 
materially  decreased  by  the  Nochistongo  opening,  and  no  more  deluges 
have  occurred  since  its  completion. 

Still  the  fact  that  the  bottom  of  the  cut  was  thirty  feet  higher  than 
the  surface  of  Texcoco,  the  lowest  lying  of  the  lakes,  left  the  city  in 
danger  of  inundation,  as  Lake  Texcoco  is  constantly  filling  up  at  the 
rate  of  one  and  one-half  inches  a  year  and  is  now  but  a  few  feet  below 
the  level  of  the  main  plaza  of  the  city. 

The  drainage  works  had  long  been  a  heavy  burden  upon  the  Mexi- 
can treasury.  Up  to  1637  Bancroft  estimates  that  $3,000,000  had  been 
expended.  Up  to  the  year  1800  the  outlay  had  reached  $6,247,670. 
Up  to  1830  the  total  expenditure  was  $8,000,000. 

■4  Work  done  by  the  Mexican  Government. — The  problem  which  the 
Mexican  Government  had  to  face  was  very  different  from  that  which 
confronted  Martinez  in  1607.  The  question  of  preventing  submergence 
is  practically  solved.  The  work  of  Martinez,  unsatisfactory  as  it  was, 
did  a  great  deal  to  solve  it.  Since  his  day  the  area  of  the  lakes  has 
been  gradually  diminishing.  The  rapid  evaporation  in  the  rarefied  air 
and  under  the  direct  sun  of  the  valley  partly  accounts  for  this.  Twice 
the  water  in  Lake  Texcoco  has  almost  entirely  disappeared,  leaving 
only  a  sea  of  mud  and  a  small  pool.  The  great  problem  which  the 
Mexican  Government  has  now  solved  is  not  how  to  prevent  an  inflow 
of  water,  but  how  to  provide  an  outlet  for  sewage.  The  danger  to 
be  averted  was  not  that  of  drowning,  but  that  of  dying  from  the  plague. 

Lake  Texcoco  more  than  any  other  now  menaces  the  security  of  the 
capital.  The  unwise  cutting  down  of  forests  since  the  Spanish  con- 
quest permits  the  waters  pouring  down  into  the  valley  to  bring  with 
them  annually  great  quantities  of  alluvial  matter,  which  have  so  much 
raised  the  lake  bottom  and  the  water  level  that  inundations  have  been 
of  frequent  occurrence.  The  general  level  of  the  City  of  Mexico  is 
only  6.56  feet  above  the  surface  of  the  lake.     The  rainy  season  lasts 


MAP  OF  THE  VAri.KV  OF  MEXICO,  SHOWING  THK  CANAL  AND  TUNNEL. 


Ubc  IDallei?  ot  /IDejico's  Brainaoe.  275 

from  June  to  October  inclusive.  During  this  season  five  times  as 
much  water  falls  as  during  the  rest  of  the  year,  evaporation  can  no 
longer  compensate  for  rainfall,  and  the  valley  is  more  or  less  flooded. 

Originally  built  in  the  midst  of  a  lake,  the  city  has  been  left  on  dry 
ground  by  the  receding  waters.  Lakes  Chalco  and  Xochimilco  have 
altitudes  nearly  four  feet  greater  than  the  pavement  of  the  capital. 
Still  more  imperiously  do  the  lakes  to  the  north  dominate  the  city. 
San  Cristobal  and  Xaltocan  are  about  five  feet,  while  Zumpango  is 
over  thirteen  feet,  above  it. 

The  project  now  almost  completed  is  a  modification  of  the  scheme 
projected  by  Simon  Mendez  in  the  time  of  the  Spanish  Government, 
and  which  in  1849  was  adopted  by  Captain  Smith  of  the  corps  of 
American  engineers  which  accompanied  General  Scott's  army.  The 
tunnel  was  ultimately  located  under  the  saddle  and  through  the  ravine 
of  Acatlan,  its  mouth  being  in  the  Tequixquiac,  near  the  village  of  that 
name.  The  works  have  been  begun  several  times,  and  then  suspended 
without  effecting  anything  of  importance.  In  1866  the  works  now  near- 
ing  completion  were  commenced.  A  project  proposed  by  Senor  Don 
Francisco  de  Garay,  a  well-known  engineer  of  the  City  of  Mexico, 
was  pronounced  the  most  feasible.  But  the  revolutionary  struggle 
succeeded,  and  for  many  years  the  work  was  relegated  to  the  back- 
ground. 

In  1879  engineer  Don  Luis  Espinosa,  the  present  director  of  the 
works,  took  charge  of  the  undertaking.  In  the  first  period  mentioned 
the  cutting  of  Tequixquiac  was  excavated,  and  the  greater  part  of  the 
shafts  were  begun;  but  at  that  point  the  work  was  stopped  by  political 
agitations. 

The  present  gigantic  work  cannot  have  been  considered  to  have 
been  seriously  undertaken,  with  a  view  of  completion  at  any  cost,  until 
the  year  1885,  when  the  City  Council  of  Mexico  submitted  a  project  to 
the  Government  to  which  they  offered  to  contribute  largely  in  the 
event  of  its  being  adopted. 

A  special  commission,  with  ample  authority  to  deal  with  the  funds 
set  aside  for  the  work,  was  appointed  by  President  Porfirio  Diaz. 
The  City  Council  set  aside  the  sum  of  $400,000  per  annum  for  the 
canal  works,  which  sum  was  materially  increased  by  the  Federal  Gov- 
ernment. 

In  1887  the  City  Council  raised  a  loan  in  London  of  ;^2,4oo,ooo  to 
meet  the  cost  of  the  work  and  guarantee  its  successful  termination. 
The  entire  responsibility  of  the  work  was  now  assumed  by  the  City 
Council,  and  the  Government  gave  authority  for  the  Council  to  make 
and  collect  new  taxes.  Still,  there  was  not  sufficient  money  forthcom- 
ing, so  another  loan  was  raised  in  London  for  ;^3,ooo,ooo,  a  portion 
of  which  was  held  for  the  work. 


276  statistical  IRotcs  on  /iDcyico. 

The  drainage  works,  when  carried  out,  will  receive  the  surplus 
waters  and  sewage  of  the  City  of  Mexico  and  carry  them  outside  of  the 
valley,  and  will  also  control  the  entire  waters  of  the  valley,  affording  an 
outlet,  whenever  found  necessary,  to  those  which  might  otherwise  over- 
flow fields  and  towns,  rendering  the  soil  stagnant  and  marshy.  The 
work  consists  of  three  parts — ist,  the  tunnel;  2d,  a  canal  starting 
from  the  gates  of  San  Lazaro,  and  having  a  length  of  47^  kilometres,  or 
43  miles,  its  line  following  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Guadalupe  range 
of  hills  and  between  that  range  and  Lake  Texcoco,  changing  its  direc- 
tion after  arriving  at  the  20th  kilometre  to  a  northeasterly  one,  so  as  to 
diagonally  cross  Lake  San  Cristobal,  a  part  of  Lake  Xaltocan,  and  a 
part  of  Lake  Zumpango,  and  arriving  finally  at  the  mouth  of  the 
tunnel  near  the  town  of  Zumpango;  and  3d,  the  sewage  of  the  City  of 
Mexico. 

The  tunnel. — The  contract  for  completing  the  tunnel  was  let  to 
Messrs.  Read  &  Campbell,  of  Mexico,  but  for  some  reason  they  were 
unable  to  finish  the  work.  It  was  therefore  continued  and  satisfactorily 
completed  by  the  Drainage  Board  for  a  sum  considerably  less  than  the 
price  contracted  with  Messrs.  Read  &  Campbell  under  their  superin- 
tendence as  hereafter  stated. 

The  tunnel  has  a  length  of  10,021.79  metres,  or  32,869  feet  (6^ 
miles),  with  a  curved  section  formed  by  four  curves  respectively  of  the 
following  dimensions:  The  upper  part  has  a  span  of  4.185  metres,  or 
13  feet  9  inches,  and  a  rise  of  1.570  metres,  or  5  feet  i^  inches;  the 
two  lateral  arches  have  a  chord  each  of  2.36  metres,  or  7  feet  9  inches, 
a  radius  with  a  chord  of  2.429  metres,  or  8  feet,  and  a  rise  of  0.521 
metre,  or  i  foot  8^  inches;  the  elevation  is  4.286  metres,  or  14  feet, 
and  the  greatest  width  is  the  span  of  the  upper  arch.  The  accom- 
panying drawings  show  this  section.  The  tunnel  is  lined  with  brick, 
having  a  thickness  in  the  upper  part  of  0.45  metre,  or  i  foot  6  inches, 
and  in  the  lower  part  over  which  the  water  runs,  of  0.40  metre,  or  i 
foot  4  inches  in  the  side  arches,  and  of  0.30  metre,  or  i  foot  in  the 
radius,  this  latter  lining  being  of  artificial  stone  made  of  sand  and 
Portland  cement.  The  elevation  of  the  invert  at  the  beginning  of 
the  tunnel  is  9.20  metres,  or  30  feet  i^  inches  below  datum;  at  the 
end  of  the  tunnel,  17.53  metres,  or  57  feet  6  inches  below  datum. 
The  gradient  is  0.00069  ^o^  ^"^^  ^x%\.  2170.74  metres,  or  i  in  1500  for 
7120  feet;  0.00072  for  the  following  5831  metres,  or  i  in  1389  for 
19,125  feet  6  inches  ;  o.ooi  for  4921.50  metres,  or  i  in  1389  for  16,147 
feet;  and  0.00135,  ^  "">  520,  for  1706  feet;  these  changes  being 
in  accordance  with  changes  of  details  made  from  those  of  the 
original  project,  in  some  cases  modifying  the  dimensions  of  the 
section.  Twenty-five  shafts,  each  2  by  3  metres,  or  16  feet  6f  inches 
by  9  feet  10  inches,  were  opened  at  a  distance  of  400  metres,  or  13 12 


uiea 


>  >; 


s 


K 


»p  uenpueg)^ 


l*llt^£U0U9^ 


""Va  "["•'J} 


teuunx 


^ 


^ 


o 
o 

X  uj 

Ll.  o 

>^  2  s* 
H  ^  ^ 

— J  UJ  <C 
<  C/D  o 

uJ  <  = 

X  2:  < 
o  tz 

CD  Z 

< 

or 
Q 


0      , 

,18  H| 


^ 


''t^ 


fo 


w 

i 

J 

\ 

< 

d 

! 

c 

"3 

N 

0 

0) 

x 

> 

^ 


XTbe  lDalle\?  ot  ^e^lco's  Drainage.  277 

feet  from  each  other.  These  served  to  ventilate  the  tunnel  and  to 
facilitate  the  work.  The  deepest  of  these  shafts,  situated  on  the  saddle 
of  Acatlan,  has  a  depth  of  92  metres,  or  301  feet  9  inches;  the  shallow- 
est is  21  metres,  or  68  feet  10  inches. 

To  give  an  idea  of  the  labor  involved  beyond  the  mere  tunneling, 
it  is  as  well  to  mention  that  the  quantity  of  materials  required  per  lineal 
yard  of  tunnel  was  1800  bricks,  94  cement  blocks,  3  cubic  yards  of 
mortar,  and  70  cubic  feet  of  volcanic  stone. 

Maximum  discharge  through  the  tunnel  =  18  cubic  metres,  635! 
cubic  feet  per  second. 

When  the  drainage  board  took  charge  of  the  work,  it  was  executed 
by  day  labor  both  in  the  canal  and  in  the  tunnel,  the  latter  having  the 
larger  amounts  expended  on  it.  But,  shortly  afterwards,  the  contract 
for  the  tunnel  was  let  to  Messrs.  Read  &  Campbell,  of  London,  who, 
after  having  invested  a  considerable  sum  in  the  work,  found  themselves 
under  the  necessity  of  cancelling  their  contract  at  the  beginning  of  the 
year  1892.  The  Drainage  Board  contracted  in  1887  with  the  Bucyrus 
Co.  for  the  excavation  of  1,000,000  cubic  metres  from  kilometre  22  of 
the  canal,  and  continued  to  handle  the  work,  as  managers,  on  the  re- 
maining portion  of  the  canal. 
4r'^he  Canal. — In  1887,  the  Drainage  Board  contracted  with  the 
Bucyrus  Company,  of  the  United  States,  of  which  Colonel  Harris  was 
the  president,  for  the  construction  of  the  canal. 

This  company  started  with  two  spoon  dredgers  capable  of  raising 
a  maximum  of  1000  cubic  metres,  1308  cubic  yards,  a  day.  They 
commenced  operations  at  the  twenty-second  kilometre.  In  the  opin- 
ion of  the  board  of  commissioners,  the  Bucyrus  Company  was  not  pro- 
ceeding with  the  work  at  a  suitable  rate  of  speed,  for  at  1000  cubic 
metres,  1308  cubic  yards,  per  day,  the  work  of  dredging  alone,  as  there 
were  some  12,000,000  of  cubic  metres,  15,696  cubic  yards,  of  excavation 
to  do,  would  take  about  forty-three  years  ;  their  contract  was  therefore 
cancelled. 

In  May,  1894,  the  Department  of  Public  Works  of  Mexico  contracted 
with  Messrs.  S.  Pearson  &  Son,  of  London,  for  the  completion  of  the 
canal,  modifying  their  former  contracts  of  December  25,  1889,  March 
30,  T891,  and  April  18,  1893,  under  the  following  bases:  the  un- 
finished excavation  in  the  first  nine  kilometres,  and  that  between  kilo- 
metre 47  and  the  entrance  of  the  tunnel  of  Tequixquiac,  are  to  be 
continued  by  the  Board  of  Drainage  Directors,  who  must  have  the  latter 
portion  completed  to  10  metres  below  the  surface  of  the  soil  by  Decem- 
ber 31,  1894,  and  to  the  required  depth  of  the  canal  by  May  31,  1895, 
in  order  that  the  water  in  the  canal  may  settle  to  that  level  and  permit 
the  contractors  to  slope  the  walls  as  required  by  the  contract.  The 
contractors  are  to  complete  the  canal  between  kilometres  9  and  47  for 


27S  Statistical  IHotcs  on  /IDcjico. 

the  sum  of  $3,506,000.  For  making  the  monthly  estimates  of  the  canal 
will  be  divided  into  two  sections — kilometres  9  to  22  and  kilometres 
22  to  47.  In  the  first  section  the  provisional  estimate  will  be  40  cents 
per  cubic  metre;  in  the  second  a  sum  equal  to  the  quotient  obtained 
by  dividing  the  remainder  of  the  money  by  the  number  of  cubic  metres 
to  be  removed.  The  contractors  may  suspend  the  work  of  the  dredgers 
when  they  fall  below  40  cubic  metres  per  hour,  and  can  proceed  with 
the  excavation  in  any  way  they  wish.  The  excavation  had  to  be  com- 
pleted by  May  i,  1896,  except  in  the  parts  where  the  dredgers  cannot 
work.  Then  for  each  day's  delay  the  contractors  must  pay  $500  fine, 
and  after  five  months  the  contract  will  be  rescinded. 

These  contractors  carried  out  the  work  of  the  canal  in  two  different 
ways — by  hand  work  with  centrifugal  pumps  to  draw  off  the  water 
which  filtered  into  the  work,  and  by  means  of  enormously  powerful 
Couloir  dredgers  which  have  a  capacity  for  3000  cubic  metres  of  ex- 
cavation per  day,  and  which  throw  the  excavated  earth  to  a  distance 
of  more  than  200  metres  from  the  centre  of  the  canal.  They  had  five 
of  these  dredgers  at  work,  and  by  means  of  them  excavated  to  a  depth 
of  20  metres  or  65  feet,  raising  the  earth  to  an  elevation  of  more  than 
16  metres,  52^-  feet,  so  as  to  empty  it  into  the  shoots,  along  which  it  was 
carried  by  a  stream  of  water  that  delivered  it  at  a  considerable  dis- 
tance from  the  dredger.  The  dredgers  have  now  done  their  work,  and 
they  have  been  taken  to  pieces  and  most  of  them  sold  as  old  iron,  and 
some  of  their  engines  packed  and  transferred  to  the  harbor  works  at 
Veracruz.  The  portion  of  the  canal  contracted  for  was  completed  to 
the  satisfaction  of  all  concerned  in  eight  years. 

The  level  of  the  bottom  of  the  canal  above  the  datum  line  adopted 
is  2.25  metres,  or  7  feet  4  inches,  and  the  mouth  of  the  tunnel  is  9.20 
metres,  or  30  feet  ^  inch  below  the  same  datum,  supposed  to  pass  10 
metres,  or  33.80  feet  below  the  bottom  of  the  Aztec  calendar  stone,  since 
transferred  to  the  National  Museum,  but  marked  on  the  wall  of  the 
Cathedral.  The  level  of  the  ground  at  the  beginning  of  the  canal  is 
7.60  metres,  or  24  feet  8  inches,  and  at  the  end  15.86  metres,  or  52  feet 
above  datum.  The  uniform  slope  of  the  canal  is  at  the  rate  of  o.  187  per 
kilometre. 

The  canal  has  a  depth,  at  its  commencement,  of  5.50  metres,  or  18 
feet,  which  in  the  last  few  kilometres  is  increased  to  20.50  metres,  or  67 
feet  3  inches.  The  side  slopes  were  projected  with  a  batter  of  45  ik- 
grees,  and  the  width  of  the  bottom  is  5.  metres,  or  18  feet  for  the  first 
20  kilometres,  or  12^  miles,  and  6.50  metres  or  21  feet  2  inches  in  the  rest 
of  the  canal.  The  first  20  kilometres,  or  12^  miles, may  be  considered 
as  a  prolongation  of  the  net  of  sewers  in  the  city,  and  will  receive  only 
the  water  that  passes  through  them.  The  flow  is  calculated  for  an 
average  of  5  cubic  metres,  or  176^  cubic  feet,   although,  when  heavy 


<<-■ 


f  Drainage  of  the  Valley  of  Mexico.) 
VERTICAL  SECTION  OF  THE  TUNNEL 


Ube  Dalles  of  /IDejico's  Drainage.  279 

rains  require  it,  they  can  receive  a  greater  volume  ;  the  rest  of  the 
canal  communicates  with  Lake  Texcoco,  and  will  be  utilized  in  con- 
trolling its  waters, — the  lowest  in  the  valley, — which  can  be  made  to 
flow  into  the  canal  from  all  parts.  Hence  the  canal  has  been  built  to 
carry  the  largest  flow  that  can  pass  through  the  tunnel,  or  17.5  cubic 
metres,  6i8fcubic  feet,  per  second.  The  cutting  is  through  a  strictly 
clay  formation,  comprising  occasional  thin  strata  of  sand  and  sandstone. 

For  accommodation  of  railroads,  wagon  roads,  and  water-courses, 
it  was  necessary  to  construct  five  aqueducts  of  iron  to  carry  rivers, 
four  iron  bridges  for  the  passage  of  railroads,  and  seven  bridges  for 
vehicular  traffic. 

The  sewage. — The  sewers  of  the  City  of  Mexico  form  a  network 
of  covered  channels,  located  sometimes  in  the  middle  and  sometimes 
on  the  sides  of  the  streets,  these  being  almost  always  gorges,  com- 
municating with  a  system  of  secondary  sewers  that  empty  into  a  collect- 
ing sewer  discharging  into  the  canal  of  San  Ldzaro,  which  transports 
the  sewage  to  Lake  Texcoco.  If  the  water  is  high  in  the  lake,  water 
backs  up  into  the  sewers  and  saturates  the  soil  under  the  houses  and 
streets.  As  this  has  been  the  condition  for  several  centuries,  the  state 
of  the  subsoil  under  the  city  can  be  better  imagined  than  described. 
The  death-rate  touches  40  per  1000 — the  highest  in  the  civilized  world. 
Mexico's  elevation  of  over  7000  feet  is  all  that  saves  it  from  a  pesti- 
lence.    Malarial  and  gastric  fevers  are  almost  continually  epidemic. 

For  a  century  the  problem  has  been  settling  into  one  of  pure  sanita- 
tion. The  plans  which  the  Government  has  been  working  since  about 
1883,  though  called  plans  for  draining  the  valley,  really  seek  to  get  a  fall 
sufficient  to  dispose  of  the  sewage.  In  fact,  in  the  original  plan,  from 
considerations  of  economy,  care  was  to  be  taken  to  keep  out  of  the 
projected  canal  all  water  both  from  the  surface  of  the  valley  and  from 
the  rivers.  The  Consulado  and  the  Guadalupe  rivers  were  to  be  car- 
ried over  the  new  canal  in  iron  aqueducts.  The  drainage  system  was 
thus  to  be  simply  a  part  of  the  sewage  system  of  the  city. 

The  excavated  materials  have  been  tipped  on  each  side  of  the  canal 
at  their  natural  slopes,  and  a  towpath  near  the  canal  level  provided. 
Sluice  gates  will  direct  the  city  drainage  either  to  the  canal  or  to  Lake 
Texcoco.  A  sluice  gate  at  the  junction  of  the  smaller  with  the  larger 
part  of  the  canal  will  control  the  flow  of  Lake  Texcoco,  and  another 
sluice  gate  will  be  placed  at  the  entrance  of  the  tunnel. 

Completion  of  the  work. — As  this  paper  goes  to  press,  the  drainage 
works  of  the  Valley  of  Mexico  are  practically  finished,  as  the  waters  of 
the  valley  have  been  for  several  years  passing  through  the  canal  and 
the  tunnel  to  their  outlet  in  the  river  which  takes  them  to  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  and  the  company  with  whom  the  canal  was  contracted  is  now 
giving  the  finisliing  touches  to  the  sides  and  bottom  of  the  canal  and 


28o  statistical  IRotes  on  /IDcjico. 

will  deliver  it  to  the  Government  Board  of  the  Drainage  Directors  in 
January,  1898.  It  was  agreed  with  the  contractors  that  the  portion  of 
the  canal  between  the  City  of  Mexico  and  the  20th  kilometre,  which 
is  comparatively  difficult,  because  the  ground  is  very  loose,  and  the 
excavations  to  be  made  yet  do  not  exceed  200,000  cubic  metres,  will 
be  made  directly  by  the  Board  as  soon  as  the  other  portion  of  the  canal 
has  been  finished  ;  this  last  section  of  the  work  is  expected  to  be  fin- 
ished in  June,  1898,  when  the  waters  of  the  City  of  Mexico  will  leave 
the  valley  by  the  drainage  works  here  mentioned. 

The  canal  and  six-mile  tunnel  through  the  mountain  range  have  a 
total  length  approaching  thirty-seven  miles.  The  present  works  will  take 
rank  with  the  great  achievements  of  modern  times,  just  as  the  immense 
"  cut  "  of  Nochistongo,  their  unsuccessful  predecessor,  was  the  leader 
among  ancient  earthworks  in  all  the  world.  The  completed  system  will 
have  cost  $20,000,000. 

I  have  dwelt  on  these  works  at  some  length,  because  their  import- 
ance to  the  City  of  Mexico  can  hardly  be  overestimated.  Instead  of 
being  one  of  the  healthiest  cities  in  the  world,  as  it  should  be  with  its 
magnificent  climate  and  situation,  Mexico,  unfortunately,  has  a  terribly 
heavy  death-rate,  due  principally  to  want  of  drainage  and  generally 
bad  sanitary  condition.  When  the  existing  danger  of  floods  is  removed, 
and  the  sanitary  evils  are  remedied  by  a  proper  system  of  drainage, 
the  increased  security  that  will  be  enjoyed  by  life  and  property  will 
certainly  have  its  effect  on  the  prosperity  of  the  city.  Property  will 
rise  in  value,  the  population  will  grow  with  rapidity,  not  to  mention 
the  tide  of  tourists  that  will  set  in  from  the  United  States,  and  this  will 
mean  larger  revenues  for  the  municipality. 

I  could  not  well  finish  this  paper  without  paying  General  Diaz, 
President  of  Mexico,  a  just  tribute  for  the  great  interest  he  has  taken 
in  having  this  gigantic  work  brought  to  a  close  during  his  administra- 
tion. To  his  exertions  in  this  regard,  and  to  his  commanding  position 
in  Mexico,  more  than  to  anything  else,  this  happy  result,  now  in 
sight,  is  due.  So  after  a  weary  search  of  centuries  for  relief,  the 
beautiful  Valley  of  Mexico  will  gain  its  deliverance  not  only  from  the 
engulfing  floods,  but  from  the  sanitary  evils  which  have  long  resulted 
from  defective  drainage. 

Contract  for  the  Sewage  System  of  the  City  of  Mexico. — The  com- 
plement of  tlie  drainage  works  is  the  construction  of  a  proper  sewage 
system  in  the  City  of  Mexico,  which  will  carry  all  its  refuse  out  of  the 
Valley  of  Mexico,  and  on  June  8,  1898,  a  contract  was  signed  at  the 
City  of  Mexico  by  the  Drainage  Board  with  Messrs.  Vezin  &  Co.,  of 
Paris,  to  do  such  work. 


HISTORICAL  NOTES  ON  MEXICO. 


Mr.  Walter  S.  Logan,  a  prominent  lawyer  of  New  York,  with  busi- 
ness interests  in  Mexico,  chiefly  in  the  State  of  Sonora,  and  a  personal 
friend  of  mine,  read  a  paper  entitled  "  A  Mexican  Lawsuit  "  before 
the  Law  Department  of  the  American  Social  Science  Association,  at 
their  annual  meeting  at  Saratoga,  on  the  5th  of  September,  1895,  and 
requested  me  to  be  present  at  the  same.  I  received  at  the  same  time 
an  invitation  to  attend  that  meeting,  which  I  suppose  I  owed  to  Mr. 
Logan,  from  Professor  Francis  Wayland,  President  of  the  Law  Depart- 
ment of  that  Association.  Wishing  to  oblige  Mr.  Logan,  and  at  the 
same  time  to  hear  his  paper  read,  for  I  had  no  doubt  that  it  would  do 
justice  to  Mexico,  as  Mr.  Logan  is  friendly  to  that  country,  I  deter- 
mined to  attend  the  meeting,  and  I  reached  Saratoga  late  on  the  after- 
noon of  the  day  on  which  it  was  to  be  held.  I  found  at  the  hotel  at 
which  Mr.  Logan  and  most  of  the  other  gentlemen  of  the  Association 
were  stopping,  and  where  I  myself  lodged,  a  printed  notice  that  Mr. 
Logan  would  read  his  paper  that  evening,  and  that  I  would  make  some 
remarks  afterwards.  I  was  considerably  disturbed  by  this,  as  it  is 
always  difficult  for  a  diplomatic  representative  of  a  foreign  country  to 
speak  in  public,  and  I  was  not  prepared  to  speak  before  so  enlightened 
an  audience. 

At  the  appointed  time  we  went  to  the  meeting,  and  Mr.  Logan  read 
his  paper.  While  he  was  reading  it  I  noted  certain  incorrect  state- 
ments made,  in  good  faith,  no  doubt,  by  Mr.  Logan,  but  which  pre- 
sented Mexico  in  a  rather  unfavorable  light.  I  found  myself  in  a  very 
difficult  position,  because,  considering  myself  as  Mr.  Logan's  guest,  I 
did  not  think  it  would  be  proper  for  me  to  criticise  his  paper;  but,  at 
the  same  time,  being  the  official  representative  of  Mexico,  I  could 
hardly  permit  his  mistakes  to  pass  unnoticed.  I  was  placed  in  the 
same  position  as  the  guest  who,  while  present  at  a  dinner  to  which  he 
had  been  invited,  should  hear  his  host  make  incorrect  and  even  un- 
complimentary remarks  about  his  house  or  his  family,  although  made 
unintentionally.  No  matter  how  bad  taste  such  conduct  showed  if 
made  intentionally,  it  would  be  still  worse  taste  for  the  guest  to  notice 

2S1 


282  ibiatorical  Botes  on  /IDcjico* 

such  remarks.  After  some  consideration,  however,  I  concluded  to 
avail  myself  of  the  opportunity  which  was  given  me  to  speak  after  Mr. 
Logan's  paper  was  read,  for  the  purpose  of  correcting  some  of  the 
principal  mistakes  which  he  had  made.  When  my  turn  came  I  em- 
braced the  opportunity  to  correct,  in  as  careful,  considerate,  and  polite 
a  manner  towards  Mr.  Logan,  as  was  possible  for  me  to  do,  what  I  con- 
sidered were  his  chief  mistakes. 

At  Mr.  Logan's  request,  made  to  me  just  before  he  read  his  paper, 
I  made  some  general  remarks  about  the  philosophy  of  the  revolutions 
in  Mexico,  for  the  purpose  of  showing  that  the  Mexican  people  were 
not  actually  inclined  to  revolt,  that  there  had  been  ample  cause  for 
revolutions  in  the  past;  but  that  such  causes  had  now  disappeared,  and 
it  was  not  likely  that  any  more  disturbances  would  take  place. 

On  all  suitable  opportunities  which  have  been  presented  to  me  dur- 
ing my  official  residence  in  this  country,  I  have  tried  to  impress  the 
same  views  in  as  concise  and  clear  a  manner  as  it  was  possible  for  me  to 
do.  On  several  occasions,  and  in  different  addresses  delivered  before 
distinguished  audiences  at  public  banquets  and  other  places,  I  have  pre- 
sented these  same  views  in  the  shape  that  it  was  possible  to  do  in  ten  or 
fifteen  minutes'  time.  I  append  to  this  paper  a  few  of  the  addresses  I 
have  made  with  that  purpose,  beginning  with  one  delivered  in  New  York 
in  1864,  and  ending  with  another  delivered  in  1892  in  the  same  city. 

Some  time  after  the  Saratoga  meeting  had  taken  place  I  received 
from  the  American  Social  Science  Association  the  stenographic  notes  of 
my  remarks,  accompanied  by  the  request — made  also  by  Mr.  Logan, 
who  published  his  remarks  and  mine  in  a  special  pamphlet — that  I  should 
correct  mine  for  publication.  With  some  reluctance  I  consented  to 
revise  them,  but  after  they  were  published  I  saw  that  I  had  not  done 
justice  to  the  two  subjects  on  which  I  had  spoken,  and  that  it  would  be 
expedient  to  revise  my  remarks  and  amplify  them,  so  as  to  make  two 
separate  papers,  one  on  the  "  Philosophy  of  the  Mexican  Revolutions," 
and  the  other  on  the  "  Criminal  Jurisprudence  of  Mexico."  I  there- 
fore prepared  two  articles,  and  they  were  published,  the  former  in  the 
January,  and  the  latter  in  the  July,  1895,  number  of  the  North  Atner- 
ican  Revie7v.  Even  after  the  publication  in  that  Review  I  thought  it 
advisable  to  further  amplify  and  revise  both  articles,  finally  assuming 
the  form  in  which  they  now  appear. 

In  the  meanwhile,  Dr.  Ricardo  Becerra,  a  very  distinguished  man 
of  letters  from  Colombia,  South  America,  who  for  several  years  repre- 
sented his  country  at  Washington,  and  who  is  now  living  at  Caracas, 
Venezuela,  wrote  recently  a  biography  of  General  Don  Francisco  de 
Miranda,  the  principal  promoter  of  the  independence  of  the  Spanish 
colonies  of  South  America.  I  found  in  Dr.  Becerra's  book  valuable 
information,  that  had  not  come  to  my  knowledge  before,  about  the 


Ibistorical  Botes  on  /IDejico.  283 

work  done  in  Europe  in  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  by 
native  Americans  and  Spanish  Jesuits,  whom  the  father  of  the  then 
reigning  King  of  Spain  had  expelled  from  his  dominions  in  America, 
to  establish  the  independence  of  the  Spanish  colonies  on  this  continent. 
I  found  that  the  promoters  of  that  cause  claimed  to  act  in  behalf  of  all 
the  Spanish  colonies  of  America,  including  Mexico,  and  as  I  was  sure 
that  Mexico  had  not  been  represented  at  the  meetings  which  were  held 
in  Europe  in  the  last  quarter  of  the  eighteenth  century,  I  determined 
to  rectify  that  statement,  and  with  that  purpose  in  view  I  wrote  an 
article  to  vindicate  the  historical  truth  in  regard  to  that  important  event 
in  Spanish-American  history. 

When  I  began  to  write  my  paper  I  found  that  the  course  which  the 
United  States  pursued  towards  the  revolted  colonies  of  Spain  during 
their  struggle  for  independence  had  a  close  connection  with  my  subject, 
and  about  the  same  time,  on  January  ii,  1897,  Senator  Hale,  of  Maine, 
presented  to  the  Senate  a  paper  entitled  "  Power  to  Recognize  the  In- 
dependence of  a  New  State,"  which  was  published  by  order  of  the 
Senate,  as  Senate  Document  No.  56,  Fifty-fourth  Congress,  Second 
Session.  That  paper,  which  I  understood  had  been  prepared  at  the 
State  Department,  contained  a  concise  statement  of  the  policy  of  the 
United  States  Government  towards  the  Spanish-American  republics, 
written  especially  with  a  view  to  support  the  contention  that  such 
recognition  is  an  executive  prerogative,  and  does  not  rest  with  Con- 
gress, and  showing  at  the  same  time  that  the  United  States  has  always 
acted  with  deliberation  in  the  recognition  of  belligerent  rights  or  inde- 
pendence of  a  new  foreign  State,  and  tried  to  comply  faithfully  with 
her  international  obligations,  a  fact  which  shows  that  the  policy  of  the 
present  and  last  administrations  regarding  the  disturbances  in  Cuba  is 
in  accordance  with  the  precedents  established  by  the  fathers  of  the 
country  at  the  beginning  of  the  century.  I  found  a  great  deal  of  valu- 
able information  collected  in  that  paper,  which  I  include  in  my  article. 

Reviewing  the  subject,  I  also  found  that  the  United  States  had  pre- 
vented Mexico  and  Colombia  from  carrying  to  Cuba  in  1825  the  war 
against  Spain,  which  in  all  probability  might  have  resulted  in  the  inde- 
pendence of  that  island,  and  thinking  that  that  was  a  pertinent  subject, 
I  also  embraced  it  in  my  paper. 

I  entitled  my  paper  "  The  Origin  of  Mexican  Independence," 
which  I  considered  an  appropriate  title,  but  when  I  sent  it  to  the  editor 
of  the  North  American  Review  for  publication,  he  suggested  a  more 
pretentious  one,  namely,  "The  United  States  and  the  Liberation  of 
the  Spanish- American  Colonies,"  and  out  of  deference  to  his  greater 
knowledge  and  experience  I  consented  to  make  the  change.  This  pre- 
tentious title  caused  wider  circulation  of  some  of  the  passages  of  the 
article  than  would  otherwise  have  been  the  case,  as  it  was  telegraphed 


2S4  UDietorical  IRotcs  on  /IDcjico. 

all  over  the  country  that  1  had  written  a  paper  censuring  the  United 
States  for  not  having  assisted  the  Spanish  colonies  in  their  war  for  in- 
dependence, and  for  not  having  permitted  Mexico  and  Colombia  to 
make  Cuba  indei)endent,  when  my  article  did  not  contain  a  word  of 
censure  against  the  United  States  Government,  and  was  only  a  brief 
statement  of  historical  facts  with  quotations  from  high  American 
authorities.  I  thought  that  the  reason  for  this  misunderstanding  was 
the  fact  that  my  paper  had  not  been  read  in  its  entirety  by  those  who 
telegraph  to  us  press  extracts  from  the  same,  but  only  such  extracts 
from  it  as  were  thought  to  be  of  importance,  and  thus  its  object  was 
misapprehended.  I  was  under  the  impression  that  anybody  who  read 
carefully  the  whole  text  could  find  nothing  incorrect  or  improper  in 
it,  much  less  disrespectful,  either  to  the  United  States  or  to  the  Spanish 
Government. 

I  was  therefore  somewhat  surprised  when  I  saw  that  a  man  of  Sena- 
tor Money's  great  abilities  shared  such  views,  which  he  expressed  in  an 
answer  to  my  article  published  in  the  North  American  Review,  for 
September,  1897,  under  the  title  of  "  The  United  States  and  the 
Spanish-American  Colonies.  A  Reply."  In  that  paper  Senator 
Money  stated  that  my  assertions  were  incorrect,  and  that  the  United 
States  had  materially  and  morally  assisted  in  the  liberation  of  the 
Spanish-American  Republics.  It  afforded  me  great  pleasure  to  have 
the  opportunity  of  making  clear  that  my  statements  were  correct,  and 
that  my  article  did  not  contain  a  word  of  censure  against  the  Govern- 
ment of  the  United  States,  and  with  that  purpose  in  view  I  published 
in  the  November  number  of  the  North  American  Revieiu  a  rejoinder  to 
Senator  Money's  article,  amplifying  what  I  had  said  in  my  first  article, 
and  showing,  in  my  opinion  in  a  very  clear  and  conclusive  manner,  the 
correctness  of  my  former  statements. 

I  would  much  prefer  to  insert  in  this  volume  Senator  Money's 
answer  as  well  as  my  rejoinder,  but  as  that  would  take  a  great  deal  of 
space  and  the  question  is  not  of  such  momentous  importance  as  to 
warrant  it,  I  have  added  to  my  first  article  such  portions  contained  in 
the  second  as  I  think  would  make  it  more  complete  and  clear,  and 
consider  in  a  few  foot-notes  some  of  Senator  Money's  principal  objec- 
tions. 

As  the  paper  relating  to  the  origin  of  Mexican  independence,  which 
I  have  now  entitled  "  Genesis  of  Mexican  Independence,"  refers  to  a 
period  which  precedes  our  revolutions,  I  will  insert  it  first,  and  it  will 
be  followed  by  the  other  entitled  "  Philosophy  of  the  Mexican  Revo- 
lutions." 


PART  I. 

GENESIS  OF  MEXICAN 
INDEPENDENCE. 


28s 


I.    GENESIS  OF  MEXICAN  INDEPENDENCE.' 

The  independence  of  the  United  States,  proclaimed  in  1776,  and 
recognized  by  England  in  the  treaty  signed  at  Paris  on  September  3, 
1783,  based  really  on  economic  reasons,  and,  still  more,  the  recognition 
of  that  independence  by  Spain,  principally  on  account  of  her  hostility 
to  England  and  at  the  suggestion  of  her  ally,  France,  at  that  time 
waging  war  upon  England,  could  not  fail  to  produce  a  profound  im- 
pression in  the  Spanish  colonies  of  America.  These  events  showed 
the  native  Americans  "^  that  the  European  colonies  of  this  continent 
had  the  right,  recognized  by  Spain,  to  sever  their  connection  with  the 
mother-country,  not  only  for  political  but  for  economic  reasons.  It 
was  this  consideration  that  caused  Count  de  Aranda,  a  very  able  states- 
man, to  advise  Charles  III.,  immediately  upon  the  recognition  of  the 
United  States  by  Spain,  in  a  treaty  signed  at  Paris  in  1783,  to  establish 
among  the  Spanish  colonies  in  America  three  great  empires — one  in 
Mexico,  another  in  Peru,  and  a  third  on  the  Spanish  Main,  which 
should  embrace  New  Granada,  Venezuela,  etc.,  each  to  be  ruled  by  a 
member  of  the  Spanish  royal  family.  He  proposed  that  the  King 
should  assume  the  title  of  Emperor,  that  the  new  sovereigns  should 
intermarry  into  the  Spanish  royal  family,  and  that  each  of  them  should 
pay  an  annual  tribute  into  the  Spanish  treasury.  Although  this  scheme 
might  have  proved  difficult  of  realization,  and  might  in  the  process 
of  its  execution  have  had  to  undergo  radical  changes,  the  final  result 
would  have  certainly  been  less  disastrous  to  Spain  than  the  complete 
emancipation  of  her  American  colonies. 

'  This  paper  has  been  made  up  of  the  two  articles  published  under  the  title  of 
"  The  United  States  and  the  Liberation  of  the  Spanish-American  Colonies "  in  the 
North  American  Review  of  New  York,  for  July  and  November,  1897,  with  several 
additions  and  revisions. 

*  It  was  my  purpose  to  speak  only  about  the  origin  of  Mexican  independence,  but 
in  preparing  my  paper  I  found  that  my  subject  was  so  closely  related  to  the  revolu- 
tionary movement  in  the  other  American  Republics,  that  it  would  have  been  hardly 
possible  for  me  to  do  full  justice  to  it,  without  giving  some  account  of  the  manner  in 
which  independence  originated  and  was  accomplished  in  the  Soutli  American  colonies. 
To  do  this  has  necessarily  extended  this  paper  beyond  its  intended  limits,  but  I  have 
endeavored  to  make  my  references  to  the  wars  of  independence  of  the  South  American 
colonies  as  brief  as  possible. 

287 


288  Ibistorical  IFlotes  on  /IDejico. 

The  French  Revolution,  which  to  a  certain  extent  was  the  result  of 
the  American  independence,'  must  have  exercised  a  great  influence  also 
on  the  minds  of  the  native  Spanish  Americans,  since  it  was  a  very  serious 
blow  to  the  theory  of  divine  right  by  which  it  was  then  supposed  in  the 
Western  World  that  nations  were  governed,  as  well  as  a  recognition  of 
the  natural  rights  of  the  people;  and  this  notwithstanding  that  the 
discreditable  and  sanguinary  deeds  of  that  revolution,  and  especially 
its  acts  of  hostility  to  the  Catholic  religion,  were  represented  by  the 
Spanish  authorities  to  the  American  colonists  as  being  the  acts  of 
frenzied  men,  inspired  by  the  worst  passions,  as  well  as  illustrating  the 
excesses  to  which  the  people  were  liable  when  unrestrained  by  their 
legitimate  rulers.  The  fact  that  the  Bourbons  were  not  restored  to 
power,  but  that  the  French  Revolution  took  a  conservative  turn  and 
was  finally  succeeded  by  the  Empire  of  the  First  Napoleon,  who  ruled, 
not  by  divine  right,  but  as  the  choice  of  the  people  for  the  benefit  of 
the  people,  was  the  final  blow  to  the  principles  on  which  the  rule  of 
the  Spanish  monarchy  in  America  was  based. 

Spain  did  not  hold  her  American  colonies  as  forming  a  part  with 
her  of  one  common  country,  but  as  the  fiefs  or  the  personal  property 
of  the  monarch,  not  so  much  by  reason  of  her  discovery  and  possession 
of  them,  as  by  reason  of  the  Bull  of  Pope  Alexander  VI.,  which 
divided  the  ownership  of  the  American  continent  between  the  Kings 
of  Spain  and  Portugal,  "  in  virtue  of  the  jurisdiction  which  the  Pope 
had  over  the  world  as  the  head  of  mankind,"  as  expressed  by  the  most 
learned  commentator  of  the  Spanish  laws  for  the  Indies  (Solorzano,  in 
his  Politica  Indiana^  lib.  i.,  cap.  x.  and  xi.,  n.  8). 

The  American  vassals  of  the  King  of  Spain  had  no  political  rights 
of  any  kind,  and  no  personal  rights  that  the  King  could  not  ignore  or 

'  The  correctness  of  this  assertion  has  been  sometimes  doubted,  and  although  I 
think  that  its  exactness  has  been  proved,  I  will  mention  in  support  of  it  Mr.  Henry 
Thomas  Buckle's  opinion,  who,  in  speaking  of  the  immediate  cause  of  the  French 
Revolution,  says  in  his  History  of  Civilization  iti  England,  vol.  iii.,  pp.  291-293. 
edition  of  F.  A.  Brockhaus,  Leipsic,  1865  : 

"  While  all  these  things  were  conspiring  to  overthrow  the  old  institutions,  an 
event  suddenly  occurred  which  produced  the  most  remarkable  effects  in  France." 

The  event  to  which  he  refers  is  the  American  Revolution  and  the  Declaration  of 
Independence  of  the  United  States.     He  then  adds  : 

"  Indeed  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  the  final  blow  the  French  Government 
received  was  actually  dealt  by  the  hand  of  an  American,  for  it  is  said  that  it  \s3.s  in 
consequence  of  the  advice  of  Jefferson,  that  the  popular  part  of  the  legislative  body 
proclaimed  itself  the  National  Assembly,  and  thus  set  the  crown  at  open  defiance." 

This  assertion  is  supported  by  a  letter  which  the  Duke  of  Dorset,  British  Ambas- 
sador at  Paris,  addressed  to  Pitt  on  July  9,  i  69,  in  which  he  says  : 

"  Mr.  Jefferson,  the  American  Minister  at  this  Court,  has  been  a  great  deal  con- 
sulted by  the  principal  leaders  of  the  Tiers  ^tat ;  and  I  have  great  reason  to  think 
that  it  was  owing  to  his  advice  that  order  called  itself  '  L'Assemblee  Nationale.' " 


6enesi6  ot  /IDejican  UnDepen^ence.  289 

trample  upon;  they  were,  in  fact,  serfs;  yet,  by  an  inconsistency 
hardly  to  be  accounted  for,  the  Spanish  Government  established  in  its 
colonies  municipal  government;  in  this  way  laying  unintentionally  the 
foundation  of  the  democratic  institutions  which  were  finally  to  prevail. 

There  was  an  unwritten  colonial  law,  designed,  no  doubt,  for  the 
maintenance  of  the  colonial  system,  but  which  was  destined  finally  to 
put  an  end  to  it,  in  regard  to  which  the  Spaniards  differed  from  the 
other  European  countries  having  colonies  in  America.  This  law  con- 
cerned the  status  of  the  children  of  Spaniards  born  in  America.  The 
mere  fact  that  they  were  born  on  this  continent  made  them  of  an  in- 
ferior caste,  debarred  from  the  enjoyment  of  any  of  the  political  or 
social  rights  of  those  born  in  Spain. 

The  Spaniards  born  in  Spain  formed  a  privileged  class,  and  their 
children  born  in  America  were  considered  of  an  inferior  race,  born  to 
oppression,  who  could  not  regard  their  parents  as  fathers,  but  as 
masters  and  oppressors. 

The  colonial  economic  system  was  also  of  so  restrictive  a  nature  as 
to  make  it  impossible  that  it  should  permanently  exist;  and,  more  than 
any  other  grievance,  it  served  to  enlist  in  favor  of  the  colonies  the 
sympathy  of  the  commercial  nations  of  Europe,  as  it  also  affected 
their  own  interests.  The  commercial  policy  of  the  European  nations 
with  regard  to  their  American  colonies  was  essentially  one  of  monopoly 
and  protection,  but  the  policy  of  Spain  exceeded  in  point  of  fact  all 
reasonable  bounds,  as  it  prohibited  the  colonies  from  raising  or  man- 
ufacturing any  article  produced  or  manufactured  in  the  metropolis. 
To  establish  a  complete  monopoly,  Spain  undertook  to  provide  her 
colonies  with  such  goods  as  they  needed,  and  to  receive  in  return 
their  natural  products  and  specie.  To  carry  out  this  policy,  it  was 
settled  that  only  the  port  of  Seville  should  be  the  one  from  which 
merchant  vessels  could  be  sent  to  the  colonies;  all  commercial  inter- 
course between  the  colonies  was  forbidden  ;  the  natural  products 
of  the  American  colonies  could  be  shipped  only  at  certain  ports,  as 
Veracruz,  on  the  Atlantic,  and  Acapulco,  on  the  Pacific,  for  Mex- 
ico, and  Panama  and  Portobelo  for  South  America;  and  the  mer- 
chant vessels  could  sail  only  once  or  twice  a  year  in  custody  and 
escorted  by  war  vessels,  and  the  articles  had  to  be  transported  over- 
land to  some  remote  place,  as  the  City  of  Mexico  in  Mexico,  and 
Potosi  in  South  America,  in  the  centre  of  the  continent,  from  whence 
they  were  distributed  to  the  several  colonies  where  they  were  needed, 
sometimes  at  a  cost  of  500  or  600  per  cent,  above  their  original  price. 
After  a  century  of  this  policy,  the  merchant  marine  of  Spain  had  dis- 
appeared, its  capital  and  manufactures  had  considerably  diminished, 
its  commerce  was  conducted  by  foreigners  by  smuggling,  and  the  gold 
and  silver  of  the  New  World  went  everywhere  except  to  Spain. 


290  Ibi^torical  IRotes  on  /IDejico. 

^^European  Conspiracy  to  Accomplish  Independence. — 1  have  no  in- 
formation that  would  lead  me  to  believe  that  the  Mexicans  who  favored 
the  independence  of  their  country  had  organized,  for  the  promotion  of 
their  cause,  any  secret  society  or  political  revolutionary  centre,  either 
in  Mexico  or  in  Europe,  at  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century.  From 
a  revolutionary  manifesto  '  signed  in  Paris,  on  the  22d  of  December, 
1797,  by  Don  Jos^  del  Poso  y  Sucre,  Don  Manuel  Jose  de  Salas,  and 
Don  Francisco  de  Miranda,  who  called  themselves  "  delegates  from 
the  Junta  of  Deputies  from  the  Provinces  and  the  people  of  South 
America,  which  convened  at  Madrid,  Spain,  on  October  8,  1797,  to 
settle  upon  the  best  means  of  effecting  the  independence  of  the  Ameri- 
can colonies  of  Spain,"  it  appears  that  prominent  men  from  South 
America  had  been  endeavoring  since  1782  to  establish  independence. 
To  aid  in  attaining  that  object,  the  alliance  of  England,  at  that  time  at 
war  with  France,  was  recommended.  They  entered  into  several 
negotiations  with  England  to  that  end,  especially  one  initiated  in 
London  in  1790,  with  the  British  Premier,  as  a  consequence  of  the 
conference  held  at  HoUiwood,  which,  it  was  stated,  had  been  approved 
by  the  South  American  provinces,  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  from 
Great  Britain  a  naval  force  not  exceeding  20  warships,  8000  infantry, 
and  2000  cavalry,  the  provinces  promising  to  pay  to  England  a  pecu- 
niary indemnity  which  the  Edinburgh  Review  stated  was  to  be  30,000,- 
000  pounds  sterling,  after  their  independence  was  accomplished,  and 
to  grant  her  besides  certain  commercial  advantages. 

In  that  manifesto  it  was  suggested  that  the  United  States  of  America 
should  be  invited  to  make  a  treaty  of  friendship  and  alliance  with  South 
America,  "  on  the  basis  that  the  possession  of  the  two  Floridas  and  of 
Louisiana  should  be  guaranteed  to  the  United  States,  so  as  to  make  the 
Mississippi  the  boundary  between  the  two  great  nations,  and  that  to 
the  United  States  and  Great  Britain  should  be  given  all  the  islands  of 
the  American  Archipelago,  except  Cuba,  the  key  of  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico."  In  return  for  these  advantages  it  was  proposed  that  the 
United  States  should  furnish  to  South  America  an  army  of  5000 
infantry  and  2000  cavalry. 

That  document  entrusted  the  leadership  of  the  scheme,  and  the 
military  operations  necessary  to  carry  it  out,  as  well  as  the  negotiations 
with  England  and  the  United  States,  to  General  Don  Francisco  de 
Miranda,  born  in  1750,  in  Caracas,  the  capital  of  Venezuela.  Miranda 
entered  the  Spanish  army,  and  served  in  the  United  States  in  the  revo- 

'  This  paper  was  published  in  1815  by  ex-President  John  Adams  in  i\ie  Boston 
Advertiser,  with  a  letter  addressed  to  the  editor,  Mr.  Lloyd,  in  defence  of  his  course 
in  that  incident,  and  reproduced  in  Spanish  by  Seiior  Don  Ricardo  Becerra,  in  the 
first  volume  of  his  book,  Vida  de  Don  Francisco  de  Miranda,  published  in  Caracas, 
Venezuela,  in  1806. 


(Benesis  of  /iDejican  Unbepenbence.  291 

lutionary  war  against  Great  Britain.  When  the  war  was  ended  he 
was  sent  to  Cuba,  and  while  there  he  was  accused  of  conspiring  to 
deliver  the  island  of  Cuba  to  the  British  Government,  and  he  was  con- 
sequently court-martialled.  Miranda  then  fled  to  Europe.  He  travelled 
in  England,  Germany,  and  Turkey,  and  finally  visited  Russia  under  the 
reign  of  Empress  Catherine. 

Miranda  then  went  to  France  and  enlisted  in  the  revolutionary 
army.  Serving  under  General  Dumouriez,  he  was  soon  promoted  to 
Brigadier-General,  having  achieved  distinction  in  the  Belgian  cam- 
paign. The  failure  of  the  siege  of  Maelstrich  which  he  conducted, 
the  defeat  of  Nerwinden,  in  which  battle  he  commanded  the  left  wing, 
and  the  fall  of  the  Girondists  in  Paris,  caused  Miranda's  downfall,  and 
he  was  arrested  and  court-martialled.  But  the  reaction  which  followed 
the  9th  Termidor  gave  him  his  liberty,  and  he  went  to  London  to 
renew  his  negotiations  with  Pitt  to  obtain  England's  assistance  in  the 
independence  of  the  American  colonies  of  Spain.  He  was  the  real 
head  and  centre  of  the  conspiracy  prepared  in  Europe  to  emancipate 
the  American  colonies  of  Spain.  General  Miranda  believed  that  he 
had  secured  the  assistance  of  the  British  Government,  and  it  appears 
that  he  had  some  promises  of  assistance  from  Pitt,  then  the  British 
Premier,  which,  however,  were  never  carried  out. 

It  seemed  natural  to  suppose  that,  while  Great  Britain  was  waging 
war  against  Spain  in  1798,  the  British  Government  would  have  been 
not  only  willing,  but  even  anxious,  to  divert  her  attention  by  assisting 
the  insurrection  of  her  colonies.  That  was  not  exactly  the  case,  how- 
ever, because  England  expected  that  Spain  would  sever  her  alliance 
with  France,  and  so  aid  England  in  her  war  against  the  French  revolu- 
tionary government.  With  that  object,  England  sent  an  agent  to 
Madrid  to  give  assurances  to  the  Spanish  Government  that  she  would 
not  assist  in  the  colonial  insurrection,  if  Spain  gave  up  her  alliance  with 
France.  At  the  same  time  instructions  were  sent  to  the  English 
authorities  in  the  island  of  Trinidad  to  assist  in  the  South  American 
insurrection  and  to  prepare  an  expedition  for  that  purpose,  as  Mr. 
Rufus  King,  the  United  States  Minister  in  London,  communicated  to 
Mr.  Pickering,  the  Secretary  of  State,  in  a  despatch  dated  on  February 
26,  1798.  Had  England  assisted  directly  in  securing  th'fe  independence 
of  the  Spanish  colonies,  that  would  have  defeated  her  purpose  of 
obtaining  the  support  of  Spain  in  her  war  against  the  French  Govern- 
ment. This  was  esj)ecially  the  case  after  Napoleon  obtained  the 
ascendancy  in  France,  and  more  so  after  the  events  of  1808,  culminat- 
ing in  the  treaty  of  Bayonne.  When  the  Spanish  nation  rose  against 
the  French  troops  which  occupied  its  territory,  England  naturally  was 
not  disposed  to  embarrass  Spain,  whom  she  considered  and  at  length 
found  to  be  a  very  valuable  ally  against  Napoleon,  and  therefore  all 


292  Ibistorical  "IRotes  on  /iDesico. 

the  efforts  of  Miranda  and  of  the  leaders  of  the  insurrection  in  South 
America  to  obtain  material  assistance  from  England  were  unavailing. 

Although  the  document  above  referred  to  seems  to  be  restricted  to 
South  America,  Central  America  is  also  mentioned  in  connection  with 
a  promise  "  to  open  to  trade  the  isthmuses  of  Nicaragua  and  Panama  " ; 
and  incidentally  Mexico  is  also  mentioned  in  a  statement  that  "  the 
deputies  of  the  vice  royalties  of  Mexico,  Santa  Fe,  Lima,  and  Rio  de 
la  Plata,  and  of  the  Provinces  of  Caracas,  Quito,  Chile,  etc.,  assembled 
in  a  legislative  body,  should  decide  definitively  about  the  commercial 
advantages  to  be  granted  to  England  and  the  allies  of  South  America." 
It  is  probable,  however,  that  this  reference  to  Mexico  was  made  on  the 
supposition  that  Mexico,  by  reason  of  similarity  of  race,  language,  and 
institutions,  would  follow  the  lead  of  South  America.  I  have  no 
knowledge  of  any  Mexican  having  taken  part  in  the  conference. 

It  was  further  stated  in  that  document  that  "  Don  Jose  del  Poso  y 
Sucre  and  Don  Manuel  ]os6  de  Salas  should  set  out  at  once  for  Madrid 
to  report  to  the  Junta  the  result  of  their  mission  to  Paris,  carrying  with 
them  a  copy  of  the  same,  and  that  as  soon  as  this  was  done  the  Junta 
should  adjourn  and  its  members  should  go  immediately  to  the  Ameri- 
can continent  to  promote  simultaneously  insurrections  in  all  the  towns 
of  South  America,  to  take  place  as  soon  as  the  assistance  furnished  by 
the  allies  should  appear."  A  copy  of  that  paper  was  given  to  General 
Miranda,  as  his  credentials,  to  represent  the  Junta  before  the  British 
and  American  Governments. 

Mr.  King,  in  his  despatch  to  Mr.  Pickering  already  referred  to, 
reported  that  he  had  met  in  London  several  Jesuits  of  South  America, 
from  whom  he  learned  that  they  were  working  for  the  emancipation  of 
the  Spanish  colonies  in  America.  They  had  lived  for  many  years  in  Lon- 
don in  the  service  and  under  the  pay  of  the  British  Government,  and 
they  had  shown  Mr.  King  the  papers  that  they  had  prepared  for  pre- 
sentation to  the  British  Government.  From  a  letter  addressed  by  ex- 
President  Adams,  on  March  6,  1815,  to  Mr.  Lloyd,  editor  of  the 
Morning  Advertiser,  of  Boston,  explaining  his  conduct  while  President 
of  the  United  States,  in  connection  with  the  efforts  of  Miranda  to 
obtain  the  assistance  of  the  United  States  to  emancipate  the  American 
colonies  of  Spain,  it  appears  that  Don  Jose  del  Poso  y  Sucre  and  Don 
Manuel  Jose  de  Salas,  who  signed  the  document  in  conjunction  with 
General  Miranda,  were  Jesuits,  probably  of  the  number  mentioned  by 
Mr.  King;  and  to  the  fact,  Mr.  Adams  intimated,,  that  the  immediate 
predecessor  of  Charles  IV.,  who  was  at  the  time  (1798)  King  of  Spain, 
had  expelled  the  Jesuits  from  his  American  dominions,  was  due  their 
action  in  the  matter,  they  being  influenced  by  a  desire  to  take  revenge 
on  the  Spanish  monarch.  There  is  no  doubt  that  Pitt  had  detained  in 
London  some  Spanish  Jesuits  who  took  a  very  active  part  in  the  con- 


I 


6enesi5  of  /IDejican  "llnDepenOence.  293 

spiracy  to  promote  the  insurrection,  and  who  wrote  several  manifestoes 
and  inflammatory  documents  which  were  to  be  distributed  in  the 
American  colonies. 

Expedition  of  General  Miranda  to  Venezuela  in  1806. — General 
Miranda  sent  to  the  United  States  in  November,  1789,  his  friend  and 
co-worker,  Senor  Caro,  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  the  assistance  of 
this  Government.  It  appears  that  the  scheme  had  the  good-will  of 
Alexander  Hamilton,  who  was  at  the  time  organizing  a  military  force 
to  be  used  in  case  of  war  with  France,  and  that  it  also  had  the  sympa  liy 
of  Aaron  Burr.  President  Adams,  however,  following  a  consejvative 
policy,  and  having  due  regard  for  the  neutrality  laws,  did  not  embark 
in  the  adventure,   and  did  not  receive  Senor  Caro.     In  November, 

1805,  General  Miranda  came  to  the  United  States,  and  was  received 
both  by  President  Jefferson  and  by  Mr.  Madison,  the  Secretary  of  State. 
He  organized  in  New  York  an  expedition  of  about  two  hundred  men, 
which  left  that  port  on  February  3,  1806,  on  the  ship  Leander,  for 
Jaquemel  in  the  island  of  Hayti,  where  he  was  joined  by  two  trans- 
ports, the  Bacchus  and  the  Abeja.  Mr.  William  S.  Smith,  Jr.,  a  grand- 
son of  ex-President  John  Adams,  and  a  son  of  Colonel  William  S. 
Smith,  Surveyor  of  the  Port  of  New  York,  went  in  that  expedition  as 
aid  to  General  Miranda.  In  consequence  of  that,  Colonel  Smith  had 
to  resign  and  he  was  indicted,  and  a  noisy  trial  followed  in  which  he 
was  acquitted. 

Miranda  reached  the  coast  of  Venezuela,  at  Ocumare,  but  there  he 
lost  his  two  transports,  which  were  captured  by  the  Spaniards  together 
with  sixty-seven  men,  ten  of  whom  were  hanged  at  Puerto  Cabello,  the 
remaining  fifty-seven  being  sent  to  the  military  prison  of  San  Felipe  el 
Real,  in  Cartagena. 

Miranda  met  in  the  island  of  Barbadoes  Sir  Alexander  Cochran, 
Admiral  of  the  British  Navy,  who  addressed  him  a  letter  dated  June  6, 

1806,  on  board  his  flagship,  the  Northumberland,  in  which  he  stated 
that  Miranda's  plan  to  achieve  the  independence  of  South  America 
was  advantageous  to  British  interests,  and  agreed  to  assist  in  landing 
Miranda's  forces  on  the  coast  of  Venezuela,  and  to  provide  him  with 
three  small  vessels  and  probably  one  frigate,  and  to  defend  Miranda's 
ships  against  any  attacks  from  the  Spanish  naval  forces.  In  exchange 
for  his  assistance  he  demanded  certain  commercial  advantages  to  be 
granted  when  independence  should  be  achieved.  Miranda  left  Granada 
escorted  by  the  English  man-of-war  Lily,  the  brig  Empress,  and  the 
merchant  schooner  Tritmner.  In  Trinidad  he  had  been  reinforced, 
his  army  consisting  of  about  four  hundred  men,  and  he  landed  at  Coro. 
But  nobody  joined  him,  all  the  natives  having  fled  to  the  interior  on 
his  arrival,  and  he  was  forced  to  leave  the  mainland  and  to  return  to 
the  Antilles.     This  result  showed  the  futility  of  the  scheme  to  promote 


294  Ibistorical  Hotes  on  /iDcjico. 

independence  relying  only  or  mainly  on  foreign  aid.  Independence 
did  not  make  any  headway  until  it  relied  only  upon  the  support  of 
the  natives,  and  with  them  alone  it  was  achieved. 

In  1811,  Miranda  went  again  to  Venezuela,  and  succeeded  in 
organizing  a  force  with  which  he  began  the  war,  but  he  was  obliged  to 
surrender,  and  was  sent  to  a  Spanish  prison  in  Cadiz,  where  he  died  in 
i8i6,  without  seeing  his  country's  independence  accomplished.  But 
he  had  been  the  forerunner  of  Bolivar. 

Origin  of  Mexican  Independence. — What,  in  my  opinion,  contributed 
more  'han  anything  else  to  precipitate  the  independence  of  the  Ameri- 
can colonies  were  the  disgraceful  dissensions  of  the  Spanish  royal 
family  in  1808  at  Aranjuez  and  their  subservience  to  Napoleon,  which 
culminated  in  their  abdication  in  favor  of  the  Emperor.  This  was  ac- 
complished by  the  Treaty  of  Bayonne,  which  transferred  to  the  French 
Emperor  all  the  rights  and  titles  of  Charles  IV.  to  the  throne  of  Spain 
and  the  Indies,  including  the  American  colonies.  The  Spanish  people 
strenuously  resisted  the  French  invasion  and  established  Juntas  in 
Spain  and  the  colonies  to  rule  the  country  in  the  name  of  Ferdinand 
VII.,  the  heir  of  the  King,  whom  Bonaparte  had  compelled  to  abdicate, 
the  principal  Junta  acting  as  a  regency. 

The  Spanish  monarch  was  the  head  and  centre  of  the  government, 
and  when  he  disappeared  the  people  of  Spain  considered  that  the 
sovereignty  had  reverted  to  them,  at  least  during  the  captivity  of  the 
King,  and  this  view  determined  the  organization  of  the  several  Juntas 
established  in  Spain,  to  which  I  have  just  referred.  As  a  result  of  this 
doctrine,  the  Spanish  subjects  in  America  considered  themselves  en- 
titled to  organize  Juntas  for  their  own  protection  and  to  deny  obedi- 
ence to  the  Juntas,  which  without  their  representation  and  using  the 
same  right  as  they  were  now  using,  had  been  organized  in  Spain 
during  the  French  invasion.  In  a  communication  which  the  City 
Council  of  Mexico  addressed  to  the  Viceroy  on  August  5,  1809,  it  was 
stated  that'  "under  the  present  circumstances,  the  monarch  being 
prevented  from  exercising  the  government,  the  sovereignty  is  repre- 
sented by  the  nation,  to  accomplish  in  his  name  what  may  be  most 
convenient." 

It  was  in  this  manner  that  the  native  Americans  acquired  for  the 
first  time  some  control  over  their  own  affairs  and  began  to  realize  that 
they  could  take  care  of  themselves.  Although  the  principal  Spanish 
Junta,  which  met  at  Cadiz,  called  representatives  to  the  Cortes  from 
the  Spanish  colonies,  the  representation  allowed  to  the  latter  was  very 
meagre,  and  that  step,  instead  of  satisfying  the  colonists,  only  demon- 
strated to  them  that  the  Spaniards  were  determined  not  to  allow  them 
self-government.  Thus  the  idea  of  independence  gradually  gained 
ground  all  over  the  American  continent. 

'  History  of  the  Revolution  of  Ncic  Spain,  by  Jose  (k;eri-a,  vol.  i.,  p.  41. 


©enesis  ot  /iDcjican  1I1l^cpcn^ence.  295 

That  such  was  the  case  is  shown  by  the  remarkable  coincidence  that 
the  insurrections  in  all  the  American  colonies  of  Spain  took  place 
within  the  same  year  and  almost  simultaneously,  and,  I  think,  without 
any  previous  concert  among  them.  The  distances  were  so  great  and 
the  means  of  communication  so  scanty,  slow,  and  difficult,  that  news 
of  an  outbreak  in  one  colony  could  not  have  been  received  in  the 
others  for  several  months,  and,  in  some  cases,  for  nearly  a  year  after 
it  had  occurred. 

This  fact  shows,  in  my  opinion,  that  the  colonies  were  ripe  for  in- 
dependence, and  that  a  condition  of  things  had  been  reached  which 
made  independence  a  necessity  that  could  not  be  suppressed,  post- 
poned, or  evaded.  Although  there  had  been  several  attempts  at 
independence  in  the  American  colonies  of  Spain  before  the  year  1810, 
more  particularly  the  attempt  at  Chuquisaca,  now  Sucre,  in  Bolivia, 
on  May  25,  1809,  and  some  revolutionary  movements  which  broke  out 
in  Quito  and  were  easily  subdued,  independence  was  not  proclaimed 
until  the  following  year,  1810;  on  April  19th  in  Caracas,  May  25th  in 
Buenos  Ayres,  July  20th  in  Bogota,  on  September  16th  in  Mexico, 
September  i8th  in  Santiago,  Chili,  and  in  the  same  month  of  Septem- 
ber in  most  of  the  other  colonies. 

It  has  been  said  by  a  distinguished  South  American  historian  '  that 
ideas  do  not  come  without  a  cause;  that  they  are  the  natural  result  of 
certain  conditions,  and  that  just  as  a  plant  which  appears  in  an  uncul- 
tivated soil  is  the  manifestation  of  a  combination  of  physical,  chemical, 
climatological,  and  organic  causes,  so  a  new  idea  is  a  manifestation  of 
a  combination  of  intellectual  forces,  and  appears  at  the  same  time  in 
various  individuals.  In  support  of  this  theory  he  adduces  the  saying 
of  Emerson  that  there  is  a  secret  door  by  which  ideas  of  reform  enter 
the  hearts  of  legislators  and  of  the  people,  and  thus  the  appearance  of 
a  new  idea  is  a  new  hope  which  indicates  that  a  new  light  has  been 
kindled  in  the  hearts  of  millions  of  persons.  This  is  proven  by  the 
fact  that  an  idea  will  occur  simultaneously  to  several  persons  living  in 
different  localities,  and  without  any  previous  concert  among  them. 

Without  contesting  the  soundness  of  this  view,  what,  in  my  opinion, 
produced  the  idea  of  independence  in  the  American  colonies  was  the 
common  sense  and  natural  reason  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  colonies, 
who  had  some  education  and  whose  minds  were  somewhat  developed. 
They  could  not  fail  to  perceive  the  injustice  of  being  held  in  servitude 
by  a  comparatively  small  nation,  and  this  view  was  strengthened  by  the 
example  set  by  the  United  States  when  they  proclaimed  and  achieved 
their  independence. 

In  most  of  the  Spanish  colonies  the  independent  movement  began 
in  the  shape  of  a  popular  meeting,  presided  over  by  the  leading  persons 

'  General  Bartolome  Mkre,  J/tsforia  de  San  Martin  y  de  la  Emancipacion  Sud- 
Americana,  vol.  i.,  chap,  i.,  paragraph  ix.,  p.  81,  Bueiio.s  Ayres  edition  of  1S87. 


296  Ibietorical  IHotes  on  ^cjico, 

of  the  capital  of  the  colony,  for  the  purpose  of  opposing  the  French 
invasion  of  Spain,  and  supporting  the  rights  of  the  Spanish  royal 
family.  It  was  thought  necessary  that  the  colonies- should  be  armed 
and  prepared,  not  only  to  repel  the  invasion  of  France,  but  also  to 
assist  the  mother-country  in  her  efforts  to  resist  the  Napoleonic  aggres- 
sion. In  Mexico,  however,  this  was  not  the  case.  The  Viceroy, 
Iturrigaray,  intended,  no  doubt  in  good  faith,  to  arm  the  country  for 
that  purpose,  but  the  jealousy  of  the  "  Audiencia  "  '  and  the  native 
Spaniards  inspired  them  with  the  suspicion  that  he  intended  to  call  a 
Popular  Assembly,  with  the  ultimate  object  of  proclaiming  the  inde- 
pendence of  Mexico;  the  ground  for  this  supposition  being  that  the 
Viceroy  had  refused  to  recognize  the  Junta  established  in  Cadiz, 
Spain,  and  they  accordingly  deposed  him,  and  sent  him  back  to  Spain, 
and  appointed  his  successor.  This,  naturally,  destroyed  the  respect 
which  the  Mexican  people  had  for  the  representative  of  the  Spanish 
King,  and  showed  them  that  force,  when  successful,  was  justifiable, 
and  could  accomplish  greater  things.  The  way  was  thus  paved  for  a 
series  of  military  revolutions  which  continued  to  break  out  for  about 
sixty  years.  The  popular  movement  in  all  the  other  colonies  drifted 
finally  into  a  proclamation  of  independence,  while  in  Mexico  indepen- 
dence was  proclaimed  outright  and  without  any  semblance  of  submission 
to  the  Spanish  Crown;  the  cry  of  Hidalgo,  the  originator  of  Mexican 
independence,  being  "  Long  live  independence  !  Down  with  the 
Spaniards! 

T/ie  War  of  Independence  in  South  America. — It  will  be  opportune 
and  interesting  to  mention  briefly  when  and  how  the  Spanish  colonies 
accomplished  their  independence. 

The  independence  of  South  America  proper,  that  is,  from  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama  to  Cape  Horn,  was  accomplished  mainly  by  two 
great  military  geniuses,  as  great  as  any  the  world  has  ever  seen,  assisted, 
of  course,  by  several  very  able  and  distinguished  lieutenants,  among 
whom  occupied  the  most  conspicuous  place  as  a  star  of  the  first  magni- 
tude General  Jose  Antonio  Sucre,  of  Colombia,  who  achieved  some  of 
the  most  brilliant  victories  in  the  war,  and  who  is  considered  by  many 
as  a  soldier  superior  to  Polivar  himself."     The  two  great  generals  were 

'  The  Spanish  colonies  in  America  were  governed  by  an  executive  officer,  repre- 
sentative of  the  King,  who  was  called  Viceroy,  Captain-General,  President,  etc., 
according  to  the  importance  of  the  colony,  and  an  Audiencia,  of  from  three  to  five 
members,  which  was  a  judicial  court,  acting  at  the  same  time  as  an  advisory  council  to 
the  Executive  and  intended  in  fact  as  a  rival  body  to  keep  in  check  the  Viceroy, 
often  deposing  him. 

'  One  of  Bolivar's  most  remarkable  lieutenants  was  General  Jose  Antonio  Paez,  of 
Venezuela,  whose  prowess  during  the  war  of  independence  led  to  his  being  called 
the  Venezuelan  Achilles  ;  but  he  remained  in  Venezuela,  while  Bolivar  went  to 
Colombia,  Ecuador,  and  Peru. 


(Benesis  of  /IDejican  1Int)epenC)ence.  297 

Jos^  de  San  Martin,  born  on  February  25,  1778,  in  Yapeyii,  a  small 
town  in  the  Argentine  Republic,  on  the  borders  of  Paraguay,  who 
operated  in  the  southern  part  of  South  America;  and  Simon  Bolivar, 
born  in  Caracas,  the  capital  of  Venezuela,  on  July  25,  1783,  whose  field 
of  operations  covered  the  northern  part  of  that  continent,  both  finally 
meeting  in  Guayaquil.  Both  belonged  to  distinguished  families  of 
Spanish  descent,  both  had  received  a  military  education  in  Spain  and 
had  served  with  distinction  in  the  Spanish  army,  and  both  flew  to  their 
country's  assistance  when  they  heard  that  independence  had  been 
proclaimed.  Bolivar  was  of  an  impulsive  and  reckless  disposition, 
and  suffered  in  consequence  many  serious  defeats,  while  San  Martin, 
being  a  much  more  cautious  man,  was  only  once  defeated,  at  Can- 
charayada,  Chili,  on  March  19,  181 8,  in  a  night  sally  made  by  the 
enemy,  while  he  was  changing  the  position  that  his  army  had  occupied 
during  the  afternoon. 

The  La  Plata  Provinces,  or  the  Argentine  Republic,  as  it  is  now 
called,  had  not  only  practically  established  its  independence  in  1813, 
after  the  decisive  victories  of  Tucuman,  fought  on  September  24, 
181 2,  and  Salta,  fought  on  February  20,  1813,  although  its  indepen- 
dence was  not  formally  declared  until  July  9,  1816,  by  a  National 
Congress  which  met  at  Tucuman;  but  had  also  driven  the  Spaniards 
from  Uruguay  and  Paraguay,  and  had  assisted  the  adjoining  prov- 
inces of  Upper  Peru,  which  had  also  rebelled  against  Spain,  and  be- 
fore had  shown  great  patriotism  and  determination  in  repulsing  twice, 
in  1806  and  1808,  the  attacks  of  the  English,  then  at  war  with  Spain, 
for  the  purpose  of  capturing  Buenos  Ayres.  The  Argentine  Republic 
was,  therefore,  the  base  of  operations  against  the  Spanish  Government 
in  the  southern  portion  of  South  America,  and  her  capital,  Buenos 
Ayres,  was  the  only  capital  on  the  continent  which,  once  occupied  by 
the  patriots,  since  May  25,  1810,  was  never  recaptured  by  the 
Spaniards. 

Peru  was  at  the  time,  after  Mexico,  the  main  seat  of  Spanish  power 
in  America.  Lima,  its  capital,  was  called,  for  its  enervating  conditions 
and  dissipations,  the  Capua '  of  South  America.      The  Viceroy  of  Peru 

'  Lima  is  situated  in  a  pleasant  valley  where  rain  never  falls  ;  scarcely  ever,  about 
once  in  a  hundred  years,  are  there  any  thunder-storms,  and  the  air  is  never  impregnated 
with  electricity.  Generally,  but  more  especially  so  in  summer,  the  clouds  temper  the 
rays  of  the  sun,  while  the  soft  and  damp  breezes  from  the  south  enervate  its  inhabitants 
and  render  active  work  irksome. 

Unanue,  in  his  Observations  on  the  Climate  of  Lima  and  its  Influences,  second 
edition,  p.  83,  says:  "  Owing  to  the  influence  of  the  causes  before  stated  (enervating 
conditions)  the  men  necessarily  lack  manly  traits  of  character.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
same  causes  tend  to  the  perfection  of  women  ;  their  features  are  delicate,  their  expres- 
sion soft,  their  eyes  black,  with  large  pupils  full  of  fire  and  sensil)ility — the  leading 
traits  of  a  weak  but  nervous  body." 

It  is  a  fact  already  noticed  by  Humboldt,  that  .t  moist,  temperate  climate  prevail- 


298  lbi5torical  IRotes  on  /IDcjico. 

sent  several  expeditions,  not  only  to  subdue  the  insurgents  of  Upper 
Peru,  which  was  a  comparatively  easy  task,  but  also  against  those  of 
Buenos  Ayres,  who  suffered  serious  defeats  in  Vilcapujio,  on  October  i, 
1 8 13,  and  in  Ayounia  on  November  14th  of  the  same  year.  San  Martin 
was  for  some  months  commander  of  the  Argentine  army  in  Upper  Peru 
during  1814,  after  having  obtained  an  important  victory  at  San  Lorenzo 
on  February  3,  1813,  and  he  soon  became  satisfied  that  the  war  could 
not  end  until  a  mortal  blow  was  given  to  the  Spanish  power  in  Peru, 
and  he  realized  that  the  only  effectual  way  to  accomplish  that  end  was 
to  march  from  Chili  to  Peru  by  the  Pacific.  He  was  therefore  trans- 
ferred, at  his  own  request,  to  the  Province  of  Cuyo,  at  whose  capital, 
Mendoza,  which  commanded  the  main  pass  of  the  high  cordillera 
dividing  Argentina  from  Chili,  he  organized  and  disciplined  his  army, 
which  he  called  the  army  of  the  Andes,  availing  himself  of  the  assist- 
ance of  the  Chilian  patriots  who  flocked  to  his  banner,  among  whom 
was  O'Higgins,  who  took  such  a  leading  part  in  the  subsequent  public 
events  in  Chili. 

On  January  17,  1817,  San  Martin's  army  left  Mendoza  and  crossed 
the  high  cordillera  by  the  Uspallata  Pass,  an  undertaking  accomplished 
in  the  face  of  the  enemy,  and  which  may  well  be  compared  with  the 
crossing  of  the  Alps  by  Hannibal,  centuries  before,  when  he  invaded 
Italy.  While  in  Chili,  San  Martin  defeated  the  Spanish  army  at 
Chacabuco,  on  February  12,  1817,  which  permitted  him  to  occupy 
Santiago,  the  capital  of  that  country.  The  Viceroy  sent  from  Lima 
another  army  of  Spanish  veterans,  which  joined  the  defeated  Spaniards 
in  Talcahuano,  a  strongly  fortified  place,  and  obtained  at  Canchara- 
yada  a  victory  on  March  19,  1818.  When  both  armies  had  arrived  at 
the  battle-field  on  the  afternoon  of  that  day,  and  while  San  Martin  was 
changing  during  the  night  the  position  of  his  army,  it  was  suddenly 
attacked  by  the  enemy,  dispersing  a  large  portion  of  the  same.  San 
Martin  had  consequently  to  withdraw  to  Santiago,  where  he  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  Spanish  general,  and  sixteen  days  later,  on  April  5,  1818, 
he  fought  and  defeated  the  Spaniards  at  Maipo,  near  the  City  of  San- 
tiago, thus  achieving  the  independence  of  Chili,  and  putting  the 
Spanish  Viceroy  at  Lima  on  the  defensive. 

The  Governments  of  the  La  Plata  Provinces  and  of  Chili  had 
agreed  by  a  treaty  signed  at  Buenos  Ayres,  on  February  5,  1819,  to 
send  a  joint  expedition  to  liberate  Peru;  but  before  the  expedition 
started  a  revolution  broke  out  in  the  Argentine  Provinces,  requiring 
the  presence  of  the  Argentine  army  in  Chili,   and  instructions  were 

ing  in  a  country  during  the  whole  year,  \\hile  very  pleasant,  does  not  have  the  invig- 
orating properties  of  climates  which  have  extremes  of  hot  and  cold  weather,  which  act 
as  a  tonic  and  exercise  a  very  healthy  influence  upon  the  body,  making  men  stronger 
physically  and  more  energetic  and  inclined  to  work. 


Genesis  of  /IDejican  Hn^epetiDeuce.  299 

sent  to  San  Martin  to  return  at  once.  San  Martin,  realizing  that  if 
he  went  back  to  Buenos  Ayres  his  army  would  be  demoralized  and 
the  cause  of  independence  seriously  jeopardized,  resolved  to  disobey 
his  instructions,  and  he  resigned  his  command,  but  was  recognized 
as  general-in-chief  by  his  army  at  Rancagua,  in  Chili,  on  April  2, 
1820,  and  finally  appointed  general-in-chief  of  the  joint  Chilian-Ar- 
gentine expeditionary  army  by  the  Chilian  Government,  who  assumed 
the  payment  of  the  same.  Before  San  Martin  left  Chili  for  Peru,  the 
Argentine  Government  had  been  overthrown,  and  anarchy  prevailed 
there.  He  found  himself,  therefore,  without  a  government  or  nation 
to  back  his  force,  but  acted  as  general-in-ch-ief  of  the  combined  army 
by  virtue  of  appointment  of  the  Chilian  Government  and  by  the  act 
of  Rancagua,  and  under  such  circumstances  only  his  personal  worth 
and  influence  over  the  army,  with  Chili's  assistance,  could  hold  it  to- 
gether. San  Martin  knew  that  he  could  not  march  to  Peru  overland, 
and  he  therefore  concentrated  all  his  efforts  on  the  task  of  providing 
Chili  with  a  navy  which  would  clear  the  Spanish  Armada  from  the 
Pacific. 

The  geographical  po;  ition  of  Chili,  which  is  a  long  and  narrow 
strip  of  land  bounded  by  the  Cordilleras  on  the  east  and  bordering  on 
the  Pacific  Ocean,  made  it  indispensable  for  her  to  have  a  navy,  and 
it  is  extraordinary  how,  being  the  poorest  and  the  last  of  the  Spanish- 
American  Crown  colonies,  she  could,  under  the  able  leadership  of 
O'Higgins,  a  Chilian  patriot  of  Irish  descent,  and  while  she  was  carry- 
ing on  her  war  of  independence  against  Spain,  improvise  a  navy,  a  task 
in  which  the  Chilian  leader  was  very  substantially  assisted  by  San 
Martin  and  the  Buenos  Ayres  Government  with  the  man-of-war  In- 
trepido^  subsequently  lost  at  the  capture  of  Valdivia,  by  Lord  Coch- 
rane, on  February  3,  1820.  In  September,  1818,  O'Higgins  had  pro- 
cured five  men-of-war,  manned  by  raw  recruits  with  little  or  no  naval 
discipline,  and  a  few  English  and  Americans  who  could  not  speak 
Spanish,  which  he  put  under  the  command  of  Colonel  Manuel  Blanco 
Encalada,  born  in  Buenos  Ayres,  who  had  previously  served  in  the 
Spanish  navy,  and  who  became  afterwards  Vice-President  of  Chili. 
Blanco  Encalada  attacked  the  frigate  Maria  Isabel,  on  October  28, 
1818,  while  she  was  under  the  protection  of  the  forts  at  the  port  of 
Talcahuano,  and  captured  that  vessel,  as  well  as  five  Spanish  trans- 
ports, with  seven  hundred  Spanish  soldiers.  The  enlarged  Chilian 
navy  was  placed  under  the  command  of  the  gallant  Lord  Cochrane,  a 
very  distinguished  admiral  of  the  British  Royal  Navy,  then  under  a 
cloud  at  home,  who  took  service  under  the  Chilian  flag,  attacked  and 
defeated  the  Spanish  navy  at  the  port  of  Callao,  capturing  the  flag- 
ship Esmeralda,  on  November  5,  1820,  and  so  established  Chilian  naval 
supremacy  in   the   Southern  Pacific  among  the   American  Republics. 


Ibistorical  Botes  o\\  /iDejico. 


. 


During  the  year  1814,  and  before  Chili  had  begun  to  organize  her 
navy,  the  Argentine  Independent  Government  had  organized  one 
which,  under  Admiral  Brown,  a  gallant  officer  of  Irish  descent,  defeated 
the  Spanish  navy  at  Montevideo,  and  established  on  the  La  Plata  River 
the  supremacy  of  the  Argentine  navy. 

With  the  Chilian  navy,  consisting  of  nine  men-of-war  and  sixteen 
transports,  San  Martin  left  Valparaiso  for  the  Peruvian  coast  on  August 
20,  1820,'  with  an  army  of  41 18  soldiers,  of  which  2313  were  Argentines 
and  1805  Chilians.  According  to  Miller,  in  his  Afemoirs,  vol.  i.,  page 
243,  one  third  of  the  Argentine  division  was  composed  of  Chilians  who  1 
had  replaced  the  Argentine  soldiers  killed  or  disabled  during  the  war, 
although  all  the  officers  were  Argentines,  and  many  of  the  Chilian  con- 
tingent had  the  same  nationality. 

Eighteen  days  later  San  Martin  landed  in  Peru,  near  the  city  of 
Pisco,  to  the  south  of  Lima,  The  Viceroy  had  over  23,000  men 
under  his  command  which  he  could  concentrate  against  San  Martin, 

'  It  may  be  interesting  to  give  a  list  of  the  ships  which  constituted  the  first  Chilian 
navy,  when  the  squadron  left  Valparaiso  for  Peru  on  August  20,  1820,  under  Lord 
Cochrane,  and  the  way  in  which  they  were  obtained. 

Ship  of  the  line  San  Martin,  1300  tons,  of  64  guns,  previously  called  Cumber- 
land, which  belonging  to  the  English  East  India  Company,  was  bought  for  $200,000  at 
Valparaiso  by  the  Chilian  government  in  1818.  Frigate  O'Higgifts,  1220  tons,  44  guns, 
formerly  called  Maria  Isabel,  captured  at  Talcahuano,  October  28,  1818.  Frigate  1  "^ 
Lautaro,  850  tons,  50  guns,  previously  called  Windham,  belonging  to  English  and 
American  merchants  of  Valparaiso,  sold  to  the  Chilian  government  for  $180,000,  June, 
1818.  Yx\Qfl.\.&  Independencia,  580  tons,  28  guns,  formerly  called  Curacio,  bought  in  the 
United  States  for  $150,000,  June,  1819.  Brig  Galvarino,  398  tons,  18  guns,  formerly 
called  Lucia,  bought  by  the  Chilian  government  in  1818  for  $70,000.  Brig  Araucano, 
270  tons,  16  guns,  called  before  Columbus,  bought  in  the  United  States  for  $33,000.  ||UlEt 
Brig  Pueyrredon,  220  tons,  18  guns,  called  before  Aguila,  belonged  to  the  Spanish 
navy  and  entered  Valparaiso  in  February,  1817,  without  knowing  that  the  port  was  in 
the  possession  of  the  patriots.  Schooner  Montezuma,  200  tons,  7  guns,  captured  at 
Callao  in  1819.  Sloop  Chacabuco,  20  guns,  called  before  Coquimbo,  bought  in  Val- 
paraiso in  1818.     This  ship  remained  to  guard  the  Chilian  coast. 

The  transports  captured  by  the  Chilian  navy  were  the  Magdalena,  Dolores,  Car- 
lota,  Rosalia,  and  Helejta,  formerly  belonging  to  the  Spanish  government  and  captured 
by  Admiral  Blanco  Encalada,  and  the  merchant  ships  Regina,  Aguila,  Victoria,  and 
yeresana,  captured  by  Lord  Cochrane.  Frigate  Thomas  was  captured  at  Talcahuano, 
June  8,  1818.  Brig  San  Miguel  was  captured  by  the  Lautaro  in  1817.  Ferla  and 
Potrillo  were  Chilian  vessels  which  had  been  captured  by  the  Spanish  and  recaptured 
by  Lord  Cochrane. 

Of  these  transports  the  Dolores,  Ferla,  Aguila,  yeresana,  and  Potrillo  accom- 
panied the  united  expedition  to  Peru,  and  the  Chilian  government  obtained  in  different 
ways  the  other  transports  which  served  for  the  same  purpose,  namely  :  Gaditana,  Con- 
secuencia,  Emprendedora,  Santa  Rosa,  Mackettna,  Peruana,  Minerva,  Golondrina, 
Libertad,  Hercules,  and  Argentina.  The  total  tonnage  of  these  transports  was  7178 
tons. 

This  expedition  was  manned  by  1600  sailors  and  marines,  of  whom  about  600  were 
foreigners,  the  greater  portion  of  ihem  being  English  and  the  balance  Chilians. 


Kilo 

i 


'ml 
is  tie 

tc 
•t 

81 


It 


©enesfs  ot  /IDejican  UnbepenDcnce.  301 

and  it  required  great  generalship  and  fine  manoeuvring  to  baffle  the 
Spanish  army.  After  remaining  a  month  and  a  half  at  Pisco,  and 
sending  a  portion  of  his  army,  under  General  Las  Heras,  to  the  inte- 
rior to  raise  the  people  in  favor  of  independence,  San  Martin  sailed 
with  the  remainder  of  his  force,  on  October  29,  1820,  to  Ancon,  a  port 
twenty  miles  north  of  Lima,  and  when  the  Spanish  army  was  being 
concentrated  against  him  there  he  moved  again,  on  November  8th, 
having  possession  of  the  sea,  to  Huacho,  about  seventy  miles  north  of 
Lima,  thus  severing  the  communication  of  the  Viceroy  with  his  north- 
ern provinces.  In  the  meantime  the  principal  towns  of  Peru  began  to 
join  the  independent  cause,  and  even  a  portion  of  the  native  army  of 
the  Viceroy  joined  San  Martin.  All  this,  together  with  the  very  able 
generalship  of  that  great  commander,  forced  the  Viceroy  to  evacuate 
Lima  on  July  6,  182 1,  which  was  occupied  by  San  Martin  on  the  loth 
of  the  same  month.  The  port  of  Callao,  the  strongest  fortified  Span- 
ish fort  on  the  Pacific,  remained  in  possession  of  the  enemy  up  to  Sep- 
tember 21,  1821,  when  it  surrendered  to  San  Martin. 

When  San  Martin  arrived  at  the  northern  Peruvian  coast,  Guaya- 
quil, a  very  important  military  and  naval  position  on  the  Pacific,  pro- 
claimed its  independence,  considerably  weakening  the  Spanish  cause. 

San  Martin  had  several  parleys  with  the  Spanish  officers  and  made 
different  armistices  with  them.  No  agreement  was  reached  at  a  con- 
ference held  at  Torre  Blanca  hacienda  in  Retes  between  San  Martin's 
and  La  Serna's  representatives,  on  February  23,  1821;  but  an  armis- 
tice was  signed  at  Punchauca  on  May  23,  1821,  General  San  Martin 
having  finally  an  interview  with  Viceroy  La  Serna  on  June  2,  1821,  for 
the  purpose  that  I  will  mention  further  on.  Their  representatives 
had  met  before  at  Miraflores. 

The  best  proof  that  could  be  adduced  of  San  Martin's  generalship 
was  his  occupation  of  Peru.  He  arrived  there  with  comparatively  a 
handful  of  men,  when  the  country  was  in  full  possession  of  the  Span- 
iards, outnumbering  him  five  to  one,  and  without  fighting  a  single 
battle  he  caused  the  enemy  to  evacuate  its  capital,  Lima;  he  obtained 
the  retreat  of  the  army,  under  General  Canterac,  which  the  Viceroy 
had  sent  to  relieve  Callao,  and  the  consequent  surrender  of  this  port, 
and  he  proceeded  to  proclaim  the  independence  of  Peru,  on  July  15, 
1821.  And,  considering  it  indispensable  for  the  success  of  the  cause 
that  he  should  be  at  the  head  of  the  Government,  he  proclaimed  him- 
self Protector,  a  title  which  had  not  been  used  since  Cromwell,  with 
military  and  civil  control  over  the  country,  a  position  which  he  as- 
sumed on  August  3,  182 1,  and  which  he  kept  to  January,  1822,  when 
he  surrendered  the  authority  to  Torre  Tagle,  whom  he  had  appointed 
before  as  Governor  of  Lima,  and  wlio  remained  in  such  capacity  until 
San  Martin's  return  to  Chili  in  September  of  the  same  year. 


302  Ibistortcal  IRotes  on  /IDc£tco. 

On  September  21,  1821,  the  strongly  fortified  port  of  Callao  surren- 
dered, after  Admiral  Cochrane  had  captured  from  inside  the  harbor, 
and  from  under  the  protection  of  the  Spanish  forts,  on  July  24,  1821, 
the  Spanish  war-ship  Resolucion,  of  thirty-four  guns,  and  the  San 
Fernando  and  Afilagro,  both  merchant  vessels  armed  for  war. 

Although  Cochrane  and  San  Martin  were  collaborators  in  the  same 
work,  there  was  some  jealousy  between  them,  and  they  quarrelled  at 
last,  although  the  apparent  immediate  cause  was  that  the  navy  had  not 
been  punctually  paid  by  San  Martin,  and  Cochrane,  as  Admiral  of  the 
Chilian  navy,  seized  some  money  that  San  Martin  had  placed  on  board 
a  ship  for  safe  keeping,  and  distributed  it  among  his  men,  finally  aban- 
doning the  coast  of  Peru.  Lord  Cochrane  blamed  San  Martin  for 
assuming  the  government  of  Peru.  He  thought  San  Martin  had 
betrayed  the  trust  of  the  Chilian  Government,  under  whose  orders  he 
was  acting,  although  San  Martin's  course  was  fully  approved  by  O'Hig- 
gins.  He  was  also  blamed  for  having  abandoned  Peru  when  the  enemy 
was  still  strong,  considering  that  step  as  equivalent  to  flight,  and  in  his 
passion  he  even  accused  San  Martin  of  cowardice  and  dishonesty, 
while  in  such  matters  he  was  above  reproach. 

San  Martin  was  in  favor  of  a  monarchical  form  of  government  as 
the  best  way  to  insure  the  independence  and  prosperity  of  the  new 
nations,  while  Bolivar  was  in  favor  of  a  republican  form  of  govern- 
ment. Yet  when  the  Civil  War  distracted  Colombia,  Bolivar  himself 
was  inclined  to  accept  a  monarchical  government  as  an  effectual  way 
of  putting  an  end  to  anarchy.  Bolivar  was  the  originator  of  the 
scheme  that  all  the  American  Republics  should  act  in  concert  for  their 
common  defence  and  in  other  matters  affecting  their  welfare,  and  this 
was  his  object  in  proposing,  in  1826,  the  meeting  of  an  American  Con- 
gress at  Panama. 

San  Martin  was  not  destined  to  complete  the  work  he  had  under- 
taken, as  that  task  was  reserved  for  Bolivar.  In  1822  San  Martin's 
situation  in  Peru  had  become  difficult,  as  his  army  had  been  consider- 
ably reduced  by  hard  service  and  sickness,  he  having  only  8500  men, 
many  of  them  raw  recruits,  while  the  Viceroy  had  in  Upper  Peru  about 
19,000  men,  which  could  be  easily  concentrated  in  a  comparatively 
short  time.  That  task  was  made  still  more  difficult  by  the  defeat  of  a 
detachment  of  San  Martin's  troops  under  General  Tristan,  at  lea,  by 
General  Canterac,  on  April  6,  1822,  this  being  the  only  reverse  that  his 
troops  suffered,  and  that  when  not  commanded  by  himself  in  person. 
San  Martin  thought  it  necessary,  therefore,  to  have  the  assistance  of 
Bolivar  to  give  the  finishing  blow  to  Spanish  dominion  in  Peru,  as 
otherwise  he  was  afraid  the  war  would  be  protracted  for  several  years, 
and  he  proposed  to  meet  Bolivar  in  Ecuador.  They  met  in  Guayaquil, 
on  July  26  and  27,  1822. 


Genesis  of  /IDejican  1In&epen&ence.  303 

No  authentic  report  of  that  interview  has  ever  been  published,  and 
this  has  given  rise  to  many  surmises  about  its  objects  and  results. 
From  the  events  which  preceded  and  followed  it,  and  from  a  letter 
written,  soon  after  it  took  place,  by  San  Martin  to  Bolivar,  on  August 
29,  1822,  and  from  conversations  of  the  former  with  friends,  there  is 
room  to  form  an  idea  of  what  took  place  in  it.  San  Martin  offered 
Bolivar  to  serve  under  his  orders,  if  he  would  go  with  his  victorious 
armies  to  Peru;  but  his  proposal  was  not  accepted,  Bolivar  saying  that 
he  could  not  leave  Colombia  without  permission  from  the  Colombian 
Congress,  and  agreeing  only  to  send  1500  men  of  his  army  to  aid  San 
Martin.  It  is  well  known  that  San  Martin  and  Bolivar  differed  greatly 
in  their  views  on  many  subjects  relating  to  the  work  that  they  had  both 
undertaken.  The  difference  of  opinion  between  the  two  regarding  the 
government  of  the  new  States  was  another  factor  which  contributed  to 
prevent  their  acting  in  accord.  One  cause  of  disagreement  between 
them  was  the  question  of  the  port  of  Guayaquil,  which  San  Martin 
thought  ought  either  to  belong  to  Peru,  or  that  the  question  of  its 
possession  should  have  been  settled  by  negotiation  between  the  Colom- 
bian and  Peruvian  Governments,  while  Bolivar  had  already  annexed  it 
to  Colombia.  San  Martin,  believing  that  he  was  in  Bolivar's  way,  and 
sincerely  desiring  the  success  of  the  cause  of  independence,  proved 
himself  a  true  patriot  and  a  great  man,  and  preferring  to  sacrifice  his 
future,  decided  to  withdraw  from  his  field  of  operations,  leaving  his 
competitor  alone  and  rendering  him  entirely  responsible  for  the  course 
of  future  events. 

San  Martin  consequently  returned  to  Lima,  where  he  had  previ- 
ously, on  December  17,  182 1,  convoked  a  National  Congress  to  organize 
the  State,  and  on  the  very  day  on  which  Congress  met,  September  20, 
1822,  he  resigned  his  command  in  Peru,  and  sailed  for  Chili. 

Bolivar's  career  was  still  more  eventful.  He  fought  the  Spanish 
both  in  Venezuela  and  New  Granada  with  very  varying  success  from 
1810  to  181 7,  being  sometimes  victorious  and  sometimes  crushed  and 
defeated,  and  being  twice  obliged  to  fly  from  the  country  and  take 
refuge  in  foreign  lands,  until  finally  he  asserted  his  supremacy,  and  at 
the  battle  of  Boyaca,  fought  on  August  7,  1819,  in  which  he  achieved 
the  independence  of  New  Granada  and  captured  Bogotd,  its  capital, 
and  at  that  of  Carabobo,  the  Waterloo  of  the  Spaniards  in  Colombia, 
which  was  fought  on  June  24,  1821,  he  achieved  the  independence 
of  his  native  land,  Venezuela,  having  previously  occupied  its  capital, 
Caracas. 

The  most  remarkable  trait  in  Bolivar's  character  was  his  indomit- 
able will,  his  unfaltering  faith  in  his  destiny,  and  in  the  final  success  of 
his  cause,  which,  under  the  most  adverse  circumstances  and  after  the 
worst  defeats,  when  any  one  else  would  have  despaired,  sustained  his 


304  t)t5toricaI  Botes  on  /IDejico, 

hope  and  animated  him  to  continue  his  efforts;  his  faith,  in  almost 
every  instance,  being  justified  soon  afterwards  by  a  great  victory.' 

Bolivar,  like  San  Martin,  realized  that  his  success  could  not  be 
permanent  as  long  as  the  Spaniards  were  in  possession  of  the  neighbor- 
ing countries,  and  more  especially  of  Peru,  the  principal  Spanish 
stronghold  in  South  America,  which  they  used  as  a  base  from  which  to 
assail  the  new  nationalities,  and  he  therefore  decided  to  attack  them 
first  in  Ecuador  and  afterwards  in  Peru.  Both  armies,  each  from 
opposite  ends  of  South  America,  converged  towards  Peru  with  the  same 
object  in  view,  that  of  putting  an  end  to  the  Spanish  domination.  He 
consequently  marched  his  army  to  Ecuador,  where  he  met  and  defeated 
the  enemy  in  the  battle  of  Bombona,  on  April  7,  1822. 

The  victory  of  Bombona  was  a  very  costly  one  to  the  patriots,  on 
account  of  the  severe  losses  they  sustained,  as  out  of  their  force  of 
2000  men  they  lost  over  600,  or  about  30  per  cent.,  while  the  Spaniards, 
having  nearly  the  same  number  of  troops,  only  lost  about  250,  or  12^ 
per  cent.  The  battle  was  of  comparatively  little  result  to  the  patriots, 
as  immediately  after  it  was  gained  Bolivar  had  to  withdraw  to  his  base 
of  operations  in  Southern  Colombia,  where  he  remained  until  the  9th 
of  June,  1822,  when  he  succeeded  in  obtaining  the  surrender  of  the 
Province  of  Pasto,  which,  on  account  of  its  topography  and  the  devo- 
tion of  its  inhabitants  to  the  King  of  Spain,  has  been  compared  to  La 
Vendee  during  the  French  Revolution. 

On  May  13,  1821,  General  Sucre  had  asked  the  co-operation  of  San 
Martin  to  march  against  Quito,  and  in  January,  1822,  an  agreement 
was  made  by  which  San  Martin  promised  to  assist  Sucre  with  1500 
men  to  be  paid  by  the  Colombian  Government,  which  troops  he  sent 
under  the  command  of  Colonel  Lavalle,  and  so  both  armies,  San 
Martin's  and  Bolivar's,  met  at  the  Equator  on  their  march  from  oppo- 
site ends  of  South  America. 

General  Sucre,  with  his  own  forces,  left  Guayaquil,  marched  against 
Quito,  and  after  his  junction  with  the  Argentine  contingent,  he 
achieved,  at  Pichincha,  in  sight  of  Quito,  on  May  24,  1822,  a  complete 
victory  over  the  royalists,  which  accomplished  the  independence  of 
Ecuador. 

As  San  Martin  had  predicted,  the  patriot  army  in  Peru  was  defeated 
after  he  left  the  country,  both  at  Torata  and  Moquegua,  on  January  20 

'  In  General  Mitre's  opinion,  as  expressed  in  his  History  of  San  Martin,  vol.  iii., 
chap,  i.,  p.  761,  Buenos  Ayres  edition  of  1887,  Bolivar's  tactics,  if  they  can  be  so 
called,  were  the  result  of  native  warlike  instinct,  combined  with  European  discipline. 
He  used,  indeed,  but  little  tactics  and  less  strategy  ;  his  natural  military  instinct  and 
genius  for  war  prompted  his  movements,  and  he  gained  his  victories  chiefly  by  the 
audacity  of  his  conceptions,  the  boldness  and  recklessness  of  his  attacks,  and  his 
unflinching  persistence  after  defeat.  His  military  methods  resembled  in  their  reckless 
daring  the  tactics  of  Charles  XH. 


(Benesis  ot  /iDcjican  HuDepeuDeuce.  305 

and  21,  1823.  During  the  night  of  February  4,  1824,  the  Argentine 
garrison  of  the  stronghold  of  Callao  rebelled  against  the  Government 
because  they  had  not  been  paid,  and  finally  delivered  the  place  to  the 
Spaniards,  which  was  a  very  great  blow  to  the  cause  of  independence. 
Callao,  like  Veracruz,  remained  in  possession  of  the  Spaniards  for  some 
time  after  the  independence  of  Mexico  and  Peru  had  been  achieved. 

After  the  defeats  of  Torata  and  Moquegua  and  the  destruction  of 
the  army  organized  by  Peru,  under  General  Santa  Cruz,  the  Peruvian 
Government  made  a  treaty  with  Colombia,  on  April  12,  1823,  by  which 
it  obtained  the  aid  of  6000  troops;  and,  finally,  after  the  country  had 
fallen  into  anarchy,  Bolivar  made  his  appearance  in  Lima,  where  he 
was  hailed  as  the  liberator  of  the  country,  the  Peruvian  Congress  ap- 
pointing him,  by  a  decree  dated  at  Lima  on  August  10,  1823,  Dictator 
and  Liberator  of  Peru,  thus  giving  him  entire  civil  and  military  control 
over  the  country,  so  realizing  San  Martin's  prediction. 

General  Abascal,  Viceroy  of  Peru,  had  succeeded  in  organizing  a 
native  Peruvian  army  to  oppose  the  independent  cause,  and  among  the 
ofiicers  who  distinguished  themselves  in  that  army  was  General  Valdez, 
who  for  his  bravery  and  chivalry  was  called  the  Peruvian  Bayard. 
The  Spaniards  had,  besides,  distinguished  generals  like  General  Can- 
terac,  famous  for  his  talent  to  organize  cavalry  corps,  and  General  La 
Serna,  who  became  afterwards  Viceroy.  Generals  Canterac  and  Val- 
dez deprived  Viceroy  Pezuela  of  his  military  command,  on  January  29, 
1821,  at  Asnapuquio,  and  appointed  General  La  Serna  in  his  place. 

New  dissensions  broke  out  among  the  royalist  troops,  as  most  of 
them  favored  the  Spanish  Constitution  of  1812,  while  General  Valdez, 
with  5000  men,  was  in  favor  of  an  absolute  monarchy,  and  hostilities 
broke  out  among  the  royalist  troops,  which  caused  them  great  loss,  and 
assisted  materially  the  patriots.  By  a  strange  phenomenon  the  Span- 
ish officers  belonged  decidedly  to  the  Liberal  party,  while  the  native 
Peruvian  officers  were  enlisted  on  the  side  of  the  Absolutist  party,  this 
difference  of  opinion  producing  a  rivalry  in  the  army  which  affected 
seriously  their  nwra/g  and  final  success. 

Bolivar,  in  full  charge  of  the  combined  Peruvian,  Chilian,  and 
Argentine  armies,  as  well  as  the  whole  of  the  Colombian  army,  marched 
against  the  Spaniards  in  Upper  Peru.  At  Junin  both  armies  met  un- 
expectedly, on  August  6,  1824,  and  only  the  cavalry  took  part  in  the 
engagement,  the  Spaniards  having  1300  and  the  patriots  900  men,  the 
Spanish  cavalry  being  the  flower  of  the  Spanish  army  in  Peru,  and 
considered  by  the  Spaniards  invincible.  The  engagement  lasted  but 
three  quarters  of  an  hour, — no  guns  but  only  side  arms  were  used, — but 
it  was  a  bloody  one,  the  Spaniards  losing  250  men  and  the  patriots  150 
in  killed  and  wounded.  This  defeat  of  the  Spanish  cavalry  demoral- 
ized their  army. 


3o6  Ibistorical  IRotcs  on  /IDejico. 

After  Junin  followed  the  battle  of  Ayacucho,  fought  on  December  9, 
1824,  at  which  Bolivar  was  not  present,  although  he  had  really  directed 
its  operations,  having  given  his  instructions  to  General  Sucre,  the  com- 
mander of  the  patriot  army.  The  Viceroy,  La  Serna,  had  collected 
the  whole  Spanish  army,  which  was  10,000  men  strong,  while  Sucre's 
army  consisted  only  of  4500  Colombians,  1200  Peruvians,  and  80  Argen- 
tines, the  remnant  of  San  Martin's  army.  Both  armies  had  been  for 
two  weeks  before  the  battle  within  sight  of  each  other,  manoeuvring  on 
a  broken  and  difficult  ground  for  the  purpose  of  selecting  their  positions, 
and  both  fought  with  great  bravery  at  Ayacucho,  losing  about  twenty- 
five  per  cent,  of  their  respective  forces.  The  loss  of  the  Spaniards  was 
2000  killed  and  wounded,  and  3000  prisoners;  the  remainder  of  the 
army  surrendered  to  Sucre,  who  sent  them  back  home  at  Peru's  ex- 
pense. The  result  was  a  complete  success  for  the  patriots,  who  in  that 
battle  finally  destroyed  Spanish  power  in  South  America. 

San  Martin  never  had  any  political  ambition  and  never  administered 
the  affairs  of  the  government  in  the  countries  that  he  liberated,  ex- 
cepting the  time  when  he  exercised  the  government  in  Peru  as  protec- 
tor. He  respected  the  different  nations  which  he  found  in  America, 
that  is,  the  political  divisions  established  by  the  Spaniards  during  the 
colonial  domination  based  on  similarity  of  races  and  on  natural  geo- 
graphical barriers,  and  did  not  attempt  to  annex  Peru  or  any  portion  of 
it  to  his  country  or  to  Chili;  while  Bolivar  had  great  political  ambition, 
always  assuming  the  reins  of  government  in  every  country  which  he 
liberated,  being  at  the  same  time  Liberator  and  Dictator,  and  annexing 
some  of  them  to  Colombia. 

Both  San  Martin  and  Bolivar  died  poor,  the  former  having  spent 
during  the  war  a  large  fortune  which  he  had  inherited.  San  Martin 
ended  his  life  in  Europe  in  1850  as  a  voluntary  exile,  while  Bolivar  died 
in  Santa  Marta  in  1830,  at  the  age  of  forty-seven,  broken-hearted  at  the 
disru])tion  of  the  Republic  of  Colombia,  which  he  had  founded,  by  the 
breaking  out  of  civil  war  in  that  country,  and  at  the  ingratitude  of 
many  whom  he  had  befriended. 

Had  they  lived  before  Plutarch's  time  the  lives  of  these  two  men 
were  worthy  of  appearing  in  his  Parallel  Lives  of  Celebrated  Greeks  and 
Romans,  and  they  would  indeed  have  excelled  in  lustre  many  of  those 
commemorated  in  his  book. 

When  the  enormous  difficulties  are  considered  that  the  liberating 
armies  had  to  contend  with,  traversing  immense  distances  in  a  very 
difficult  and  broken  country  without  railways  or  even  wagon-roads, 
having  often  to  transport  their  artillery  on  mule-back,  without  any 
commissariat  or  money  to  pay  the  army,  and  often  even  without  arms 
or  ammunition,  without  any  Government  to  lend  its  aid,  as  was  the 
case  with  San  Martin,  and  with  constant  changes  of  government,  and 


Genesis  of  /IDejican  1In^cpen^ence♦  307 

even  anarchy  in  some  cases,  what  those  men  accomplished  may  be  re- 
garded as  truly  wonderful,  and  their  march  will  bear  favorable  com- 
parison with  Alexander's  invasion  of  Persia,  with  the  difference  in 
Alexander's  favor  that  he  went  into  a  rich  country,  and  had  at  his 
disposal  the  spoils  of  the  Persian  royal  family,  one  of  the  richest  at 
that  time,  while  these  men  went  into  a  poor  and  unsettled  country, 
terribly  ravaged  by  a  destructive  war. 

In  Mexico,  as  in  all  the  other  Spanish  colonies,  the  war  of  inde- 
pendence had  begun  in  1810,  and  we  consider  that  it  ended  on  Sep- 
tember 27,  1821,  when  Iturbide  entered  the  City  of  Mexico  with  his 
victorious  army,  although  the  war  had  been  practically  ended  when 
the  Spanish  Viceroy,  O'Donoju,  signed  with  Iturbide,  at  the  city  of 
Cordova,  on  August  24,  182 1,  a  treaty  in  which  he  recognized  on  be- 
half of  the  Spanish  Government  the  independence  of  Mexico.  In  a 
paper  entitled  "  The  Philosophy  of  the  Mexican  Revolutions  "  I  have 
given  more  details  about  the  war  of  independence  in  Mexico,  which  I 
think  unnecessary  to  repeat  here. 

In  what  is  now  called  Central  America  the  people  remained  under 
the  Spanish  Government  without  any  attempt  to  proclaim  indepen- 
dence, very  likely  because  they  thought  they  could  not  cope  with  the 
power  of  the  Spanish  Viceroy  in  Mexico,  until  they  heard  of  Iturbide's 
success,  after  which  they  proclaimed  their  independence  and  annexa- 
tion to  Mexico  on  September  15,  1821,  seceding  from  Mexico  in  1823, 
and  establishing  then  the  Central  American  Confederation,  under  the 
name  of  the  United  Provinces  of  Central  America,  a  confederation 
which  lasted  until  1839,  when  each  of  the  five  States  became  an  inde- 
pendent nation.  In  a  paper  entitled  "  Boundary  Question  between 
Mexico  and  Guatemala,"  I  have  spoken  more  at  length  about  the 
independence  of  Guatemala. 

It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  almost  all  the  leaders  of  the  Spanish- 
American  independence  were  shot  either  by  the  Spaniards,  or  by  their 
own  people  on  account  of  internal  dissensions.  Hidalgo,  Morelos, 
and  Iturbide  in  Mexico,  and  a  long  list  of  others  in  South  America, 
suffered  that  fate.  The  Spaniards  considered  the  insurgents  as  rebels 
and  traitors,  and  gave  them  no  quarter;  they  believed  that  by  pursuing 
a  sanguinary  policy  they  would  awe  the  masses  and  prevent  them  from 
taking  part  in  the  insurrection. 

Many  others  met  a  violent  death  after  independence  had  been 
achieved,  like  Iturbide  and  Guerrero  in  Mexico,  Sucre  and  Cordoba 
in  Colombia,  and  Bermudez  in  Venezuela.  Many  escaped  death  on 
the  scaffold  by  ostracizing  themselves,  like  O'Higgins  in  Chili,  San 
Martin  in  Argentina,  and  even  Bolivar  was  overtaken  by  death  at  the 
port  of  Santa  Marta,  on  the  eve  of  sailing  for  Europe. 

While  Spain  was  waging  a  war  of  independence  against  France,  and 


3os  1bi5torical  IRotes  on  ^ejico. 

the  Spanish  King  was  held  in  captivity  by  Napoleon,  that  is,  from  1808 
to  1814,  she  could  with  difficulty  defend  her  American  colonies,  and 
only  occasionally  did  she  send  reinforcements  to  the  royalists  maintain- 
ing their  authority  there;  but  when,  with  the  assistance  of  England, 
the  French  were  driven  from  Spain,  after  Napoleon's  downfall  in  1814, 
and  Ferdinand  VII.  was  restored  to  the  throne,  the  Spanish  monarch 
took  active  measures  to  subdue  his  American  dominions  and  sent  out 
large  expeditions,  the  principal  one,  under  General  Morillo  and  con- 
sisting of  10,000  veterans,  being  intended  for  the  La  Plata  Provinces, 
but  finally  landing  in  Venezuela;  and  with  this  expedition  and  others 
Spanish  rule  in  America  was  almost  restored. 

In  1819  Ferdinand,  assisted  by  the  French,  and  as  it  appears  by 
Russia  also,  straining  every  nerve,  had  collected  at  Cadiz  a  very  large 
expedition,  consisting  of  about  20,000  men,  for  the  purpose  of  putting 
an  end,  as  he  anticipated,  to  the  American  insurrections;  but  the 
military  chiefs  of  the  expedition  rebelled  against  the  despotic  govern- 
ment of  the  King,  and  proclaimed  the  restoration  of  the  Liberal  Con- 
stitution decreed  by  the  Cortes  in  1812,  which  constitution  the  King 
was  obliged  to  accept,  at  least  for  the  time  being;  and  thus  was  frus- 
trated Ferdinand's  last  serious  attempt  to  subdue  his  rebellious  subjects. 
During  the  insurrection  the  Spanish  Government  had  sent  out  eighteen 
expeditions,  consisting  of  about  45,000  men,  at  a  cost  of  about  $75,- 
000,000,  which  was  then  a  very  large  force  and  a  very  large  amount  of 
money. 

Spanish  Overtures  for  Compromise. — The  Liberal  Cabinet,  estab- 
lished after  the  restoration  of  the  Constitution  of  1820,  believed  that 
they  could  restore  the  Spanish  power  in  America  by  compromising 
with  the  revolted  colonies  and  granting  them  a  degree  of  autonomy, 
or  possibly  by  carrying  out  the  plan  proposed  by  Count  Aranda,  and, 
acting  under  authority  granted  to  the  King  by  the  Cortes  in  two  reso- 
lutions approved  in  1820  and  1821,  to  enter  into  negotiations  with  the 
governments  established  in  the  American  colonies,  sent  special  com- 
missioners to  some  of  the  colonies  to  offer  them  autonomy  on  con- 
dition that  they  should  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  King. 

Ferdinand  VII.,  then  King  of  Spain,  at  the  urgent  solicitation  of 
the  Liberal  leaders,  or  rather  compelled  by  them,  issued  a  proclama- 
tion in  April,  1820,  of  which  the  following  is  an  extract:  "A  sad 
experience  of  six  years,  and  the  excitement  brought  about  by  its 
energetic  manifestations,  had  convinced  everybody  that  the  policy 
unwisely  restored  in  18 14  had  brought  about  greater  evils,  and  had 
been  a  drawback  to  the  advancement  made  until  then."  The  King 
furthermore  said  that  "  the  Spanish  Americans,  drawn  aside  from 
the  pathway  of  rectitude,  had  succeeded  in  obtaining  what  they  sought 
through  war, —  that  is,  tears  and  disaster."    Wherefore  he  invited  them 


Genesis  of  /IDejican  Unbepen^ence,  309 

to  enter  into  peace  negotiations  with  their  metropolitan  brethren  on  an 
equal  footing.  But,  in  order  to  attain  this  end,  he  offered  them  the 
rights  they  had  under  the  Constitution  of  1812,  which  they  had  re- 
jected when  they  declared  their  independence.  Finally,  Ferdinand 
VII.  said  in  this  proclamation  that  he  made  his  offer  so  "that  there 
should  be  a  renewal  of  the  friendly  relations  existing  during  the  past 
three  centuries,  and  in  conformity  with  the  enlightenment  of  the  age," 
and  threatened  that  force  should  be  employed  if  his  paternal  advice 
for  harmony  and  union  was  not  accepted. 

The  Spanish  Cortes  issued  in  1820  a  decree  extending  amnesty  to 
all  those  who  had  taken  part  in  the  insurrection  of  the  American  colo- 
nies against  Spain,  and  soon  afterwards  a  second  one,  by  which  they 
authorized  the  sending  of  commissioners  to  the  insurgent  colonies  for 
the  purpose  of  ending  the  war  by  peaceful  means. 

Commissioners  were  sent  to  Bolivar  in  Colombia  and  San  Martin 
in  Peru.  Bolivar  accepted  the  invitation  of  the  Spanish  commission- 
ers, and  sent  his  own  commissioners  to  Spain,  but  with  instructions  to 
treat  under  the  basis  of  the  recognition  of  the  independence  of  Colom- 
bia, and  he  did  so  more  to  gain  time  than  with  any  idea  of  coming  to 
a  satisfactory  agreement. 

The  change  of  policy  brought  about  in  Spain  by  the  success  of  the 
Liberals  and  the  decision  of  the  Cortes  just  referred  to,  explains  why 
the  Spanish  representatives,  both  in  Mexico  and  Peru,  accepted  the 
independence  of  those  countries  on  condition  of  establishing  there 
monarchies  under  a  Spanish  prince.  But  these  agreements  were  finally 
rejected  by  the  King  of  Spain,  who,  as  a  true  Bourbon,  would  not  hear 
of  any  suggestion  tending  to  the  independence  of  the  colonies,  but  who, 
on  the  contrary,  as  long  as  he  lived,  was  continually  making  efforts  to 
fit  out  expeditions  against  them  ;  and  in  1829  he  sent  a  large  one  from 
Havana,  under  General  Barradas,  against  Mexico,  which  landed  at 
Tampico,  but  was  defeated  and  obliged  to  return  to  that  port.  Ferdi- 
nand VII.  was  consistent  in  not  recognizing  the  independence  of  the 
colonies,  even  after  it  had  been  for  many  years  an  accomplished  fact, 
and  recognition  by  Spain  did  not  take  place  until  1836,  after  his  death. 

American  Monarchical  Vie7vs. — The  Republican  seed  had  been 
sown  in  America  by  the  Pilgrims  in  New  England,  the  Quakers  in 
Pennsylvania,  the  cavaliers  in  Virginia;  and  when  the  United  States 
established  their  independence  under  a  republican  form  of  govern- 
ment, it  was  almost  impossible  for  the  other  new  countries  to  adopt 
institutions  of  a  less  liberal  character. 

If  Charles  III.  had  accepted  Count  de  Aranda's  advice  to  establish 
three  empires  in  America,  all  the  turmoil  and  loss  of  life  which  were 
necessary  to  accomplish  independence,  and  which  followed  the  same, 
would  have  been  avoided,  and  free  institutions  and  a  republican  form 


3IO  Ibistorical  IHotes  on  ^ejico. 

of  government  would  have  finally  been  established  peacefully  and  by 
evolution. 

Several  attempts  were  made  to  establish  a  monarchical  form  of 
government  among  the  new  nations  of  America.  Godoy,  the  Prime 
Minister  and  guiding  spirit  of  Charles  IV. »  of  Spain,  advised  his 
sovereign,  after  he  had  been  dethroned  by  the  Emperor  Napoleon  in 
1808,  to  go  to  America  and  establish  his  empire  there.  Had  Charles 
IV.  followed  that  advice,  the  example  of  Brazil  would  have  been  re- 
peated in  the  Spanish  colonies,  and  this  would  have  allowed  them  to 
pass  from  a  despotic  to  a  republican  form  of  government  without  the 
serious  disturbances,  the  turmoils,  and  the  bloodshed  which  followed 
their  independence,  and  liberal  institutions  would  have  finally  pre- 
vailed, as  was  the  case  with  Brazil.  John  VI.  of  Portugal,  who  did 
what  was  suggested  to  Charles  IV.  of  Spain,  that  is,  established  his  em- 
pire in  Brazil,  when  he  was  driven  from  his  country,  was  unable  to 
found  an  absolute  monarchy  in  America,  and  he  returned  to  Portugal 
only  to  establish  there  a  constitutional  monarchy;  and  the  Brazilian 
empire  which  succeeded  him  was  really  a  Democratic  government  with 
a  remarkably  good  man  as  a  figure-head  on  the  throne. 

San  Martin  and  the  principal  leaders  of  the  Argentine  revolution, 
forseeing  the  unrest  and  political  disturbance  which  the  adoption  of 
republican  institutions  would  necessarily  entail  on  the  new  nations, 
they  not  being  prepared  for  that  form  of  government,  which  is  adapted 
only  for  an  enlightened  people,  capable  of  self-government,  favored 
the  establishment  of  a  constitutional  monarchy  as  affording  the  best 
guarantee  of  the  life  and  stability  of  the  new  nations,  and  in  those 
views  they  had  the  support  of  the  Chilian  Government  under  O'Hig. 
gins  and  of  the  Lautaro  Lodge,  a  political  secret  society  established  in 
Buenos  Ayres  for  the  purpose  of  securing  independence,  which  was 
afterwards  extended  by  San  Martin  to  Chili  and  Peru.  In  this  they 
were  largely  influenced  by  Montesquieu,  who,  by  his  praises  of  the 
English  Constitution,  had  inculcated  in  the  French  and  Spanish 
s])eaking  people  of  the  world  the  opinion  that  it  was  a  perfect  form  of 
government. 

In  1 8 14,  at  the  suggestion  of  England,  it  was  proposed  by  the 
Argentine  Government  that  a  Spanish  infante,  or  son  of  the  King  of 
Spain,  should  be  sent  as  king  to  the  La  Plata  Provinces,  a  proposition 
which  was  not  accepted  by  the  Spanish  King.  The  Argentine  Coii- 
gress,  which  declared  the  independence  of  their  country  in  1816,  ac- 
cepted secretly  the  monarchical  form  of  government,  and  the  Argentine 
representatives  in  Europe  were  authorized  to  enter  into  negotiations 
with  the  European  powers  for  the  purpose  of  establishing  in  the  Argen- 
tine Provinces  that  form  of  government,  the  prevailing  idea  being  to 
establish  a  monarchy  with  a  native  prince,  a  descendant  of  the  old 


(Benesis  of  ^ejican  Hn^epenDence.  311 

Incas  of  Peru,  on  the  throne,  fixing  the  capital  at  the  city  of  Cuzco. 
Between  1816  and  1819  the  monarchical  j^lan  was  again  agitated. 
France  was  very  anxious  that  a  monarchical  government  should  be 
established  in  Argentine,  and  the  Argentine  statesmen,  believing  that 
if  they  accepted  that  form  of  government,  the  European  powers  would 
support  the  independence  of  their  country,  favored  it,  and  authorized 
their  representatives  in  France  and  England  to  accept  as  king  the 
French  candidate,  the  Prince  of  Luca,  a  member  of  the  Bourbon 
family  and  a  nephew  of  the  King  of  Spain. 

While  San  Martin  was  Protector  of  Peru  he  sent  to  Europe,  in 
December,  1821,  Senor  Don  Juan  Garcia  del  Rio  to  negotiate  an  alli- 
ance with  Great  Britain  for  the  purpose  of  accepting  a  prince  of  the 
English  royal  family  to  be  Emperor  of  Peru,  on  condition  that  he  ac- 
cepted the  constitution  which  the  nation's  representatives  should 
approve;  and  if  the  English  Government  was  not  disposed  to  accept 
this  scheme,  the  same  proposition  was  to  be  made  to  the  Emperor  of 
Russia,  accepting  a  prince  of  his  dynasty  or  any  candidate  whom  he 
should  propose,  or  finally  any  prince  from  the  reigning  houses  of 
France  and  Portugal  would  be  accepted,  even  the  Prince  of  Luca. 

But  when  in  1823  Mr.  Canning  stated  to  the  French  Government 
that  England  did  not  require  the  establishment  of  a  monarchy  as  a 
condition  of  recognizing  the  independence  of  a  new  nation,  the  idea 
was  given  up.  The  appointment  of  a  native  as  monarch,  as  in  the 
case  of  Iturbide  in  Mexico,  proved  the  futility  of  the  idea  of  making 
any  of  the  revolutionary  leaders  king  or  emperor. 

Anarchy  made  such  headway  in  Colombia  that  Bolivar  in  his  mes- 
sage to  the  Colombian  Congress,  of  January  20,  1830,  said  "  I  blush  to 
say  it,  but  independence  is  the  only  blessing  we  have  obtained,  and 
that  at  the  cost  of  everything  else,"  and  it  is  believed  that  he  became 
then  a  convert  to  the  idea  of  a  constitutional  monarchy. 

Many  persons  continued  to  be  of  the  opinion  that  the  best  way  to 
end  anarchy  was  to  establish  a  monarchy  under  European  auspices. 
The  futility  of  this  theory  has  been  since  demonstrated  by  the  tragic 
failure  of  Maximilian's  experiment  in  Mexico.  This  experiment  was 
undertaken  under  the  best  auspices.  The  Emperor  Napoleon  sup- 
ported it  with  all  the  power  of  France,  aided  by  that  of  Austria  and 
Belgium,  who  contributed  with  armed  contingencies  to  its  establish- 
ment, and  the  so-called  emperor  was  taken  from  the  oldest  and  one  of 
the  noblest  reigning  families  of  Europe,  the  House  of  Hapsburg;  its 
complete  failure,  therefore,  proves  conclusively  the  folly  it  would  be  to 
think  of  the  establishment  of  a  monarchy  in  America. 

A  distinguished  Spanish-American  historian  '  says  that  the  United 

'General  Bartolome  Mitre,  Historia  de  San  Martin  y  de  la  Eniancipacion  Sud- 
Anicricana,  vol.  i.,  chap,  i.,  paragraph  xv.,  p.  107,  Buenos  Ayres  edition  of  1887. 


312  1l3i£itorical  "Motes  on  /IDcjico. 

States  in  the  first  decade  of  the  nineteenth  century  was  a  sun  without 
planets,  which  shed  light  only  upon  its  own  sphere  and  that  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  group  of  new  nations  which  came  out  of  the  nebulous 
colonies  of  the  South,  formed  for  the  first  time  in  the  history  of  the 
world  a  planetary  system  in  the  political  order  with  natural  laws,  uni- 
versal attractions,  and  democratic  harmony,  raising  the  United  States 
to  the  rank  of  a  first-class  nation. 

The  simultaneous  establishment  of  ten  republics  in  the  American 
continent  just  at  the  time  when  a  very  strong  reaction  was  taking  place 
in  Europe  in  favor  of  absolute  monarchical  government,  was  indeed 
one  of  the  most  remarkable  phenomena  of  the  present  century,  and 
justified  Mr.  Canning  in  saying  that  the  republics  of  the  new  world 
would  restore  the  equilibrium  of  the  old. 

The  psychological  phenomena  which  marked  the  transplanting  of 
the  European  races,  Spanish  and  Anglo-Saxon,  to  the  American  con- 
tinent, is  very  interesting,  as  most  of  the  encumbrances,  abuses,  and 
wrongs  prevailing  in  Europe  as  the  result  of  the  feudal  system  and  of 
many  centuries  of  hard  struggles  and  oppression,  were  wiped  out  by 
their  establishment  in  a  new  field  with  different  environment.  Class 
privilege,  hereditary  rank,  the  autocratic  ideas,  the  complete  disregard 
of  the  rights  of  the  people  which  had  become  in  Europe  deeply-rooted 
institutions,  were  blotted  out  in  the  New  World.  Just  as  water  that 
after  many  years  of  stagnation  in  a  lake  becomes  polluted,  by  trans- 
ferring it  to  another  place  loses  through  evaporation  all  its  impurities 
and  is  restored  to  its  pristine  purity,  so  it  happened  with  the  trans- 
planting of  European  races  to  the  New  World. 

Differences  betiveen  the  Indepefidence  in  Mexico  and  South  America. — 
I  think  it  worth  while  to  notice  some  of  the  most  striking  differences 
which  I  find  in  the  war  of  independence  in  Mexico  and  in  South 
America.  In  the  chapter,  "  Beginning  of  Mexican  Independence,"  I 
have  already  stated  the  striking  difference  between  the  bold  way  in 
which  independence  was  at  once  proclaimed  in  Mexico  and  the  in- 
direct manner  in  which  it  was  done  in  almost  every  other  country  in 
South  America,  and  here  I  will  point  out  some  of  the  most  notable 
differences. 

In  South  America  the  movement  of  independence  began  with  the 
educated  classes  which  were  the  higher  classes,  that  is,  the  men  of 
Spanish  descent  born  in  America,  who  had  had  the  opportunity  of  ac- 
quiring some  education  by  reading  books  forbidden  by  the  Inquisition, 
but  which  in  some  way  had  found  their  way  into  their  hands.  They 
became  impressed  with  the  cause  of  independence,  and  finally  were 
the  leaders  of  that  cause,  while  the  lower  classes  by  ignorance  and 
prejudice  generally  favored  the  existing  condition  of  things,  and  in  the 
beginning  opposed  independence.     But  in  Mexico  the  higher  classes, 


6enesis  of  /iDejican  UnDepenDence.  3 '3 

either  because  they  were  more  ignorant  than  in  the  South  American 
colonies,  or  because  the  advantages  they  derived  from  the  Spanish 
rule  were  greater,  on  the  whole  sided  with  the  King,  and  offered  the 
most  decided  opposition  to  the  cause  of  independence.  The  leaders 
of  this  cause  were  the  poor  priests,  who,  of  course  had  some  education, 
and  were  great  patriots,  and  they  were  assisted  by  the  masses,  including 
the  Indians. 

The  movement  for  independence,  which  in  the  other  Spanish 
colonies  originated  with  the  higher  classes,  in  Mexico  sprang  originally 
from  the  lower  classes,  the  higher  classes  always  opposing  it.  Miran- 
da, Bolivar,  Mosquera,  and  Bermudez  in  Venezuela;  Alvear,  Belgrano, 
Pueyrredon,  and  Rivadavia  in  Buenos  Ayres;  Narino,  Caldas,  Zea, 
Torres,  and  Gomez  in  Colombia;  O'Higgins,  Rozas,  and  the  Carrera 
brothers  in  Chili;  Riva  Aguero,  and  Unanue  in  Peru;  Montufar  and 
Rocafuerte  in  Quito ;  Caro  in  Cuba,  all  belonged  to  the  higher  classes  of 
those  countries,  while  Hidalgo  and  Morelos  were  only  humble  Mexican 
priests. 

A  point  in  which  the  case  of  Mexico  differs  from  the  other  Spanish 
colonies  is  in  regard  to  the  Indians.  Several  Indian  insurrections 
took  place  in  South  America  during  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth 
centuries,  which  sometimes  assumed  a  very  serious  character,  but 
which  were  finally  suppressed  by  the  Spanish  authorities.  In  all  these 
cases  the  Indians  intended  to  revert  to  their  old  form  of  governfnent, 
that  is,  the  one  that  they  had  before  the  conquest,  thus  really  in- 
augurating a  war  of  races,  which  deprived  them  of  the  assistance  of 
the  Creoles,  but  in  the  war  of  independence  in  South  America  the 
Indians  remained  passive,  and  the  movement  was  headed  and  carried 
out  almost  exclusively  by  the  Creoles.  The  gaucho  of  Argentina,  the 
llanero  of  Venezuela,  the  roto  of  Chili,  the  cholo  of  Upper  Peru  were 
all  Creoles,  while  in  Mexico  we  never  had  any  Indian  insurrection  for 
the  purpose  of  reverting  to  the  Montezuma  empire,  and  our  Indians 
assisted  manfully  and  bravely  in  our  war  of  independence  against 
Spain,  being  really  our  main  reliance. 

The  principal  difference  between  the  war  of  independence  as 
carried  on  in  Mexico  and  in  South  America,  was  the  attitude  of  the 
Catholic  clergy.  In  Mexico  the  clergy  was  the  mainstay  of  the 
Spanish  Government,  while  in  the  South  American  colonies  the  clergy 
either  remained  passive  or  indifferent  to  the  struggle,  or  sided  with  the 
patriots. 

When  one  of  the  Mexican  priests  who  sided  with  the  independence, 
and  especially  if  they  were  leaders  like  Hidalgo,  Morelos,  Matamoros, 
etc.,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Spaniards,  they  were  at  once  placed  at 
the  disposal  of  the  clergy,  and  tried  by  the  Inquisition  as  transgressors 
of  divine  law  and  as  heretics,  and  finally  degraded  in  a  very  pompous 


314  Ibistorlcal  IRotes  on  /IDejico. 

public  ceremony,  before  they  were  given  up  to  the  military  authorities 
who  tried  them  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  information  about  their 
plans  and  followers,  and  shot  them  without  mercy.  I  am  not  aware 
that  tlie  process  of  degradation  took  place  in  the  other  Spanish-Ameri- 
can colonies.  The  higher  dignitaries  of  the  Catholic  clergy  in  Mexico 
attempted  to  make  the  common  people  believe  that  all  patriots  were 
heretics  and  devils,  and  that  the  object  of  the  revolution  was  to  destroy 
the  Catholic  religion,  with  the  purpose  of  giving  to  the  war  of  inde- 
pendence the  character  of  a  religious  war. 

The  Spanish  colony  in  South  America  which  most  resembled  Mexico 
in  this  regard  was  Peru,  where  the  higher  clergy  lived  in  opulence  and 
were  decidedly  attached  to  the  King,  while  the  lower  clergy  were  in 
favor  of  independence,  and  the  participation  of  the  clergy  in  Peru  was 
of  little  consequence  as  compared  with  what  took  place  in  Mexico. 
The  Peruvian  clergy  in  general,  and  especially  the  parish  priests,  were 
decidedly  in  favor  of  independence.  Not  so,  however,  the  higher 
dignitaries.  During  the  uprising  of  Pumacahua,  a  leader  in  Upper 
Peru,  which  began  at  Cuzco,  on  August  3,  1814,  the  municipality  and 
the  ecclesiastical  council  elected  a  Junta  to  head  the  revolution,  and 
the  curates  and  monks  preached  rebellion  in  the  adjoining  provinces. 
The  curate  of  the  Sanctuary  of  Cuzco,  Ildefonso  Munecas,  having  dis- 
tinguished himself  for  his  ardor,  had  been  one  of  the  principal  promo- 
ters of  the  revolution,  and  took  afterwards  a  leading  part  in  the  same. 
San  Martin  having  due  respect  for  his  gray  hairs  did  not  repress 
him  in  any  manner.  The  Archbishop  of  Charcas,  the  Bishops  of 
Cuzco,  Maynas,  Huamango,  and  secretly  the  Bishop  of  Arequipa,  had 
constituted  themselves  promoters  of  the  movement  against  independ- 
ence and  ardent  orators  of  the  royalist  cause.  Lord  Cochrane,  in  his 
Memoirs^  of  which  I  have  seen  a  translation  into  Spanish,  published  in 
Lima  in  1863,  states  that  two  monks  incited  the  garrison  of  Chiloe  and 
ran  over  the  walls  with  a  crucifix  in  one  hand  and  a  lance  in  the  other 
to  oppose  the  patriots.  The  Archbishop  of  Lima  could  not  withdraw 
from  the  influence  which  surrounded  and  attracted  him. 

Archbishop  Las  Heras,  although  submitting  to  the  inevitable, 
obeyed  the  impulse  of  his  conscience  and  the  commands  of  the  Pope 
when  "  he  recommended  fidelity  to  the  Spanish  monarch  and  the  up- 
rooting and  complete  destruction  of  the  seeds  of  disturbance  and  sedi- 
tion that  the  enemy  had  sown  in  America,  inspiring  his  flock  with  a 
just  and  stable  hate,  leaving  no  stone  unturned,"  '  for  which  he  was 
exiled  by  San  Martin.  But  even  in  Peru,  the  Archbishop  himself,  who 
was  a  native-born  Spaniard,  did  not  refrain  from  allowing  a  Te  Deum 
to  be  sung  in  the  Cathedral  of  Lima  when   independence  was  pro- 

'  Encyclic  of  Pope  Pius  VFl.,  of  January  30,  1816.  Later  Pope  Leo  XIL  issued 
in  1824,  another  encyclic  against  South  American  independence. 


Genesis  of  /IDejtcan  1[nt)epenC>ence.  315 

claimed,  and  he  attended  himself  that  Te  Deum,  something  which  no 
Mexican  bishop  would  have  consented  to  do. 

The  South  American  leaders,  if  we  are  to  judge  by  the  opinions 
expressed  in  the  document  above  referred  to,  and  more  especially 
General  Miranda,  who  had  undoubted  military  talent,  and  was  a  dis- 
tinguished soldier  and  an  enthusiast  in  the  cause  of  independence, 
believed  that  independence  could  not  be  achieved  with  native  resources 
only,  but  that  it  required  as  an  indispensable  element  of  success  the 
armed  assistance  of  foreign  nations,  although  they  never  succeeded  in 
obtaining  any.  The  views  of  the  Mexican  leaders  were  altogether 
different.  They  never  dreamed  of  seeking  any  foreign  assistance,  but 
relied  entirely  upon  the  strength  and  resources  of  their  own  country. 
It  is  true  that  Hidalgo,  soon  after  he  proclaimed  independence,  and 
while  he  was  retreating  toward  the  north,  sent  a  representative  to  the 
United  States,  but  I  believe  that  he  had  no  intention  of  asking  for 
material  assistance,  and  desired  only  to  obtain  the  good-will  of  a  neigh- 
boring country  in  the  contingency  that,  in  the  course  of  his  military 
operations,  he  should  reach  its  frontiers. 

One  of  the  differences  between  the  struggle  for  independence  in 
Mexico  and  that  in  South  America,  is  that  in  the  latter  case  the  Argen- 
tine Provinces,  Chili,  and  Colombia  had  diplomatic  agents  in  Europe 
who  worked  steadily  for  the  cause,  and  kept  the  leaders  of  the  revolu- 
tion well  informed  of  the  movements  in  Spain  and  in  Europe  against 
them,  and  even  took  part  in  the  conspiracies  in  Spain  for  the  purpose 
of  preventing  the  sending  of  reinforcements  to  America,  spending 
much  money  for  that  purpose,  while  Mexico  was  entirely  isolated,  had 
no  representatives  of  any  kind  in  Europe  or  the  United  States,  and 
she  depended  entirely  on  her  own  resources,  without  even  dreaming  of 
foreign  assistance  of  any  kind.  In  the  lists  of  official  and  unofficial 
agents  sent  by  the  colonies  to  the  United  States  there  does  not  appear 
any  coming  from  Mexico,  nor  does  it  appear  that  the  United  States 
sent  any  commissioner  or  agent  to  Mexico,  to  inquire  into  the  condition 
of  the  country. 

As  a  consequence  of  the  more  intimate  contact  between  the  leaders 
of  the  independent  movement  in  South  America  and  Europe  and  of 
Mexico's  isolation,  the  former  had  the  active  support,  not  only  of 
foreign  officers  of  high  rank  and  even  of  private  soldiers  in  the  army  as 
well  as  in  the  navy,  but  of  whole  regiments,  like  the  Britannic  Legion 
of  Bolivar.  The  South  American  patriots  had  in  their  ranks  some  of 
the  most  distinguished  European  officers,  among  others  Lord  Cochrane 
in  Chili,  and  Marshall  Brayer,  who  had  fought  with  Napoleon,  and  was 
with  San  Martin  in  Peru,  while  in  Mexico,  with  the  exception  of  Mina 
and  his  fellow-followers,  who  were  not  foreigners  but  Spaniards,  I  do 
not  know  of  any  foreigner  who  took  part  in  our  war  of  independence. 


3i6  Ibistorical  IRotes  on  /iDejico. 

Another  difference  between  the  Mexican  and  South  American  wars 
of  independence  is  that  while  some  of  the  South  American  nations  like 
Peru,  Argentina,  Chili,  and  others  were  able  to  organize  navies,  the 
Mexican  patriots  never  were  in  possession  of  the  coast,  and  therefore 
could  never  even  think  of  having  a  navy  before  independence  was 
actually  accomplished. 

Another  matter  in  which  I  find  a  marked  difference  between  the 
war  of  independence  in  South  America  and  that  in  Mexico,  is  that  in 
the  former,  although  in  the  beginning  the  Spaniards  gave  no  quarter 
to  the  patriots,  yet  they  agreed  early  in  the  struggle  to  carry  on  a 
regular  war,  that  is,  not  to  shoot  their  prisoners,  to  make  exchanges 
of  such  as  they  captured,  and  in  general  to  allow  their  opponents  the 
rights  of  belligerents,  going  so  far  as  to  receive  commissioners  from  the 
leaders  of  the  revolution  and  to  grant  armistice,  and  make  formal 
treaties  with  them  as  the  agreement  signed  betw^een  Bolivar  and  General 
Morillo  at  Santa  Anna  on  November  27,  1820,  for  a  truce  of  six  months 
and  to  make  thereafter  a  regular  civilized  war,  while  in  Mexico  they 
never  waged  a  civilized  war,  and,  with  very  few  exceptions,  shot  every 
leader  whom  they  captured  and  made  no  armistice  or  agreement 
of  any  kind  with  the  chieftains  of  the  revolution,  considering  them  as 
traitors  and  outlaws,  until  the  conclusion  of  the  treaty  between  Itur- 
bide  and  O'Donoju,  signed  at  Cordova  in  182 1,  which  does  not  alter 
the  case  in  any  way,  as  it  was  signed  after  the  patriots  were  in  posses- 
sion of  the  whole  country. 

Another  material  difference  between  the  war  of  independence  in 
Mexico  and  her  South  American  sisters,  was  that  the  location  of  the 
Spanish  colonies  in  South  America  being  contiguous  to  each  other, 
permitted  them  to  be  of  mutual  assistance  in  their  struggle  for  inde- 
pendence, a  fact  which  constituted  a  very  great  advantage;  while 
Mexico,  being  entirely  isolated,  had  to  fight  her  own  battles  single- 
handed. 

A  last  point  of  difference  between  the  war  of  independence  in 
Mexico  and  South  America,  is  that  we  never  had  in  Mexico  any  Lodge 
or  any  other  political  organization  to  aid  the  revolution,  while  the 
Lautaro  Lodge  in  South  America  played  a  very  important  part  in  the 
war  of  independence  on  that  continent. 

Reco^7iition  of  Independence  by  the  United  States. — The  United  States 
Government  did  not  render  any  material  or  moral  assistance  to  the 
cause  of  independence  of  the  Spanish-American  colonies,'  excepting 

'  Senator  Money  considers  in  his  article  published  in  the  North  American  Review, 
for  September,  1897,  that  this  assertion  was  not  correct,  and  mentions  the  fact  that 
several  missions  were  sent  by  the  United  States  Government  to  the  struggling  colonies 
to  ascertain  the  true  condition  of  things  and  act  accordingly,  as  an  act  of  moral  support 
to  the  independent  cause  ;  but  this  cannot  be  considered  as  an  act  of  moral  support, 


(Genesis  ot  /IDejican  UnDepen^ence.  317 

the  moral  influence  consequent  to  the  recognition  made  by  the  United 
States  Government  of  belligerency  of  the  struggling  colonies,  and  the 
moral  assistance  growing  out  of  the  fact  that  the  United  States  having 
proclaimed  and  achieved  their  independence  only  a  little  over  a  quarter 
of  a  century  before,  could  not  help  but  sympathize  with  the  cause  of 
the  Spanish  American  colonies,  and  that  every  American  heart  beat 
with  real  sympathy  for  that  cause.  The  United  States  Government 
followed  a  strictly  neutral  policy,  because  being  at  peace  with  Spain, 
it  considered  that  it  would  be  a  breach  of  neutrality  to  aid  the  move- 
ment to  establish  independence  in  her  colonies. 

Many  of  the  leaders  of  the  cause  of  independence  in  the  Spanish- 
American  colonies  of  America  desired  and  expected  assistance  from 

because  if  an  agent  or  a  commission  is  sent  to  inquire  whether  independence  has  been 
accomplished  and  no  action  is  taken  by  the  government  after  sending  such  agent  or 
commission,  the  necessary  inference  is  that  the  struggle  was  not  in  a  condition  to  be 
recognized,  and  therefore  the  result  of  such  measure  had  necessarily  to  be,  although 
not  intentionally  so,  against  the  struggling  patriots  and  in  favor  of  their  enemy. 

Senator  Money,  in  support  of  his  views  that  my  assertion  is  incorrect,  states 
that  "  as  far  as  the  law  of  nations  would  permit,  we  (the  United  States)  certainly  gave 
material  support  to  the  cause  of  freedom  in  South  America,"  and  also  mentions  "  the 
curious  spectacle  afforded  of  two  ships  exactly  alike,  built  at  the  same  time,  in  the 
same  American  shipyard,  one  for  the  Spanish  King,  and  one  for  his  insurgent  sub- 
jects." If  the  laws  of  this  country  allowed  such  a  proceeding,  it  was  not  an  act  in 
support  of  the  revolted  Spanish  colonies,  and  neither  was  it  an  act  in  support  of  the 
King  of  Spain.  Anything  that  is  done  for  both  contending  parties  cannot  be  said  to 
be  in  favor  of  either  of  them,  or  be  looked  upon  as  an  act  of  great  material  or  moral 
support. 

The  facts  mentioned  by  Senator  Money  of  the  "  tardiness  and  difficulties  of  com- 
munication at  that  time,  the  dissentions  among  the  insurgents,  the  efforts  of  Peru, 
Chili,  and  La  Plata  to  organize  New  Granada  and  Venezuela  into  a  confederate  repub- 
lic, and  those  of  the  Central  American  states,  in  the  same  direction  ;  the  continued 
talk  of  alliances,  offensive  and  defensive  ;  the  fear  that  early  recognition  of  belligerency 
might  prevent  the  negotiation  or  ratification  of  the  treaty  of  1819  ceding  Florida  to 
the  United  States  ;  the  swarms  of  privateers  who  on  the  South  Atlantic  and  on  the 
Spanish  Main  flew  the  insurgent  flags  and  committed  the  most  atrocious  acts  of  piracy," 
might  have  been  sufficient  to  justify  the  United  States  in  delaying  recognition,  if  a 
complaint  had  been  made  on  that  point  ;  but  the  question  is  not  whether  the  action  of 
the  United  States  is  or  is  not  justifiable,  but  whether  the  government  of  the  United 
States  rendered  any  assistance  to  the  insurgents  before  independence  was  accomplished. 
The  United  States  followed,  in  my  opinion,  a  proper  course  under  the  circumstances. 

Senator  Money  mentions  the  fact  that  several  resolutions  were  introduced  in  the 
House  of  Representatives  expressing  sym])athy  with  the  insurrection  in  the  Spanish- 
American  colonies,  but  a  resolution  introduced  in  the  House  of  Representatives,  espec- 
ially if  it  is  voted  down,  as  were  most  of  Mr.  Clay's  resolutions,  cannot,  I  think,  be 
considered  an  act  of  moral  support  to  the  governments  of  the  revolted  colonies.  To  be 
sure  Mr.  Clay's  resolution  of  May  10,  1820,  and  February  9  and  10,  1821,  were  carried 
by  very  small  majorities  in  the  House,  but  they  did  not  pass  the  Senate,  and  they  were 
approved  by  the  House  after  independence  had  been  an  accomi^lished  fact  in  most  of 
the  colonies. 


3i8  H^i^torical  IRotcs  on  /IDcjico. 

the  Government  of  the  United  States,  as  their  cause  was  the  same  as 
that  which  this  country  liad  defended  over  thirty  years  before,  and 
also  for  other  obvious  reasons.  The  United  States  Government  was 
very  careful  to  comply  with  its  obligations,  and  not  to  give  any  well- 
grounded  cause  of  complaint  to  the  Spanish  Government.  The  people 
of  the  United  States  and  many  prominent  members  of  Congress  heartily 
sympathized  with  the  movement  for  independence  in  the  Spanish- 
American  colonies,  and  resolutions  were  introduced  in  the  House  of 
Representatives  of  the  United  States  Congress  asking  their  recognition, 
which  were  either  not  acted  upon  or  voted  down,  as  I  will  presently 
briefly  state.  The  United  States  Government  sent  agents  and  commis- 
sioners to  the  revolted  colonies  to  examine  and  report  upon  their 
situation;  and  the  governments  established  in  the  new  nations  also  sent 
commissioners  to  the  United  States  for  the  purpose  of  asking  recogni- 
tion. 

The  facts  which  I  have  already  presented  show  that  on  March  8, 
1822,  when  Mr.  Monroe  asked  Congress  to  recognize  the  independence 
of  the  Spanish  colonies  in  America,  Mexico,  the  Central  American 
States,  New  Granada,  Venezuela,  Buenos  Ayres,  Paraguay,  Uruguay, 
and  Chili  had  fully  accomplished  their  independence,  and  in  Ecuador 
and  Peru  independence  was  practically  accomplished,  as  Bolivar's 
army  was  then  fighting  under  General  Sucre  in  Ecuador,  and  the 
Spanish  Viceroy  had  evacuated  Lima,  on  July  6,  1821,  as  a  result  of 
San  Martin's  manoeuvres. 

I  do  not  blame  the  United  States  for  not  having  made  that  recogni- 
tion,  because  the  recognition  of  independence  is  the  acknowledgment  of 
a  fact  which  cannot  be  recognized  before  it  has  actually  occurred.  Any 
other  conduct  would  have  implied  an  alliance  between  the  revolted 
colonies  and  the  United  States,  and  it  would  have  been  unreasonable 
for  the  colonies  to  expect  this  country  to  enter  into  any  such  alliance 
with  them. 

It  would  take  a  great  deal  more  space  than  it  is  proper  for  me  to 
occupy,  were  I  to  quote  the  many  declarations  of  American  statesmen 
expressing  the  attitude  of  the  United  States  Government  in  this  case 
and  the  reasons  for  the  same,  and  I  will,  therefore,  only  quote  one 
of  Mr.  John  Quincy  Adams,  from  a  report  which  he  made  as  Secre- 
tary of  State  to  President  Monroe,  dated  August  24,  1816,  published 
in  Whartojis  International  Law  Digest,  paragraph  70,  Chapter  III., 
page  521,  Volume  I.,  second  edition: 

"  There  is  a  stage  in  such  revolutionary  contests  when  the  party  struggling  for  in- 
dependence has,  as  I  conceive,  a  right  to  demand  its  acknowledgment  by  neutral  par- 
ties, and  when  the  acknowledgment  may  be  granted  without  departure  from  the 
■obligations  of  neutrality.  It  is  the  stage  when  the  independence  is  established  as 
matter  of  fact,  so  as  to  leave  the  chances  of  the  opposite  party  to  recover  their  do- 


6ene5i3  ot  /IDejican  1Iu5epen^ence.  319 

minion  utterly  desperate.  The  neutral  nation  must,  of  course,  judge  for  itself  when 
this  period  has  arrived  ;  and  as  the  belligerent  nation  has  the  same  right  to  judge  for 
itself,  it  is  very  likely  to  judge  differently  from  the  neutral,  and  to  make  it  a  cause  of 
pretext  for  war,  as  Great  Britain  did  expressly  against  France  in  our  Revolution,  and 
substantially  against  Holland.  If  war  thus  results,  in  point  of  fact,  from  the  measure 
of  recognizing  the  contested  independence,  the  moral  right  or  wrong  of  the  war  de- 
pends upon  the  justice  and  sincerity  and  prudence  with  which  the  recognizing  nation 
took  the  step.  I  am  satisfied  that  the  cause  of  the  South  Americans,  so  far  as  it  con- 
sists in  the  assertion  of  independence  against  Spain,  is  just.  But  the  justice  of  a  cause, 
however  it  may  enlist  individual  feelings  in  its  favor,  is  not  sufficient  to  justify  third 
parties  in  siding  with  it.  The  fact  and  the  right  combined  can  alone  authorize  a  neu- 
tral to  acknowledge  a  new  and  disputed  sovereignty." 

The  cause  of  independence  awoke  in  the  people  of  the  United 
States  a  very  deep  sympathy,  which  was  felt  in  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives of  the  United  States  Congress,  as  I  will  soon  state. 

The  correctness  of  this  statement  appears  very  clearly  from  the 
following  extract  from  a  letter  addressed  by  Mr.  Gallatin,  United 
States  Minister  at  Paris,  to  Mr.  John  Quincy  Adams,  Secretary  of 
State,  on  November  5,  1818,  and  published  in  Wharton  s  International 
Law  Digest,  paragraph  70,  Chapter  III.,  page  522,  Volume  L,  second 
edition: 

"  I  had  upon  every  occasion  stated  that  the  general  opinion  of  the  United  States 
must  irresistibly  lead  to  such  a  recognition  ;  that  it  is  a  question,  not  of  interest,  but 
of  feeling,  and  that  this  arose  much  less  from  the  wish  of  seeing  new  republics  estab- 
lished; than  that  of  the  emancipation  of  Spanish-America  from  Europe.  .  .  ."  We 
have  not,  either  directly  or  indirectly,  excited  the  insurrection.  It  had  been  the  spon- 
taneous act  of  the  inhabitants,  and  the  natural  effect  of  causes,  which  neither  the 
United  States  nor  Europe  could  have  controlled.  We  had  lent  no  assistance  to  either 
party  ;  we  had  preserved  a  strict  neutrality.  But  no  European  government  could  be 
surprised  or  displeased  that  in  such  a  cause  our  wishes  should  be  in  favor  of  the  suc- 
cess of  the  colonies,  or  that  we  should  treat  as  independent  powers  those  amongst  them 
which  had  in  fact  established  their  independence." 

On  January  2,  1819,  President  Monroe's  Cabinet  considered  the 
question  of  the  recognition  of  Buenos  Ayres.  The  Cabinet  was 
divided  on  the  question,  Mr.  Calhoun  being  of  opinion  that  this 
country  should  act  in  concurrence  with  Great  Britain,  Mr.  Crawford 
that  it  should  send  a  minister  to  Buenos  Ayres,  and  Mr.  Adams  think- 
ing that  the  Minister  should  come  from  Buenos  Ayres  seeking  recogni- 
tion. 

In  1822,  when  independence  had  been  achieved  in  Mexico,  Central 
America,  and  almost  in  all  the  South  American  colonies.  President 
Monroe  decided  that  it  was  time  for  the  United  States  to  recognize 
that  fact,  and  in  a  very  able  message,  which  he  sent  to  Congress  on 
March  8th,  of  that  year,  he  recommended  that  such  recognition  be 
made,  supporting  his  recommendation  with  reasons  as  solid  as  they 
were  unanswerable.     The  Committee  on  Foreign  .Affairs  of  the  House  of 


320  Ibistorical  Botes  on  /iDejico. 

Representatives  acted  at  once  on  that  recommendation,  and,  on  the  19th 
of  the  same  month,  Mr.  Russell,  of  Massachusetts,  on  behalf  of  that 
committee,  presented  to  the  House  a  very  able  report,  recommending 
that  the  House  of  Representatives  concur  in  the  opinion  expressed 
by  the  President  in  the  above-mentioned  message,  that  "  the  late 
American  provinces  of  Spain  that  have  declared  their  independence 
and  are  in  the  enjoyment  of  it,  ought  to  be  recognized  by  the  United 
States  as  independent  nations,"  and  that  "  the  Committee  on  Ways 
and  Means  be  instructed  to  report  a  bill  appropriating  a  sum  not  ex- 
ceeding one  hundred  thousand  dollars,  to  enable  the  President  to  give 
due  effect  to  such  provision."  The  House  approved  these  resolu- 
tions, and,  the  appropriation  having  passed  Congress,  the  independ- 
ence of  the  American  nations  was  thus  recognized  by  the  United  States. 

After  this  statement  of  facts,  it  is  not  strange  that  Mr.  Lyman  in 
his  book,  Diplomacy  of  the  United  States,  should  have  said:  "  These 
revolutionary  struggles  did  not  awaken  any  great  interest  in  our  citi- 
zens." "  Our  Government,"  he  adds,  "  was  left  free  and  unembar- 
rassed to  pursue  its  steady  course  of  good  faith  and  exact  neutrality 
toward  Spain,  and  of  justice  and  policy  towards  the  colonies."  He 
further  says:  "  Neither  the  vicinity  of  some  portions  of  their  respective 
territories,  nor  the  circumstance  of  being  members  of  the  same  con- 
tinent, nor  the  benefit  to  be  derived  from  commercial  relations,  nor 
the  similarity  of  their  struggles  for  independence,  appears  in  the  least 
to  have  influenced  the  definite  arrangements  of  this  Government.  On 
the  contrary,  the  business  was  conducted  with  the  utmost  caution  and 
circumspection,  and  nothing  was  done  to  give  offence  to  Spain,  or 
awaken  in  other  nations  the  slightest  suspicion  of  the  loyalty  with  which 
this  country  was  determined  to  adhere  to  its  system  of  neutrality." 

Mr.  Lyman  concludes  by  saying  that  the  United  States  was  the 
first  country  to  recognize  the  independence  of  the  Spanish-American 
colonies,  but  that  the  recognition  was  delayed  until  not  a  shadow  of 
hope  for  the  restoration  of  Spanish  dominion  remained. 

Recognition  of  Belligerency  by  the  Utiited  States. — Long  before  the 
United  States  Government  recognized  the  independence  of  the  revolted 
colonies,  it  had  recognized  their  belligerency.' 

'  Although  Senator  Money  does  not  refer  particularly  to  the  recognition  of  bel- 
ligerency of  the  revolted  Spanish  colonies  in  America  by  the  United  States,  he  presents 
the  results  of  the  same  as  proving  the  material  assistance  of  the  United  States  Govern- 
ment to  the  colonies.  Far  from  tending  to  lessen  the  importance  of  the  recognition  of 
belligerency  I,  on  the  contrary,  recognize  it,  not  only  as  an  act  of  justice,  but  also  as  a 
favor.  Although,  generally  speaking,  the  granting  of  what  one  considers  to  be  aright, 
is  not  regarded  as  a  favor,  nevertheless  it  is  one,  when  the  third  party  can,  in  the 
exercise  of  its  sovereignty,  ignore  the  right,  as  it  can  do,  when  it  is  the  only  judge  of 
its  obligations  and  when  there  is  no  way  to  compel  its  recognition  except  by  force, 
which  was  in  this  case,  of  course,  altogether  out  of  the  question. 


(Benesfs  of  /©eitcan  IFn^epent^ence.  321 

I  have  not  been  able  to  find  the  date  of  any  declaration,  if  any  was 
formally  made,  by  which  the  United  States  recognized  the  belligerency 
of  the  revolted  Spanish  colonies.  In  Mr.  Monroe's  message  of  March 
8,  1822,  he  said  that  they  had  enjoyed  belligerent  rights.  He  made 
the  same  statement  in  his  annual  messages  of  December  2,  18 17,  and 
December  7,  1819,  as  in  the  former  he  said  "  that  the  United  States 
has  maintained  impartial  neutrality  between  Spain  and  its  provinces, 
our  ports  have  been  open  to  both,  etc.,"  a  statement  which  he  corro- 
borates in  the  latter  in  the  following  words:  "  An  impartial  neutrality 
has  been  followed  in  the  civil  war  between  Spain  and  the  Spanish 
Provinces  in  America,  .  .  .  and  our  ports  have  continued  to  be 
equally  open  to  both  parties,  etc." 

I  must  here  observe  that  several  of  the  revolted  Spanish  colonies 
had  from  the  beginning  of  the  struggle  armies  which  could  compete 
with  and  which  often  defeated  the  best  troops  of  the  Spanish  army 
that  had  fought  in  the  Peninsula  against  Napoleon  ;  had  issued  consti- 
tutions and  organized  regular  governments,  had  in  some  cases  impro- 
vised a  navy  which  defeated  the  Spanish  naval  forces,  and  had  captured 
and  held  their  respective  capitals,  and  that  they  were  really  engaged  in 
making  a  lawful  war  of  independence  against  the  mother-country. 

But  that  recognition  did  not,  of  course,  prevent  the  United  States 
Government  from  enforcing  its  neutrality  laws,  as  appears  from  a  list, 
transmitted  by  the  Secretary  of  State  on  January  10,  1817,  of  the  in- 
dividuals and  vessels  prosecuted  during  1815  for  violating  the  neutral- 
ity of  the  United  States  in  the  United  Provinces  of  New  Granada  and 
the  United  Provinces  of  Mexico. 

The  United  States  Congress  on  Recognition. — As  early  as  December 
10,  181 1,  a  resolution  was  reported  by  a  committee  of  the  House  of 
Representatives  of  the  United  States  Congress,  on  the  recognition  of 
the  independence  of  the  South  American  Provinces,  which  was  not 
acted  upon.  Several  others  were  afterwards  introduced  in  the  House 
of  Representatives  expressing  sympathy  with  the  insurrection  of  the 
American  colonies. 

On  March  24,  181 8,  Henry  Clay,  who  felt  great  sympathy  for  the 
struggling  Spanish  colonies,  and  sought  to  obtain  their  recognition 
through  legislative  action,  proposed  an  appropriation  of  $18,000  for 
the  outfit  and  one  year's  salary  of  a  minister  to  be  deputed  from  the 
United  States  to  the  independent  provinces  of  the  River  Plata  in 
South  America.  This  motion  led  to  a  discussion  as  to  whether  the 
power  of  recognizing  foreign  governments  resided  in  the  Executive  or 
in  Congress.  The  majority  of  the  House  seemed  to  be  in  favor  of  the 
Executive,  and  the  motion  was  defeated  on  May  28th,  by  a  vote  of  115 

t0  45- 

Mr.  Clay  renewed  his  resolution,  which  was  discussed  by  the  House 


322  Iblstorical  IRotes  on  ^ejico. 

on  May  lo,  1820,  asserting  "  that  it  was  expedient  to  provide  by  law  a 
suitable  outfit  for  such  minister  or  ministers  as  the  President,  by  and 
with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate,  may  send  to  any  of  the 
governments  of  South  America  which  have  established  and  are  main- 
taining their  independence  of  Spain,"  and  this  resolution  was  carried 
by  a  vote  of  80  to  75.  On  February  9,  1821,  Mr.  Clay  again  moved 
his  $10,000  appropriation  bill  for  a  minister  to  any  South  American 
government  "  which  has  established  and  is  maintaining  its  independ- 
ence of  Spain."  This  was  lost  by  a  vote  of  86  to  79.  On  the  follow- 
ing day  he  introduced  a  resolution  expressing  "  the  interest  of  the 
people  of  the  United  States,  which  was  shared  by  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives, in  the  success  of  the  Spanish  provinces  of  South  America 
struggling  to  establish  their  liberty  and  independence,  and  offering  its 
constitutional  support  to  the  President  of  the  United  States,  whenever 
he  may  deem  it  expedient  to  recognize  the  sovereignty  and  independence 
of  any  of  said  provinces. ' '  The  first  clause  of  this  resolution  was  carried 
by  a  vote  of  134  to  12  and  the  second  by  a  vote  of  87  to  68.  A  com- 
mittee of  two  members  was  appointed  to  lay  these  resolutions  before  the 
President,  and  Mr.  Clay,  one  of  those  members,  in  his  report  of  February 
19th,  said  "  that  the  President  assured  the  committee  that  he  felt  a 
great  interest  in  the  success  of  the  provinces  of  South  America  and  that 
he  would  take  the  resolution  into  deliberate  consideration  with  the  most 
perfect  respect  for  the  distinguished  body  from  which  it  had  emanated." 

On  January  31,  1822,  Mr.  Trimble  of  Kentucky  introduced  a  joint 
resolution  stating  that  the  "  President  was  authorized  and  requested  to 
acknowledge  the  independence  of  the  Republics  of  Colombia,  and  that 
the  Spanish  provinces  of  South  America  that  had  established  and  were 
maintaining  their  independence  of  Spain  ought  to  be  acknowledged." 
Before  this  resolution  was  acted  upon,  Mr.  Nelson  of  Virginia  intro- 
duced another  resolution  asking  the  President  to  lay  before  the  House 
the  documents  relating  to  the  South  American  question,  and  in 
response  to  this  resolution  President  Monroe  sent  to  the  House  his 
message  of  March  8,  1822,  already  referred  to,  in  which  he  stated 
that,  in  his  opinion,  the  time  had  come  to  recognize  the  South  Ameri- 
can provinces  as  independent  countries.  Thereupon  Mr.  Russell,  of 
Massachusetts,  in  behalf  of  the  Committee  on  Foreign  Affairs,  intro- 
duced two  resolutions,  also  just  referred  to,  which  were  approved  by 
the  House,  and  thus  constituted  the  recognition  by  the  United  States 
Government  of  the  independent  nations  of  America. 

Commissioners  Sent  by  the  Revolted  Colonies  to  the  United  States. — The 
leaders  of  the  independent  cause  in  Spanish-America  sent  Commis- 
sioners to  the  United  States  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  the  recogni- 
tion by  this  Government  of  their  independence,  and,  if  possible, 
material  assistance. 


Genesis  ot  /IDejican  fln^epeuDence.  323 

While  Hidalgo,  the  promoter  of  Mexican  independence,  was  in 
Guadalajara,  in  December,  1810,  he  appointed  as  his  official  represen- 
tative in  this  country  Senor  Don  Pascasio  Ortiz  de  Letona,  who  was 
captured  on  his  way,  and  committed  suicide  to  escape  death  on  the 
scaffold. 

Don  Juan  Vicente  Bolivar  and  Don  Telesforo  Orca  were  furnished 
with  credentials  dated  at  Caracas  April  25,  1810,  and  full  powers  to 
transact  business.  A  copy  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence  of  the 
Province  of  Venezuela,  made  by  the  Congress  composed  of  deputies 
assembled  in  Caracas,  was  communicated  by  them  to  the  United  States 
Government,  and  transmitted  to  Congress  on  December  9,  181 1. 
These  agents  were  not  allowed  to  have  any  official  intercourse  with  the 
United  States  Government. 

On  December  11,  1818,  Senor  Don  Lino  Clemente  informed  the 
Secretary  of  State  that  he  had  been  appointed  Venezuela's  representa- 
tive "near  the  United  States,"  and  requested  an  interview;  but  he 
was  informed  that  no  conference  could  be  held  with  him  and  no  com- 
munication received  from  him  by  this  Government.  His  letters  were 
submitted  to  the  House  of  Representatives  with  the  President's  mes- 
sage of  January  29,  1819,  accompanied  by  a  report  from  Mr.  John 
Quincy  Adams,  Secretary  of  State,  giving  the  reasons  in  full  for 
delaying  recognition  at  that  time. 

Don  Manuel  H.  de  Aguirre  came  to  this  country  in  1817  a~s  a 
public  agent  from  La  Plata  and  a  private  one  from  Chili,  and  ad- 
dressed several  letters  to  the  Secretary  of  State,  in  181 7  and  1818, 
soliciting  the  acknowledgment  of  the  Province  of  Buenos  Ayres,  which 
were  transmitted  to  the  House  of  Representatives,  March  25,  1818, 
with  a  report  from  Secretary  Adams,  of  that  date.  No  answers  were 
given  to  his  letters,  although  conferences  were  held  with  him,  and  the 
President  declined  to  enter  into  any  negotiations  with  Senor  Aguirre, 
because  the  latter  did  not  appear  furnished  with  powers  to  negotiate, 
and  because  he  thought  that  the  independence  of  the  provinces  had 
not  yet  been  established. 

A  short  time  after  the  declination  of  Aguirre's  application,  in  May, 
1818,  David  C.  de  Forrest  renewed  the  consideration  of  the  same 
claim,  by  soliciting  this  Government  to  admit  him  as  a  consul  general. 
The  President  did  not  grant  the  permission,  because  he  thought  it  was 
not  clear  that  the  provinces  even  claimed  entire  independence,  Buenos 
Ayres  having  the  intention  at  that  time  to  offer  special  commercial 
favors  to  Spain  as  a  consideration  for  the  relinquishment  of  her  claims 
to  sovereignty. 

But  neither  the  commissioners  sent  by  the  United  States  to  the 
American  colonies  of  Spain,  nor  those  sent  by  those  colonies  to  the 
United  States,  influenced  in  any  way  the  attitude  of  strict  neutrality 


324  1bl3toricaI  Botes  on  /IDejico. 

observed  by  the  United  States  Government  in  the  war  for  independ- 
ence of  the  Spanish  colonies  in  America. 

Commissioners  Sent  by  the  United  States  to  the  Revolted  Colonies. — Be- 
tween 1810  and  1820  the  President  of  the  United  States  sent  commis- 
sioners on  three  different  occasions  to  South  America,  in  order  to 
obtain  reliable  and  exact  information  regarding  the  real  situation  of 
affairs  there.  The  first  mission  was  entrusted  by  Mr.  Monroe,  as 
Secretary  of  State,  to  Mr.  Joel  R.  Poinsett,  as  agent  to  Buenos  Ayres, 
and  was  dated  June  26,  1810.  Mr.  Alexander  Scott  was  sent  as  agent 
to  Venezuela,  on  May  12,  1812.  Mr.  Poinsett's  report  on  the  condi- 
tion of  South  America  was  dated  November  4,  1818. 

The  second  commission  was  sent  by  the  President  in  1817,  and 
consisted  of  Mr.  Theodoric  Bland,  Mr.  Caesar  A.  Rodney,  and  Mr. 
John  Graham,  who  were  instructed  to  examine  into  the  conditions  of 
Buenos  Ayres  and  Chili.  The  reports  of  Mr.  Rodney  and  Mr. 
Graham,  dated  November  5,  1818,  and  Mr.  Bland's  report,  dated 
November  2,  1818,  were  transmitted  to  Congress  on  November  17th 
of  the  same  year.  Appended  to  the  first  two  reports  is  a  "  Historical 
Sketch  of  the  Revolution  of  the  United  Provinces  of  South  America, 
from  the  25th  of  May,  1810,  until  the  opening  of  the  National  Congress 
on  the  25th  of  March,  1816,  written  by  Doctor  Gregorio  Funes,  and 
appended  to  his  History  of  Buenos  Ayres,  Paraguay,  and  Tucuman." 

The  third  commission  was  entrusted  to  Mr.  T.  B  Prevost  and  Mr. 
John  M.  Forbes,  sent  in  1820  as  commercial  agents  to  Chili  and  Buenos 
Ayres.  Their  reports  were  transmitted  to  Congress,  the  one  on  March 
8th,  and  the  other  on  April  26,  1822.  It  is  remarkable  that  no  com- 
mission was  sent  to  Mexico. 

The  Spanish-American  Republics  and  Cuba. — The  example  of  the 
Spanish  colonies  in  America  which  had  revolted  against  the  mother- 
country  and  accomplished  their  independence,  could  not  but  influence 
the  Cubans  in  attempting  to  attain  the  same  object.  Mr.  Ballou,  of 
Massachusetts,  who  in  1854  visited  the  island  of  Cuba,  and  who  re- 
mained there  for  a  long  time,  wrote  a  book  on  that  subject,  in  which 
he  says: 

"  When  the  Cubans  saw  that  their  brothers  in  the  Spanish- American  colonies  had 
revolted  against  the  mother-country,  and  that  most  of  them  had  secured  their  inde- 
pendence, they  thought  of  following  in  their  footsteps,  and  in  1823  the  disaffected 
party  conspired  against  Spain,  relying  on  the  promise  of  Simon  Bolivar  of  throwing  an 
invading  force  into  the  island.  The  conspiracy  was  discovered  and  suppressed  prema- 
turely. In  1826  some  Cuban  agitators  residing  in  Caracas  attempted  a  new  expedi- 
tion, which  failed,  and  caused  the  execution  of  Don  Francisco  de  Puero  y  Velazco  and 
Don  Bernabe  Sanchez." 

As  I  have  before  stated,  both  San  Martin  and  Bolivar  were  of  opin- 
ion, after  they  had  accomplished  the  independence  of  their  respective 
countries,  Argentine  and  Colombia,  that  their  task  was  not  yet  ended, 


Genesis  ot  /IDejican  1fn^epen^ence.  325 

and  that  their  republics  were  not  safe  as  long  as  the  enemy  was  in 
possession  of  the  adjoining  country,  and  they  both  took  their  armies  to 
Peru,  the  last  stronghold  of  the  Spaniards  in  America.  Iturbide 
followed  the  same  course  in  Mexico  towards  the  neighboring  countries. 
On  the  27th  of  September,  1821,  he  entered  victoriously  the  City  of 
Mexico,  after  having  achieved  his  country's  independence  from  Spain, 
and  in  December  following  he  sent  an  army  to  Guatemala,  the  country 
adjoining  Mexico  on  the  southeast,  to  secure  her  independence. 
Guatemala,  which,  as  I  have  stated,  had  been  quiet  under  the  Spanish 
rule  during  the  eleven  years  the  war  of  independence  in  Mexico  lasted, 
on  the  15th  of  September,  182 1,  when  Iturbide's  success  was  a  fore- 
gone conclusion,  proclaimed  her  independence  from  Spain,  which  she 
achieved  without  any  struggle,  as  there  was  only  a  small  Spanish  force 
in  the  country.  Iturbide,  however,  wishing  to  assure  the  independ- 
ence of  Guatemala,  which  had  already  proclaimed  her  annexation  to 
Mexico,  sent  there  his  army,  under  Colonel  Filisola. 

How  well  grounded  were  the  fears  of  San  Martin,  Bolivar,  and 
Iturbide  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  in  1829  the  Spanish  Government 
sent  to  Mexico  an  armed  expedition  from  Havana,  under  General 
Barradas,  which  landed  at  the  port  of  Tampico,  for  the  purpose  of 
again  subduing  the  colony  of  New  Spain,  as  Mexico  was  formerly 
called.  But  the  cause  of  independence  had  gained  such  a  foothold 
that  it  was  easy  for  us  to  defeat  that  expedition. 

After  Bolivar  had  accomplished  in  1824  the  independence  of  the 
northern  half  of  South  America,  he  still  thought  that  his  task  was  not 
ended  until  the  Spanish  were  driven  from  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico,  as  the 
possession  by  them  of  those  controlling  islands — especially  the  former 
— would  give  Spain  an  important  foothold  on  this  continent,  from 
which  she  could  at  any  time  attack  her  revolted  colonies.  This  danger 
was  of  more  serious  import  to  Mexico,  on  account  of  the  proximity  of 
Cuba  to  that  country,  and  the  Governments  of  both  Mexico  and 
Colombia  contemplated  a  plan  of  military  operations  for  the  purpose 
of  accomplishing  the  independence  of  the  island  of  Cuba  assisting  the 
natives  who  desired  independence.  This  step  was  in  accordance  with 
the  course  followed  by  Argentina,  Colombia,  and  Mexico  previous  to 
the  accomplishment  of  their  independence.' 

'  Senator  Money  states  that  "  there  is  no  evidence  that  the  inhabitants  of  Cuba 
had  invited  the  invasion  of  Colombia  and  Mexico,  nor  that  they  desired  to  throw  off 
the  Spanish  yoke  ;  that  there  was  no  outbreak  there  contemporaneous  with  the  uprising 
in  the  other  colonies  in  the  hour  of  Spain's  calamity  and  confusion  at  home,  and  that, 
in  fact,  the  Spanish  crown,  in  grateful  acknowledgment  of  the  loyalty  of  the  Cubans  in 
these  years  of  general  rebellion,  designated  her  "  Tlie  Ever  Faithful  Isle."  It  is  an 
historical  fact  that  the  leaders  of  the  independent  movement  in  Cuba  applied  both  to 
Bolivar  and  to  Mexico  for  assistance  to  accomplish  their  indepen<lence,  and  it  is  an 
historical  fact  also  that  they  conspired  to  declare  their  independence,  but  that  their 


326  Ibistorical  IRotes  on  /IDejico* 

It  would  be  idle  to  speculate  about  the  probable  result  of  a  com- 
bined Mexican-Colombian  expedition  against  Cuba.  Although  Spain 
had  then  been  conquered  on  land,  she  was,  of  course,  stronger  on  sea 
than  were  some  of  her  former  colonies,  as  some  of  them  had  not  a  regu- 
lar navy,  and  this  would  have  been  a  great  advantage  to  her  if  a  naval 
war  had  been  contemplated  by  Mexico  and  Colombia;  but  such  was 
not  the  case.  It  was  intended  to  collect  a  large  land  force,  send  it 
from  a  convenient  point  on  the  mainland  to  Cuba,  and  land  it  there, 
the  assistance  of  the  natives  being,  of  course,  counted  upon  in  the 
fight  for  independence.  The  landing  of  such  a  force  would  probably 
have  been  an  easy  task.' 

When  the  Government  of  the  United  States  learned  of  the  proposed 
plan  of  the  Mexican  and  Colombian  Governments  for  the  liberation  of 
Cuba,  Mr.  Clay,  Secretary  of  State  of  the  United  States,  wrote  to  the 
Mexican  and  Colombian  Ministers  at  Washington,  on  December  20, 
1825,  requesting  that  their  respective  Governments  should  suspend 
any  expedition  that  they  might  be  preparing  against  the  islands  of  Cuba 
and  Porto  Rico,  on  the  ground  that  the  United  States  could  under  no 
circumstances  permit  them  to  fall  under  the  sovereignty  of  England, 
that  they  could  not  be  indifferent  to  the  islands  passing  into  the  pos- 
session of  France,  and  that,  therefore,  the  only  solution  of  the  question 
was  to  leave  the  islands  in  possession  of  Spain.' 

work  was  discovered  and  their  leaders  shot,  as  stated  by  Mr.  Ballou  in  the  passage  that 
I  have  just  quoted. 

'Senator  Money  says,  regarding  the  naval  forces  of  Mexico  and  Colombia,  "It 
was  not  believed  that  Colombia  or  Mexico,  separately  or  jointly,  without  navies  and 
without  resources,  would  be  able  to  hold  the  island  against  the  adverse  contention  of 
either  France  or  Great  Britain."  To  be  sure  the  navies  of  Mexico  and  Colombia  could 
not  compete,  either  separately  or  jointly,  against  that  of  England  or  of  France,  but 
neither  Mexico  nor  Colombia  contemplated  being  drawn  into  a  maritime  war  with 
those  countries  about  Cuba.  Had  they  been  notified  by  England  or  P'rance  that  such 
would  be  the  result,  they  would  have  given  up  that  expedition,  as  they  did  on  the 
notification  of  the  United  States.  Mexico  and  Colombia  thought  that  they  had  the 
necessary  navy  and  army  armaments  to  invade  Cuba  and  hold  it,  and  the  navy  neces- 
sary to  carry  their  troops. 

*  Senator  Money  expressed  the  opinion  that  the  interposition  of  the  United  States 
in  the  case  of  Cuba  was  "  really  of  the  most  vital  service  to  Mexico  and  the  other  Re- 
publics, as  it  made  Spain  feel  the  necessity  of  terminating  the  war  with  the  colonies 
already  gone  from  her,  in  order  to  secure  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico  that  remained  to 
her."  As  a  matter  of  fact,  Spain,  far  from  changing  her  attitude  of  hostility  towards 
Mexico  after  Mexico  had,  in  1826,  given  up  her  expedition  to  Cuba,  sent  in  1829  an 
armed  expedition  against  Mexico,  under  General  Barradas  for  the  purpose  of  recon- 
quering that  country,  which  landed  at  Tampico  as  I  have  already  stated. 

Senator  Money  understood  that  in  my  remarks  I  considered  Mr.  Clay's  action  in 
this  case  unfriendly  towards  Mexico.  He  certainly  misunderstood  me,  as  far  from  ex- 
pressing that  opinion,  on  the  contrary,  I  sincerely  believe  that  Mr.  Clay  was  a  great 
friend  of  the  Spanish-American  Republics.  The  object  of  my  paper  was  to  mention  a 
fact,  without  commenting  on  it  in  any  manner  whatsoever. 


Genesis  of  /IDejtcan  1In&epenC)ence»  327 

A  copy  of  this  communication  was  sent  by  Mr.  Clay  to  Mr.  Everett, 
United  States  Minister  at  Madrid,  with  a  despatch  dated  at  Washing- 
ton, April  3,  1826,  from  which  I  have  taken  this  information.  In  that 
despatch  Mr.  Clay  stated  that  the  United  States  Government  thought 
that  England  was  at  the  bottom  of  the  scheme  to  liberate  Cuba,  and 
that,  if  Cuba  were  once  independent  from  Spain,  she  would  finally 
become  an  English  colony  or  a  State  under  French  protection.' 

I  have  not  read  the  letter  addressed  by  Mr.  Clay  to  the  Mexican 
Minister  at  Washington,  nor  could  I,  if  it  were  in  my  possession,  make 
use  of  it  in  this  paper,  without  the  consent  of  the  Mexican  Government. 
But  although  the  only  official  document  I  have  seen  is  Mr.  Clay's 
letter  to  Mr.  Everett,  I  have  no  doubt  that  Mr.  Clay  had  other  reasons 
besides  those  stated  in  that  letter  for  the  request  made  by  him  to  the 
Mexican  and  Colombian  Governments,  but  what  those  reasons  were 
must  remain  a  matter  of  surmise.  In  my  opinion,  one  of  them  was  that 
the  United  States  Government  believed  that  if  Cuba  were  once  inde- 
pendent, or  were  annexed  to  Mexico  or  Colombia,  slavery  would  be 
abolished  in  that  island,  a  step  which  would  have  been  in  conflict  with 
the  policy  of  the  United  States,  then  governed  by  the  slave  power,  and 
which,  therefore,  naturally  supported  slavery.  The  question  of  slavery 
was  then  at  the  bottom  of  every  important  move  in  the  United  States, 
foreign  and  domestic,  and  it  colored  or  discolored  all  her  important 
transactions."  Perhaps  the  idea  of  acquiring,  at  some  future  time,  the 
island  of  Cuba  was  another  reason  which  dictated  Mr.  Clay's  action. 

'  The  following  is  a  translation  into  English  of  the  Spanish  translation  of  Mr. 

Clay's  letter  to  Mr.  Everett,  published  in  March,  1897,  by  El  Monitor,  of  the  City  of 

Mexico.     It  being  a  re-translation,  of  course  it  cannot  have  the  identical  wording  of 

the  original  : 

"  Washington,  April  13,  1826. 

"I  addressed  on  the  20th  of  December  last  a  note  to  the  Ministers  of  Colombia 
and  Mexico,  copy  whereof  I  enclose,  for  the  purpose  of  inducing  their  respective  gov- 
ernments to  suspend  any  expedition  which  they  might  be  preparing  either  individually 
or  collectively  against  the  Islands  of  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico. 

"  Great  Britain  is  firmly  convinced  that  the  United  States  will  never  consent  that 
those  islands  should  belong  to  England,  no  matter  what  might  be  the  consequences  of 
such  policy.  France  is  also  aware  that  we  would  not  be  indifferent  to  her  obtaining 
the  possession  of  said  islands. 

"  This  situation  of  the  great  maritime  powers  (the  United  States,  Great  Britain, 
and  France),  is  nearly  equivalent  to  an  absolute  guarantee  of  the  possession  of  those 
islands  in  favor  of  Spain,  but  it  is  impossible  to  enter  into  any  agreement  by  treaty, 
guaranteeing  such  possession,  and  the  President  wishes  you  should  let  the  Spanish  gov- 
ernment know  that  we  cannot  bind  ourselves  to  any  obligation  whatever,  looking  to 
such  guarantee.  You  must  continue  to  decline  any  such  proposition  for  that  purpose, 
if  any  such  is  presented." 

'  Senator  Money  understood  my  remarks  about  Mr.  Clay's  reasons  to  recommend 
the  governments  of  Mexico  and  Colombia  not  to  carry  out  their  intended  expedition  to 
liberate  Cuba,  as  impeaching  President  John  Quincy  .\dams  and  Mr.  Clay  of  insincer- 
ity, which  idea  did  not  at  all  enter  my  mind.   Both  President  John  Quincy  Adams  and  Mr. 


328  Ibistorical  IRotes  on  /iDejico. 

In  fact,  the  United  States  Government  could  not  have  acted  in 
any  other  manner  than  it  did  in  this  case,  for  the  simple  reason  that 
it  had  committed  itself  to  follow  that  course.  This  fact  appears 
very  clearly  in  the  following  extract  from  a  note  by  Mr.  Richard 
Henry  Dana,  to  paragraph  68,  page  io6,  Chapter  II.  of  Part  II.,  of 
IVheatons  Elements  of  Intertiational  Law,  Boston  edition  of  1866, 
which  shows  at  the  same  time  that  the  people  of  Cuba,  far  from  being 
entirely  satisfied  with  the  Spanish  rule,  desired  their  emancipation 
from  the  mother-country,  at  the  time  when  the  other  American  colonies 
of  Spain  had  either  already  accomplished  their  independence  or  were 
fighting  for  it: 

"  The  people  of  Cuba,  already  divided  between  the  parties  of  the  King  and  the 
Cortes,  and  terrified  by  symptoms  of  slave  insurrections,  had  among  them  large  num- 
bers who,  dissatisfied  with  Spanish  rule,  looked  to  other  powers  for  protection — some 
to  Great  Britain,  but  far  the  larger  part  to  the  United  States.  About  September, 
1S22,  the  latter  party  sent  a  secret  agent  to  confer  with  President  Monroe.  They  de- 
clared that  if  the  United  States  Government  would  promise  them  protection,  and  ulti- 
mate admission  into  the  Union,  a  revolution  would  be  made  to  throw  ofT  the  Spanish 
authority,  of  the  success  of  which  they  had  no  doubt.  While  this  proposition  was  be- 
fore Mr.  Monroe's  Cabinet,  he  received  an  unofificial  and  circuitous  communication 
from  the  French  Minister,  asserting  that  his  Government  had  positive  information  of 
the  design  of  Great  Britain  to  take  possession  of  Cuba.  The  American  Government 
replied  to  the  Cuban  deputation  that  the  friendly  relations  of  the  United  States  with 
Spain  did  not  permit  us  to  promise  countenance  or  protection  to  insurrectional  move- 
ments, and  advised  the  people  of  Cuba  to  adhere  to  their  Spanish  allegiance ;  at  the 
same  time  informing  them  that  an  attempt  upon  Cuba  by  either  Great  Britain  or 
France  would  place  the  relations  of  Cuba  with  the  United  States  in  a  very  different 
position.  Mr.  Rush  was  instructed  to  inform  Mr.  Canning  that  the  United  States 
could  not  see  with  indifference  the  possession  of  Cuba  by  any  European  power  other 
than  Spain,  and  to  inform  him  of  the  rumors  that  had  reached  the  Cabinet.  Mr. 
Canning  disavowed  emphatically  all  intention  on  the  part  of  Great  Britain  to  take 
possession  of  Cuba,  but  avowed  her  determination  not  to  see  with  indifference  its 
occupation  by  either  France  or  the  United  States,  and  proposed  an  understanding  be- 
tween the  British,  French,  and  American  Governments,  without  any  formal  conven- 
tion, that  Cuba  should  be  left  in  the  quiet  possession  of  Spain.  This  was  assented  to 
by  Mr.  Monroe ;  but  he  had  no  communication  with  France  on  the  subject,  leaving 
that  to  the  management  of  Great  Britain." 

Clay  may  have  had  many  other  reasons  to  take  that  course,  but  the  only  ones  expressed 
in  an  official  communication  are  those  that  I  mentioned,  and  I  ventured  to  add  others 
which  I  thought  might  have  been  in  their  minds,  although  I  only  presented  them  as  a 
surmise  on  my  part,  without  vouching  for  their  correctness.  Senator  Money  mentions 
in  support  of  his  assertion  that  slavery  had  no  connection  with  this  case,  and  the  fact 
that  President  John  Quincy  Adams  was  an  anti-slavery  man,  which  is  quite  correct ; 
but  Mr.  Clay  was  a  Southern  man,  and  President  Adams's  administration  was  the  result 
of  a  compromise  which  precluded  his  supporting  a  policy  affecting  so  directly  the 
slavery  question  in  the  United  States,  then  the  leading  one  in  this  country.  Senator 
Money  asserts  that  Mr.  Clay  avowed  other  reasons  besides  those  stated  in  his  letter  to 
Mr.  Everett,  but  I  have  been  unable  to  find  any  statement  of  such  reasons  in  an  official 
document. 


6cnesis  of  /IDejican  UnDepen^ence.  329 

The  fact  that  the  slavery  question  had  some  influence  in  this  case, 
notwithstanding  that  President  John  Quincy  Adams  was  an  anti-slavery 
man,  appears  also  stated  in  the  following  extract  from  a  note  of  Mr. 
Dana's  on  the  Monroe  Doctrine  appended  to  IVheatons  Elements  of 
International  Law,  above  quoted,  paragraph  68,  page  iii.  Chapter  II., 
Part  II. : 

"  The  slave-holding  interest  was  clearly  looking  to  Cuba,  not  only  as  an  addition 
to  its  political  power  in  the  Union,  but  to  prevent  abolition  of  slavery  there  by  some 
other  power ;  and  it  is  known  that  Mr.  Adams  had  a  noticeable  leaning  in  favor  of  its 
importance  to  us  in  a  military  and  commercial  view." 

The  question  of  the  independence  of  Cuba  was  considered  in  the 
American  Congress  which  met  at  Panama  in  1826,  and  the  idea  of 
sending  an  armed  expedition  to  liberate  that  island  was  abandoned  on 
account  of  the  opposition  of  the  Government  of  the  United  States,  as 
appeared  from  a  communication  from  Mr.  Poinsett,  United  States 
Minister  to  Mexico,  to  Mr.  Clay,  Secretary  of  State,  dated  September 
23,  1826,'  the  United  States  Government  recognized  that  the  request 
made  to  the  Mexican  and  Colombian  Governments  resulted  in  the 
abandonment  of  the  expedition,  will  be  seen  from  the  following  ex- 
tracts from  a  communication  addressed  by  Mr.  Clay  to  Baron  de 
Maltitz,  Russian  Charge  d' Affaires  in  Washington,  on  December  23, 
1826,  which  shows  also  that  up  to  that  date  the  United  States  Govern- 
ment discountenanced  any  attempt  to  wrest  from  Spain  the  islands  of 
Cuba  and  Porto  Rico: 

"  The  wishes  of  the  United  States  in  regard  to  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico  remain  un- 
changed. They  desire  no  disturbance  of  the  possessions  of  Spain,  believing  it  most 
compatible  with  the  interests  and  harmony  of  all  the  great  powers.  They  would  see 
any  such  disturbance,  at  the  instance  and  by  the  arms  of  any  power,  with  great  regret. 
The  new  States  have  hitherto  forborne,  and  that  principally  in  deference  to  the  de- 
clared desire  of  the  United  States  and  Russia,  to  attack  those  islands.  Whilst,  on  the 
other  hand,  Spain,  instead  of  listening  to  the  counsels  of  peace  and  moderation  which 
the  hopelessness  of  the  war  alone  ought  to  have  inspired,  has  sent  forth  from  the  port 
of  Havana  a  formidable  fleet  for  the  manifest  purpose  of  invasion,  or  other  hostile 
operations,  against  the  territories  of  some  of  the  new  States.  It  was  dispersed  and 
disabled  in  a  storm  ;  but  neither  the  frowns  of  Providence,  the  distractions  at  home, 
nor  the  disasters  which  await  her  in  a  further  prosecution  of  the  war,  appear  yet  to 
have  awakened  that  unfortunate  monarchy  to  a  sense  of  the  absolute  necessity  of  ter- 
minating the  existing  hostilities. 

"Although  the  Government  of  the  United  States  is  extremely  unwilling  to  see 
any  attempt  made,  from  any  quarter,  to  wrest  from  Spain  the  possession  of  those 
islands,  and  may  yet  continue  their  e.\ertions  to  prevent  it,  the  undersigned  is  con- 
strained in  frankness  to  repeat  what  has  already  been  communicated  to  the  (jovernment 
of  Russia,  that  if  Spain  shall  still  unnecessarily  prolong  the  war  and  drive  tlie  new 
States  to  the  necessity  of  conquering  peace  in  Cuba  and   Porto  Rico,  the  Government 

'  American  State  Papers,  Series  of  Foreign  Relations,  vol.  vi.,  p    361. 


330  Ibistortcal  IRotes  on  /IDejico, 

of  the  United  States  could  not  justly  interpose  unless  a  character  should  be  given  to 
the  war  of  the  invasion,  which  would  render  it,  in  reference  to  their  own  duties  and 
interests  improper  that  they  should  remain  neutral  spectators." 


TAe  Monroe  Doctrine.^ — President  Monroe's  famous  message  of 
December  2,  1823,  in  which  he  announced  the  American  continental 
policy  bearing  his  name,  was,  of  course,  issued  almost  two  years  after 
he  had  recognized,  in  his  message  of  March  8,  1822,  the  independence 
of  the  American  colonies  of  Spain.  But  that  recognition  was  then 
only  theoretical,  as  the  United  States  neither  sent  to  nor  received  from 
those  countries  any  representative  until  some  years  later. 

In  that  year,    1823,   two  specific  dangers  threatened  the  Western 

'  I  cannot  be  expected  in  this  paper  more  than  merely  to  mention  the  Monroe 
Doctrine,  its  scope  and  objects,  and  the  way  in  which  it  originated.  There  is  perhaps 
no  other  American  question  upon  which  there  has  been  so  wide  a  difference  of  opinion 
as  the  interpretation  of  the  Monroe  Doctrine.  Some  American  statesmen  have  re- 
stricted it  very  materially,  while  others  have  given  to  it  a  very  large  extent.  But  the 
fact  remains  that  Congress  has  not  sanctioned  it  by  any  legislative  act,  unless  such  a 
character  he  given  to  the  act  passed  on  December  21,  1895,  making  an  appropriation 
for  a  commission  to  examine  and  report  on  the  boundary  between  Venezuela  and  Brit- 
ish Guiana.  The  policy  of  the  different  administrations  has  also  varied  very  materially 
in  so  far  as  the  application  of  that  doctrine  is  concerned.  In  the  case  of  the  seizure  of 
Corinto,  by  British  men-of-war,  in  March,  1895,  as  a  preliminary  step  to  coerce  Nica- 
ragua to  pay  an  indemnity  of  $75,000  to  Mr.  Hatch,  British  Consular  agent  at  Blue- 
fields,  for  his  imprisonment,  the  Monroe  Doctrine  was  interpreted  in  a  restricted  way. 
while  in  the  case  of  the  boundary  dispute  between  England,  on  behalf  of  British 
Guiana  and  Venezuela,  the  application  given  to  it  by  President  Cleveland  was  very  wide. 
If  later  I  shall  have  the  time  and  opportunity  to  do  so,  I  may  undertake  to  make  a  re- 
view of  the  Monroe  Doctrine  and  its  applications,  for  the  benefit  of  the  Spanish-Ameri- 
can readers,  who  are  not  entirely  familiar  with  the  same  and  somewhat  bewildered  at 
the  widely  different  views  prevailing  here  on  that  suliject. 

Senator  Money  misunderstood  my  remarks  about  the  Monroe  doctrine,  as  he 
thought  that  I  said  that  it  was  of  no  material  advantage  to  the  new  Republics,  and  did 
not  give  them  any  moral  support.  My  remarks  about  the  Monroe  doctrine  were  only 
elementary,  and  were  intended  specially  to  make  plain  to  the  American  Republics, 
its  meaning  and  scope  where  in  some  cases  it  is  misunderstood,  being  construed  into  a 
policy  which  has  for  its  object  the  final  absorption  by  the  United  States  of  all  the 
American  Republics.  If  the  paragraph  of  my  paper  referring  to  this  point  is  carefully 
read,  it  will  be  seen  that  my  assertion  to  the  effect  that  the  recognition  by  the  United 
States  of  the  independence  of  the  Spanish  colonies  in  America  was  only  theoretical, 
because  it  was  not  followed  immediately  by  the  appointment  of  official  representatives 
from  the  United  States  to  the  newnations,  referred  to  Mr.  Monroe's  message  of  March 
8,  1S22,  in  which  he  announced  such  recognition,  and  not  to  his  message  of  December 
2,  1823.  All  his  remarks  which  bear  on  the  subject  of  the  Monroe  doctrine  are, 
therefore,  irrelevant.  I  am  perfectly  aware  of  the  importance  and  transcendency 
that  the  policy  enunciated  by  President  Monroe  in  his  last-named  Message,  generally 
called  the  Monroe  Doctrine,  had  on  the  fate  of  the  American  nations,  and  I  certainly 
do  not  try  to  belittle  or  depreciate  it  in  any  manner  whatever. 


Genesis  ot  /iDcjlcan  1Tn&epen^eucc.  331 

Hemisphere.  The  northwest  boundary  between  the  Uinted  States  and 
Canada  had  not  then  been  determined,  and  the  territory  in  dispute 
had  not  been  occupied  or  even  fully  explored.  Russia,  by  formal  pro- 
clamation in  182 1,  had  set  up  a  claim  to  territory  along  the  Pacific 
coast  as  far  south  as  the  fifty-first  parallel,  and  had  given  unmistakable 
signs  of  her  intention  to  plant  a  Russian  colony  within  the  disputed 
territory.  The  movement  was  alarming  to  Great  Britain  as  well  as  to 
the  United  States. 

The  other  cause  of  alarm  was  that  the  Metternich-Bourbon  reaction 
had  set  in,  and  there  was  good  reason  to  fear  that  an  attempt  was  about 
to  be  made  to  resubjugate  the  Spanish-American  colonies.  This  fear 
found  ample  justification  in  the  attitude  of  the  "holy  alliance," 
formed  immediately  after  the  downfall  of  Napoleon,  by  Russia,  Austria, 
Prussia,  and  France,  for  the  avowed  object  of  protecting  the  Catholic 
religion  and  the  Divine  Right  of  Kings.  This  Alliance  was  offered  for 
signature  to  all  the  monarchs  of  Europe  except  the  Pope  and  the 
Sultan.  Of  all  the  powers,  Great  Britain  alone  declined  to  join  in  the 
Alliance,  but  under  the  leadership  of  Metternich  this  combination  pro- 
ceeded with  its  reactionary  work.'  In  1821  it  sent  an  Austrian  army 
into  Italy  to  prevent  the  adoption  of  a  constitution  at  Naples,  and  two 
years  later  it  threw  a  French  army  into  Spain  to  suppress  a  popular 
movement  in  behalf  of  the  free  constitution  of  181 2  and  to  reinstate 
the  Bourbon  dynasty.  Having  thus  put  under  its  heel  all  opposition 
in  Europe,  the  Alliance  proposed  a  congress  to  consider  the  subjuga- 
tion of  the  revolted  Spanish  colonies  in  America,  and  the  re-establish- 
ment of  Spanish  authority  in  the  Western  Hemisphere.  Before  matters 
were  far  advanced,  the  design  became  known  to  Great  Britain,  and 
word  concerning  it  was  at  once  sent  by  the  British  Minister  to  the  Gov- 
ernment of  the  United  States.  President  Monroe  immediately  con- 
sulted Jefferson  and  Madison,  as  well  as  his  Cabinet,  of  whom  John 
Quincy  Adams  and  Calhoun  were  the  most  prominent  members.  All 
agreed  that  the  matter  was  of  such  momentous  interest  as  to  justify  a 

'  I  think  it  is  an  historical  fact  that  Mr.  George  Canning,  the  Prime  Minister  of 
England  in  1823,  suggested  to  the  United  States  a  policy  which  culminated  in  the 
Monroe  Doctrine,  in  the  shape  of  an  understanding  between  Great  Britain  and  the 
United  States  to  prevent  the  interference  of  tlie  holy  alliance  on  the  part  of  the  Spanish 
colonies  of  America.  It  may  be  interesting,  therefore,  to  know  what  Mr.  Canning 
said  in  a  letter  which  the  papers  assure  has  just  come  to  light,  and  which  is  as  follows : 

"The  great  danger  of  the  time — a  danger  which  the  policy  of  the  European  sys- 
tem would  have  fostered — was  a  division  of  the  world  into  European  and  American, 
republican  and  monarchial  :  a  league  of  worn  out  governments  on  the  one  hand  and 
youthful  and  stirring  nations,  with  the  United  States  at  their  head,  on  the  other.  We 
slip  in  between  and  plant  ourselves  in  Mexico.  The  United  States  have  gotten  the 
start  of  us  in  vain,  and  we  link  once  more  America  to  Europe.  Six  montiis  more  and 
the  mischief  would  have  been  done." 


332  iblstorlcal  IRotes  on  /IDcjtco, 

formal  remonstrance.  John  Quincy  Adams,  the  Secretary  of  State, 
wrote  a  declaration  of  policy  relating  to  colonization,  and  Jefferson  a 
similar  declaration  in  regard  to  interference.  These  two  were  tacked 
together  by  President  Monroe  and  embodied  in  his  Message,  which 
can  be  summarized  in  the  following  four  propositions: 

1.  That  the  United  States  would  not  tolerate  further  colonization 
in  the  American  continent  by  European  powers. 

2.  That  they  would  not  permit  the  subjugation  or  subversion  of 
any  American  Government  by  the  Governments  of  Europe. 

3.  That  they  would  not  allow  the  extension  to  America  of  the 
monarchial  system  of  the  "  holy  alliance." 

4.  That  the  United  States  had  not  interfered  and  would  not  in- 
terfere with  any  of  the  existing  colonies  or  dependencies  of  any 
European  power  on  this  continent. 

I  take  from  the  note  of  Mr.  Richard  Henry  Dana  on  the  Monroe 
Doctrine,  contained  in  the  eighth  edition,  Boston,  1866,  of  Elements  of 
International  La7v,  by  Henry  Wheaton,  paragraph  67,  Part  H.,  Chapter 
I.,  page  97,  the  following  passages,  which  explain  the  object  and  scope 
of  the  Monroe  Doctrine,  supported  by  the  ample  authority  further 
stated  in  detail  in  that  note. 

As  a  summary  of  this  subject  it  would  seem  that  the  following  positions  may  be 
safely  taken  : 

"  I.  The  declarations  upon  which  Mr.  Monroe  consulted  Mr.  Jefferson  and  his 
own  Cabinet  related  to  the  interposition  of  European  powers  in  the  affairs  of  Ameri- 
can States. 

"  II.  The  kind  of  interposition  declared  against  was  that  which  may  be  made  for 
the  purpose  of  controlling  their  political  affairs,  or  of  extending  to  this  hemisphere  the 
system  in  operation  upon  the  continent  of  Europe,  by  which  the  great  powers  exercise 
a  control  over  the  affairs  of  other  European  States. 

"  III.  The  declarations  do  not  intimate  any  course  of  conduct  to  be  pursued  in 
case  of  such  interpositions,  but  merely  say  that  they  would  be  '  considered  as  danger- 
ous to  our  peace  and  safety,'  and  as  '  the  manifestation  of  an  unfriendly  disposition 
toward  the  United  States,'  which  it  would  be  impossible  for  us  to  '  behold  with  indif- 
ference '  ;  thus  leaving  the  nation  to  act  at  all  times  as  its  opinion  of  its  policy  or  duty 
might  require. 

"  IV.  The  declarations  are  only  the  opinion  of  the  administration  of  1823,  and 
have  acquired  no  legal  force  or  sanction. 

"  V.  The  United  States  has  never  made  any  alliance  with  or  pledge  to  any  other 
American  State  on  the  subject  covered  by  the  declarations. 

"  VI.  The  declaration  respecting  non-colonization  was  on  a  subject  distinct  from 
European  intervention  with  American  States,  and  related  to  the  acquisition  of  sovereign 
title  by  any  European  power,  by  new  and  original  occupation  or  colonization  there- 
after. Whatever  were  the  political  motives  for  resisting  such  colonization,  the  princi- 
ple of  public  law  upon  which  it  was  placed  was,  that  the  continent  must  be  considered 
as  already  within  the  occupation  and  jurisdiction  of  independent  civilized  nations." 

Daniel  Webster  had  still  a  more  narrow  view  of  the  object  and 
scope  of  the  Monroe  Doctrine,  as  appears  from  the  following  extract 


jl 


6enesis  of  /IDejican  1InOepenC>ence.  333 

from  a  speech  he  delivered  in  the  House  of  Representatives,  on  March 
27,  1826: 

"The  amount  of  it  (Mr.  Monroe's  declaration)  was  that  this  Government  could 
not  look  with  indifference  on  any  combination  to  assist  Spain  in  her  war  against  the 
South  American  States ;  that  we  could  not  but  consider  any  such  combination  as  dan- 
gerous or  unfriendly  to  us  ;  and  that  if  it  should  be  formed  it  would  be  for  the  compe- 
tent authorities  of  this  Government  to  decide,  when  the  case  arose,  what  course  our 
duty  and  our  interest  should  require  us  to  pursue." 

T/ie  Panama  Congress. — When  Simon  Bolivar  proposed  the  assem- 
bling at  Panama  of  a  congress  of  the  American  nations  to  agree  upon 
sopie  continental  policy,  President  John  Quincy  Adams  laid  before 
Congress,  in  his  annual  message  of  1826,  the  question  of  the  repre- 
sentation of  the  United  States  at  that  Congress.  The  coalition  against 
the  Adams  Administration,  which  ultimately  became  the  Jacksonian 
party,  made  its  first  great  fight  on  this  measure.  It  called  forth  long 
debates  and  aroused  great  excitement  in  the  House  of  Representatives, 
because  it  was  not  an  ordinary  mission,  and  seemed  to  have  far  greater 
importance  than  any  question  of  foreign  relations  that  had  previously 
come  under  discussion.  It  was  believed  to  be  an  attempt  to  make  a 
confederation  or  league  of  all  the  American  countries,  and  thus  to  a 
certain  extent  to  extinguish  the  individuality  of  the  United  States. 

This  discussion  lasted  from  February  3  to  April  21,  1826,  when  the 
Committee  on  Foreign  Affairs  reported  a  resolution  declaring  that  it 
was  expedient  to  appropriate  the  necessary  funds  to  send  representa- 
tives to  the  Panama  Congress.  This  resolution  was  approved  by  a 
vote  of  143  to  54,  and  passed  the  Senate  by  a  vote  of  24  to  19. 

The  United  States  delegates  to  the  Panama  Congress  were  in- 
structed to  attend  the  Congress  merely  in  a  diplomatic  character, 
without  discussing  or  accepting  any  proposition  of  alliance  binding  the 
United  States,  These  restrictions  had  been  embodied  in  an  amend- 
ment presented  both  in  the  House  and  Senate,  which  had  passed  the 
House,  but  was  finally  rejected,  because  it  was  considered  an  infringe- 
ment upon  the  prerogatives  of  the  Executive.  As  it  expressed  the 
views  of  Congress,  however,  its  provisions  were  embodied  in  the 
instructions  to  the  Commissioners. 

I  understand  that  one  of  the  objects  of  that  Congress  was  to  ac- 
complish the  independence  of  the  island  of  Cuba,  but  the  idea  did  not 
meet  with  the  approval  of  the  United  States,  and  that  fact  prevented 
the  Panama  Congress  from  arriving  at  any  practical  result. 

Mr,  Buchanan,  a  Member  of  Congress  from  Pennsylvania,  and 
afterwards  President  of  the  United  States,  introduced  in  1826  a  resolu- 
tion which  passed  the  House  of  Representatives  by  a  vote  of  99  to  95, 
and  which  reads  as  follows  (see  Wharton,  International  Law  Digest, 
Volume  I.,  Chapter  III.,  paragraph  57,  page  282): 


334  1[3i5toi*ical  IRotes  on  /iDcjico. 

"  It  is,  therefore,  the  opinion  of  this  House  that  the  Government  of  the  United 
States  ought  not  to  be  represented  at  the  Congress  of  Panama,  except  in  a  diplomatic 
character ;  nor  ought  they  to  form  any  alliance,  offensive  or  defensive,  or  negotiate 
respecting  such  alliance,  with  all  or  any  of  the  South  American  Republics ;  nor  ought 
they  to  become  parties  with  them,  or  either  of  them,  to  any  joint  declaration  for  the 
purpose  of  preventing  the  interference  of  any  of  the  European  powers  with  their  inde- 
pendence or  form  of  government,  or  to  any  compact  for  the  purpose  of  preventing 
colonization  upon  the  continents  of  America  ;  but  that  the  people  of  the  United  States 
should  be  left  free  to  act,  in  any  crisis,  in  such  manner  as  their  feelings  of  friendship 
towards  these  Republics,  and  as  their  own  honor  and  policy,  may  at  the  time  dictate." 

It  is  interesting  to  quote  here  what  Mr.  J.  C.  B.  Davis  says  in  his 
Notes  on  Treaties  of  the  United  States,  in  regard  to  the  Panama  Con- 
gress, and  which  appears  in  Wharton's  hiternational  Law  Digest,  Vol. 
I.,  Chapter  II.,  paragraph  57,  page  279. 

"  The  Congress  of  Panama  in  1826  was  planned  by  Bolivar  to  secure  the  union  of 
Spanish  America  against  Spain.  It  had  originally  military  as  well  as  political  pur- 
poses. In  the  military  objects  the  United  States  could  take  no  part  ;  and  indeed  the 
necessity  for  such  objects  ceased  when  the  full  effects  of  Mr.  Monroe's  declarations 
were  felt.  But  the  specific  objects  of  the  Congress,  the  establishment  of  close  and 
cordial  relations  of  amity,  the  creation  of  commercial  intercourse,  of  interchange  of 
political  thought  and  of  habits  of  good  understanding  between  the  new  rejiublics  and 
the  United  .States  and  their  respective  citizens,  might  perhaps  have  been  attained  had 
the  Administration  of  that  day  received  the  united  support  of  the  country.  Unhappily 
they  were  lost ;  the  new  States  were  removed  from  the  symjiathetic  and  protecting  in- 
fluence of  our  example,  and  their  commerce,  which  we  might  then  have  secured, 
passed  into  other  hands  unfriendly  to  the  United  States. 

' '  In  looking  back  upon  the  Panama  Congress  from  this  length  of  time  it  is  easy 
to  understand  why  the  earnest  and  patriotic  men  who  endeavored  to  crystallize  an 
American  system  for  this  continent  failed.  .  .  .  One  of  the  questions  proposed 
for  discussion  in  the  conference  was  '  The  consideration  of  the  means  to  be  adopted  for 
the  entire  abolition  of  the  African  slave  trade,'  to  which  proposition  the  Committee  of 
the  United  States  Senate  of  that  day  replied  :  '  The  United  States  have  not  certainly 
the  right,  and  ought  never  to  feel  the  inclination,  to  dictate  to  others  who  may  differ 
from  them  upon  this  subject  ;  nor  do  the  Committee  see  the  expediency  of  insulting 
other  States  with  whom  we  are  maintaining  relations  of  perfect  amity,  by  ascending 
the  moral  chair,  and  proclaiming  from  thence  mere  abstract  principles,  of  the  rectitude 
of  which  each  nation  enjoys  the  perfect  right  of  deciding  for  itself.'  The  same  Com- 
mittee also  alluded  to  the  possibility  that  the  conditions  of  the  islands  of  Cuba  and 
Porto  Rico,  still  the  possessions  of  Spain,  and  still  slave-holding,  might  be  made  the 
subject  of  discussion  and  of  contemplated  action  by  the  Panama  Congress.  '  If  ever 
the  United  States'  (they  said)  '  permit  themselves  to  be  associated  with  these  nations 
in  any  general  congress  assembled  for  the  discussion  of  common  plans  in  any  way 
affecting  European  interests,  they  will,  by  such  act,  not  only  deprive  themselves  of  the 
ability  they  now  possess  of  rendering  useful  assistance  to  the  other  American  States, 
but  also  produce  other  effects  prejudicial  to  their  interests.' 

"  The  printed  correspondence  respecting  this  mission  will  be  found  in  the  fifth 
volume  of  the  Foreign  Relations,  folio  edition,  pages  834-905.  It  was  the  subject  of 
animated  discussion  in  Congress,  which  will  be  found  in  the  second  part  of  the  second 
volume  of  the  Register  of  Congressional  Debates  for  the   Year  1826." 


(Benesis  ot  /IDejican  Hn^epeu^cnce,  335 

Conclusion. — Circumstances  have  made  this  paper  much  longer  than 
I  expected,  but  it  was  necessary  to  speak  of  several  subjects,  all  of 
which  were  closely  connected  with  the  independence  of  Mexico  and 
the  other  Spanish  colonies  in  America. 

I  hope  that  this  statement  of  facts  will  serve  to  show  that  the 
Spanish  colonies  in  America  achieved  their  independence  by  their  own 
efforts  and  without  the  aid  of  any  foreign  nation,  and  that  if  some  of 
them  expected  such  aid  from  England  they  never  got  it,  and  they 
had  to  rely  upon  the  native  element.  I  trust,  also,  that  it  will  dispel 
some  errors  prevailing  on  that  subject. 

The  Government  of  the  United  States  maintained  during  the  War 
of  Independence  a  strict  neutrality,  although  the  recognition  of  bel- 
ligerency of  the  revolted  colonies  was  a  decided  advantage  to  them. 
But  the  people  of  the  United  States  heartily  sympathized  with  them, 
and  in  some  cases  personally  assisted  the  cause  of  independence. 


PART  11. 

PHILOSOPHY  OF  THE  MEXICAN 
REVOLUTIONS. 


337 


II.  PHILOSOPHY  OF  THE  MEXICAN  REVOLUTIONS. 

It  is  always  difficult  for  the  outside  world  to  understand  fully,  and 
to  form  a  correct  opinion  in  regard  to  the  real  condition  of  things 
existing  in  a  country,  especially  so  when  that  country  is  in  an  abnor- 
mal state,  that  is,  when  it  is  passing  through  a  period  of  serious  disturb- 
ances. This  is  particularly  difficult  in  the  case  of  Mexico,  whose  pe- 
culiar conditions  make  it  so  different  from  all  other  countries,  that  even 
educated  Mexicans  cannot  always  clearly  understand  the  real  situation 
of  affairs  in  their  country,  unless  they  have  made  a  special  study  of 
such  matters.  In  this  way  I  account  for  the  general  impression  pre- 
vailing in  the  outside  world  that  because  Mexico  has  been  disturbed 
by  a  long  series  of  civil  wars,  which  lasted  for  over  half  a  century,  we 
were  constitutionally  disposed  to  fight,  and  did  so  without  any  plausible 
cause  or  reason;  but  such  a  view  is  a  very  mistaken  one,  and  the  fol- 
lowing remarks  will,  I  hope,  explain  the  philosophy  of  our  civil  wars. 

In  the  first  edition  of  this  paper  I  passed  very  briefly  on  the  war  of 
independence  in  Mexico,  because  I  intended  to  write  an  article  as 
short  as  possible  without  sacrificing  the  end  in  view  ;  but,  having  been 
obliged  to  enter  into  some  details  of  the  war  of  independence  of  the 
South  American  Republics,  I  thought  I  could  not  afford  to  say  less 
about  the  same  war  in  Mexico.  In  the  paper  entitled  "  Genesis  of 
Mexican  Independence"  I  dealt  at  length  on  the  war  of  independence 
in  Mexico,  and  to  avoid  repetitions  I  will  omit  here  the  incidents  and 
views  there  expressed. 

To  treat  this  subject  methodically,  I  will  divide  this  paper  into 
three  parts:  the  first  embracing  the  war  of  independence,  from  1810  to 
1821,  the  second  the  revolutionary  period  from  1821  to  1855,  and  the 
third  the  war  of  reform  and  French  intervention  from  1856  to  the 
present  time. 

WAR    OF    INDEPENDENCE. 

During  the  Spanish  rule  in  Mexico,  which  lasted  exactly  three 
centuries,  from  152 1  to   1821,  there  were  three  controlling  privileged 

33'J 


34°  "fcistorical  IRotes  on  /IDcjico. 

classes,  the  people  counting  for  absolutely  nothing.  The  first  was  the 
clergy,  who,  by  obtaining  bequests  from  persons  who  were  about  to  die, 
and  in  various  other  ways  had  accumulated  very  large  fortunes,  owning 
directly  or  through  mortgages  over  two  thirds  of  the  whole  real  estate 
of  the  country,  and  so  absorbed  the  principal  financial  business. 
Their  power  was  based  not  only  upon  their  immense  wealth,  but  also 
upon  the  religious  influence  which  they  exercised,  and  on  the  fact  of 
their  being  the  only  educated  class,  for  although  they  knew  but  little, 
they  knew  a  great  deal  more  than  the  other  classes  did,  who  were  kept 
in  ignorance.  Their  thorough  discipline  assisted  the  clergy  very 
materially  in  wielding  great  influence.  They  were  so  powerful  during 
the  Spanish  rule  that  a  Viceroy  once  attempted  to  enforce  his  authority 
over  a  recalcitrant  archbishop  of  the  City  of  Mexico  by  arresting  him 
and  sending  him  to  Spain.  The  Viceroy  succeeded  in  making  the 
arrest,  but  when  it  became  known  that  the  archbishop  was  on  his  way 
to  Veracruz,  so  violent  was  the  excitement  of  the  people  that  he  was 
speedily  brought  back  to  the  City  of  Mexico,  and  the  Viceroy  was 
obliged  to  leave  the  country. 

The  Spanish  Colonial  Government  of  Mexico  was  an  autotheo- 
cratic  one,  the  civil  and  ecclesiastical  administrations  being  as  closely 
united  as  it  was  possible  for  them  to  be.  Among  the  long  list  of 
Spanish  Viceroys  who  ruled  Mexico  during  the  three  hundred  years  of 
the  colonial  period,  ten  out  of  sixty-two,  or  over  seventeen  per  cent.,' 
were  archbishops  of  Mexico,  the  highest  ecclesiastical  dignitaries  in  the 
colony;  and  the  archbishop  was,  in  fact,  the  ex-officio  Viceroy,  as 
whenever  a  Viceroy  died,  or  was  removed  and  left  the  country  before 
his  successor  arrived,  generally  the  archbishop  took  his  place. 

The  second  privileged  class  were  the  Spaniards  by  birth,  who 
formed  a  kind  of  aristocracy,  a  few  of  them  having  titles;  and  being 
the  only  one  holding  offices  of  trust,  responsibility,  or  emolument  in 
the  country,  and  monopolizing  the  principal  commercial  business,  they 
were  also  a  wealthy  class.  They  were  so  jealous  of  the  native  Mexi- 
cans that  even  the  children  of  Spaniards  born  in  Mexico  of  a  Mexican 
mother  were  not  considered  on  the  same  footing  as  the  Spaniards;  they 
were  called  Creoles,  had  no  rights  whatever,  and  could  not  fill  any 
public  office  or  hold  any  position  of  importance.  But  few  Spanish 
women  ever  went  to  Mexico.  The  men  generally  went  there  while 
very  young,  grew  up  in  the  country,  and  married  Mexican  women, 
occasionally  pure-blooded  Indians,  but  generally  the  daughters  of 
Spaniards  by  Mexican  mothers  born  in  Mexico.  From  these  unions 
came  the  Creoles. 

The  third  class  was  the  army,  which  was  comparatively  small,  but 

'  A  nominal  list  of  Viceroys  in  Mexico  during  the  colonial  period,  stating  the  time 
that  they  remained  in  office,  will  be  found  at  the  end  of  this  paper. 


pbilosopbp  of  tbe  /IDcjican  1Rex>olutton9.         341 

was  a  very  important  element  in  the  country.  Native  Mexicans 
usually  held  very  subordinate  positions,  only  in  a  few  cases  being 
admitted  among  the  commissioned  officers. 

These  three  classes  were,  of  course,  devotedly  attached  to  the 
Spanish  rule,  because  under  it  they  prospered  and  had  all  the  wealth 
and  power  they  could  possibly  desire,  while  any  change  would  only 
endanger  their  position  and  welfare.  The  higher  clergy  were,  of 
course,  heartily  loyal  to  Spain,  while  a  few  members  of  the  lower  clergy, 
Mexicans  by  birth — the  Church  being  almost  the  only  career  open  to 
the  natives — having  on  the  other  hand  some  patriotic  feeling,  were  the 
only  ones  who  could  appreciate  the  condition  of  things,  and  longed  for 
a  change. 

However  much  may  be  said  against  the  Spanish  colonial  rule  in 
Mexico,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  it  was  only  a  necessary  conse- 
quence of  the  ideas  and  conditions  of  things  prevailing  at  that  time, 
and  although  it  was  selfish  and  greedy,  the  Spaniards  did  nothing  more 
than  it  was  thought  proper  at  the  time  to  do;  and  it  cannot  be  denied 
that  the  Madrid  Government  had  a  kindly  feeling  towards  the  natives, 
which  was,  however,  not  always  shared  by  the  authorities,  and  that, 
notwithstanding  all  the  sufferings  and  degradation  to  which  they  were 
subjected  they  were  not  exterminated,  as  was  the  unhappy  fate  of  those 
living  in  the  northern  part  of  the  New  World,  settled  by  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  race. 

Spain  gave  Mexico  all  she  had — her  religion,  her  language,  her 
laws,  her  civilization,  her  genius;  and  not  for  the  exclusive  benefit  of 
her  subjects  of  Spanish  descent;  the  conquered  race  also  shared  these 
advantages,  and  produced  many  men  of  note  as  lawyers,  priests, 
mathematicians,  astronomers,  literary  men  and'artisls.  The  centrali- 
zation of  power  and  the  common  language  began  the  work  of  assimila- 
tion, which  although  far  from  being  wholly  accomplished,  yet  had  its 
beginning  during  the  time  of  the  Spanish  conquest. 

Opposition  of  Privileged  Classes  to  Independence. — The  opposition  of 
the  clergy  to  independence  from  Spain,  and  the  alarm  with  which  they 
viewed  the  movement  in  that  direction  were  so  great  that  its  leaders 
were  excommunicated  by  all  the  bishops  of  the  country  the  moment 
the  insurrection  broke  out.  The  Inquisition  commenced  proceedings 
against  them,  and  several  members  of  the  higher  clergy  took  up  arms 
against  the  cause  of  independence.  The  Bishop  of  Oaxaca,  forgetting 
the  teachings  of  the  founder  of  his  religion,  organized  his  clergy  into  a 
regiment  to  fight  against  the  insurgents;  but  the  martial  prelate  had  no 
occasion  to  come  into  conflict  with  them,  for  he  fled  from  the  city, 
when  Morelos  approached  it  in  1812. 

Something  similar  happened  in  Colombia,  where  the  Bishop  of 
Popayan,    Jimenez   de   Padilla,  incited   the   natives    in    favor   of   the 


342  Ibistorical  IRotes  on  /IDejico. 

Spaniards  by  his  preaching  and  fought  the  patriots  with  his  sword, 
until  the  royalists  capitulated  to  Bolivar,  on  June  8,  1822,  after  eleven 
years  of  hard  fighting,  for  which  it  has  been  called  the  Colombian 
Vendue,  comparing  it  with  the  resistance  that  the  French  Revolutionists 
met  in  that  province. 

The  higher  Catholic  clergy  in  Peru  took  the  same  attitude.  In 
Argentina  a  capitulation  was  signed,  on  P'ebruary  20,  1813,  by  General 
Belgrano,  commanding  the  Argentine  troops,  with  General  Tristan, 
commander  of  the  Spanish  army,  by  which  the  latter  bound  himself 
under  oath  not  to  take  up  arms  during  the  war  against  the  Argentine 
Government  within  the  limits  of  the  Viceroyalty  of  La  Plata,  and  the 
Archbishop  of  Charcas  in  Argentina,  and  the  Bishop  of  La  Paz  in 
Upper  Peru,  released  the  Spanish  officer  from  his  oath,  under  the  plea 
that  God  did  not  consider  binding  treaties  made  with  insurgents. 

The  example  of  the  United  States,  and  even  that  of  Spain — where 
the  people  rebelled  against  the  Government  established  by  Napoleon 
in  180.8,  under  his  brother,  Joseph  Bonaparte,  notwithstanding  that  it 
had  the  sanction  of  King  Ferdinand  VIL,  who  had  abdicated  in  favor 
of  the  French  Emperor — could  not  but  affect  the  Spanish  colonies  in 
America,  and  most  of  them  proclaimed  their  independence  in  1810. 

In  the  preceding  paper  on  "  The  Genesis  of  Mexican  Independ- 
ence," I  dwelt  upon  the  causes  of  the  same,  and  upon  the  remarkable 
coincidence  that  it  was  proclaimed  almost  simultaneously  in  all  the 
American  colonies  of  Spain,  and  I  therefore  do  not  say  here  any 
more  upon  the  subject. 

Proclamation  of  Itidependence. — Independence  was  proclaimed  in 
Mexico  on  September  16,  1810,  in  Dolores,  an  Indian  village  in  the 
State  of  Guanajuato,  by  Miguel  Hidalgo  y  Costilla,  the  aged  curate 
of  the  town,  with  the  co-operation  of  Allende,  Aldama,  and  Abasolo, 
three  inferior  officers  of  the  Mexican  militia,  born  in  Mexico.  His 
undertaking  had  from  the  beginning  all  the  leading  classes  of  Mexico 
arrayed  against  it.  He  collected  a  very  large  number  of  Indians  and 
peasants,  and  two  or  three  regiments  of  the  militia  followed  his  lead. 
To  enlist  public  sympathy  on  his  side,  he  had  put  his  cause  under  the 
protection  of  the  Virgin  of  Guadalupe,  who  was  supposed  to  have 
miraculously  appeared  two  hundred  years  before  to  an  humble  Indian, 
as  the  patroness  of  his  race,  near  the  City  of  Mexico,  and  who  was 
greatly  reverenced  throughout  the  country.  His  men  were  disorgan- 
ized, without  arms  or  ammunition,  and  undisciplined,  and  although  he 
captured  the  important  towns  of  Celaya,  Guanajuato,  Valladolid,  and 
Toluca,  and  under  good  military  leadership  might  have  accomplished 
a  great  deal  more,  availing  himself  of  the  popular  enthusiasm  for  inde- 
pendence and  of  the  surprise  and  discomfiture  of  the  Spaniards,  he 
did  not  know  how  to  make  use  of  those  advantages. 


pbilosopbi?  ot  tbe  /IDejican  IRevolutious.  343 

While  Hidalgo  was  a  great  enthusiast,  he  had  no  military  talents 
and  no  disciplined  army.  His  assistants,  Allende,  Aldama,  and 
Abasolo,  who  were  only  captains  in  the  Spanish  militia,  proposed  to  him 
a  plan  of  operations,  which,  if  adopted,  might  have  been  successful, 
but  he  refused  to  accept  it,  and  followed  his  own  ideas  which  culmi- 
nated in  his  complete  defeat. 

He  marched  against  the  City  of  Mexico,  and  fought  a  battle  on 
October  30,  1810,  at  Monte  de  las  Cruces,  within  sight  of  the  capital, 
and,  although  he  was  successful,  he  did  not  enter  the  city,  but  remained 
inactive  for  some  days,  thus  giving  the  Viceroy  time  to  concentrate  his 
troops,  and  when  those  coming  from  San  Luis  Potosi  were  approaching 
under  General  Calleja,  Hidalgo  retreated  to  Queretaro,  having  been  at- 
tacked and  defeated  at  Aculco  on  November  7th.  Hidalgo  retreated  to 
Valladolid,  and  from  there  to  Guadalajara,  where  he  arrived  on  Novem- 
ber 26th,  and  established  there  a  regular  government.  Calleja  followed 
him,  and  Hidalgo  came  out  to  fight  Calleja  and  met  him  at  Puente 
de  Calderon,  and  on  January  17,  181 1,  a  battle  took  place  in  which 
Hidalgo  was  completely  defeated.  His  military  lieutenant  advised 
Hidalgo  not  to  offer  a  pitched  battle  to  the  enemy,  as  his  forces  could 
not  compete  with  the  Spanish  veterans,  but  he  did  not  follow  that 
advice  and  this  was  the  cause  of  his  defeat,  as  the  organization  and 
discipline  of  the  Spanish  army  at  last  prevailed  against  his  large  but  dis- 
organized masses.  Hidalgo  finally  was  captured  in  Acatita  de  Bajan, 
on  May  21,  181 1,  and  after  having  been  degraded  by  the  Inquisition  and 
the  higher  clergy,  he  was  shot  at  the  City  of  Chihuahua  on  the  31st  of 
the  following  July. 

While  Hidalgo  was  in  Guadalajara,  in  December,  1810,  he  sent  to 
the  United  States  as  his  official  representative  Senor  Don  Pascasio 
Ortiz  de  Latona,  as  stated  in  the  paper  entitled  "Genesis  of  Mexican 
Independence." 

Morelos's  Leadership. — Hidalgo  was  succeeded  by  another  priest,  a 
full-blooded  Indian,  Jos^  Maria  Morelos,  who  had  in  him  the  elements 
of  a  great  warrior. 

Morelos,  like  Hidalgo,  was  a  parish  priest  in  the  State  of  Michoacan, 
whose  capital,  Valladolid,  is  now  called  Morelia  in  his  honor.  He  re- 
ceived his  commission  from  Hidalgo  when  he  passed  through  that 
State,  and  Morelos  marched  with  a  few  men  to  capture  the  port  of 
Acapulco,  failing  in  that  attempt,  because  that  port  was  well  fortified, 
but  he  attacked  and  defeated  the  Spanish  in  several  encounters, 
capturing  the  towns  of  Chilpancingo,  Tixtla,  Chilapa,  in  the  present 
State  of  Guerrero,  Chiautla  and  Izucar  in  the  State  of  Puebla,  and 
Taxco  in  the  State  of  Mexico.  In  the  City  of  Cuautla,  in  the  present 
State  of  Morelos,  he  resisted  with  3000  men  the  12,000  that  the  Viceroy 
had  sent  against  him,  from  February  19th  to  May  2,  1812,  fighting  almost 


344  Ibtstorical  IRotes  on  /iDejico. 

every  day,  and  making  that  siege  one  of  the  most  famous  in  the  history 
of  Mexico.  He  finally  broke  the  lines  of  the  enemy,  and  retreated 
with  the  remainder  of  his  army.' 

Morelos  captured  the  city  of  Orizaba  on  October  26,  181 2,  and  de- 
feated the  Spanish  army  which  was  besieging  the  town  of  Huajuapan  in 
the  State  of  Oaxaca,  and  also  the  city  of  Tehuacan  in  the  State  of 
Puebla,  and  from  there  he  marched  against  the  city  of  Oaxaca,  which  he 
captured  on  November  25,  1812.  From  Oaxaca  he  marched  to  Aca- 
pulco,  which  city  he  captured  on  April  12,  1813,  after  which  he  laid 
siege  to  the  strong  castle  of  San  Diego,  capturing  it  on  August  20th  of 
the  same  year. 

Morelos  organized  a  regular  government,  and  convened  a  Con- 
gress, which  met  at  Chilpancingo,  on  September  14,  1812,  the  first 
Congress  we  ever  had,  which  declared  independence  on  the  6th  of 
November  following.  The  Congress  had  to  change  the  place  of  its 
meetings  according  to  the  fortunes  of  war,  and  on  October  22,  1814, 
they  issued  a  provisional  constitution  and  established  an  executive 
government  of  three  members,  electing  for  that  purpose  Morelos, 
Liceaga,  and  Cos. 

Morelos's  fortunes  began  to  wane  at  the  end  of  1813.  On  December 
24th  of  that  year  he  attacked  the  city  of  Valladolid  and  was  repulsed 
with  very  heavy  losses;  in  the  following  year  his  lieutenants  suffered 
several  defeats,  Matamoros  was  defeated  and  captured  at  Puruaran,  on 
February  3,  18 14,  and  Galeana  was  defeated  and  killed  at  Coyuca  on 
May  ist  of  the  same  year,  and  Don  Miguel  Bravo  was  also  captured  and 
shot  at  Puebla.  Congress  decided  to  continue  its  sessions  at  Tehuacan, 
and  Morelos  marched  to  that  place  escorting  its  members,  but  was  over- 
taken by  the  Spanish  troops,  and  to  save  \\i^  personnel  oi  Congress  he 
offered  battle  under  disadvantageous  circumstances  at  Texmalaca,  on 
November  5,  1815,  where  he  was  defeated,  captured,  and  taken  to  the 
City  of  Mexico,  and,  after  being  degraded  by  the  Inquisition  and 
higher  clergy,  he  was  shot  at  the  Indian  town  of  Ecatepec,  near  the 
City  of  Mexico,  on  December  2 2d  of  that  year. 

Slavery  in  Mexico. — The  views  about  slavery  of  the  Mexican  revolu- 
tion and  its  leaders  will  be  shown  by  stating  that  Hidalgo  issued,  on 
December  6,  1810,  not  three  months  after  he  had  proclaimed  independ- 
ence from  Spain,  a  decree  abolishing  slavery  in  Mexico,  and  that  our 
first  Congress,  which  met  in  Chilpancingo  in  1813,  adopted  at  Apat- 
zingan,  on  October  22,  1814,  a  constitution  and  promulgated  a  decree 
abolishing  slavery.  That  decree,  of  course,  could  only  be  enforced  in 
the  few  places  which  were  occupied  by  the  insurgents;  but  when  inde- 

'  Mr.  Walter  S.  Logan  spoke  on  the  subject  in  an  address  before  the  New  York 
Historical  Society,  delivered  April  4,  1893,  entitled  "  Cuautla"  which  I  consider  well 
worth  reading. 


Ipbilosopb^  of  tbe  /IDejican  IRevolutions.  345 

pendence  was  achieved,  one  of  the  first  acts  of  the  first  Mexican 
Congress,  convened  at  the  City  of  Mexico  to  adopt  a  Constitution,  was 
to  issue  a  decree,  on  July  13,  1824,  which  abolished  slavery,  and  it  was 
then  actually  abolished  in  the  whole  country.  The  fact  that  our 
present  Constitution  of  1857  repeats  the  prohibition  of  holding  slaves 
in  Mexico,  a  prohibition  which  has  appeared  in  all  of  our  Constitutions, 
has  caused  the  common  opinion  prevailing  in  this  country,  that  we  only 
abolished  slavery  in  1857,  a  mistake  which  I  have  often  had  occasion  to 
to  rectify/  In  fact,  every  Mexican  is  born  a  strong  anti-slavery  man, 
so  much  so  that  we  could  not  understand  why  the  United  States  should 
have  accepted  slavery,  and  should  have  tried  to  sustain  and  extend  it 
even  at  the  cost  of  a  tremendous  civil  war  which  imperilled  the  very 
existence  of  this  country,  and  the  great  influence  that  it  has  to  ex- 
ercise upon  the  destinies  of  mankind,  more  especially  when  the  very 
Declaration  of  American  Independence  proclaims  the  principle  that  all 
men  are  born  free  and  equal,  and  when  slavery  is  a  contradiction  of 
that  great  principle.  But,  fortunately,  slavery  has  been  abolished  here, 
as  it  was  in  Mexico  over  seventy  years  ago,  and  the  stain,  which  for  a 
time  tarnished  the  fair  name  of  this  country,  has  thus  been  completely 
effaced. 

Bra7)o' s  Magnanimity. — In  speaking  of  General  Bravo,  it  will  not 
be  amiss  to  mention  an  incident  which  shows  the  magnanimity  of  the 
Mexican  character  and  the  temper  of  the  men  who  were  engaged  in 
our  war  of  independence.  General  Bravo  had  been  detached  by 
Morelos  to  the  Province  of  Veracruz,  and  he  attacked  at  San  Agustin 
del  Palmar,  in  December,  1812,  a  regiment  of  Spanish  soldiers  which 
had  just  landed  from  Spain  and  was  escorting  a  military  train  to  the 
City  of  Mexico,  and  defeated  them,  capturing  three  hundred  men. 
Under  the  rules  of  war  prevailing  there  at  the  time,  all  prisoners  of  war 
were  shot  without  any  mercy  or  discrimination.  The  Spaniards  began 
that  barbarous  system,  and  the  Mexicans  thought  they  ought  to  re- 
taliate. Bravo  did  not  shoot  these  men  at  once,  and  on  the  evening  of 
the  day  on  which  he  captured  them,  he  received  the  information  from 
Morelos  that  his  father,  who  had  taken  a  prominent  part  in  the  war  of 
independence,  had  been  captured  by  the  Spaniards  and  shot  at  the  city 
of  Mexico,  accompanied  by  positive  orders  from  Morelos  to  shoot  all  his 
Spanish  prisoners.  Bravo  was  a  generous  man,  and  while  feeling  deeply 
the  blow  he  had  received  in  his  father's  death,  he  yet  hesitated  as  to 

'  Senator  Money,  misunderstood  the  position  of  Mexico  on  the  slavery  question 
when  he  said  in  his  article  :  "  Great  Britain,  lashed  by  the  eloquence  of  Wilberforce, 
paid  for  and  manumitted  her  slaves  in  1838.  France  followed  a  slow  second  in  1848, 
and  Mexico  did  not  emancipate  her  own,  of  which  she  had  very  few,  until  several 
years  after  the  events  here  considered."  As  a])pears  from  this  paper,  slavery  was 
abolished  in  Mexico  since  1810,  and  its  abolition  was  carried  into  effect  in  1824. 


346  IF^istorical  IFlotes  on  /IDej:ico. 

what  he  should  do,  and,  after  a  sleepless  night,  he  decided  not  only  to 
pardon  his  prisoners,  but  to  set  them  at  liberty  unconditionally.  Such 
an  act  of  generosity  can  only  be  fully  appreciated  when  we  consider 
the  temper  of  the  times,  and  the  excitement  under  which  both  parlies 
labored  during  that  terrible  struggle.  It  may  be  added  that  most  of 
the  prisoners,  deeply  touched  by  this  act  of  magnanimity,  joined 
Bravo's  forces. 

Mina  s  Expedition. — On  April  15,  1817,  General  Francisco  Xavier 
Mina,  a  Spanish  soldier  who  had  fought  gallantly  in  Spain  against  the 
French,  of  broad-minded  and  liberal  views,  and  a  lover  of  liberty,  went 
to  Mexico  to  fight  for  her  independence,  as  Lafayette  had  done  several 
years  before  in  the  United  States,  landing  in  Soto  de  la  Marina  with 
five  hundred  men,  and  leaving  a  small  detachment  to  guard  the  place, 
marched  to  the  interior,  defeating  the  Spanish  army  that  opposed  him. 
The  Viceroy  had  to  organize  a  large  army  under  General  Linan  to 
fight  Mina,  who  advanced  as  far  into  the  interior  as  the  city  of  Leon, 
and,  after  several  encounters  in  which  he  showed  great  military  talent, 
he  was  defeated  and  made  a  prisoner  at  Venadito  on  October  27,  1817, 
and  shot  on  the  nth  of  November  of  the  same  year. 

After  the  capture  of  General  Mina  the  revolutionary  war  in  Mexico 
was  almost  ended,  and  in  1818  only  small  bands  of  disorganized  men 
remained  in  the  field,  Vicente  Guerrero  in  the  south,  and  Guadalupe 
Victoria  in  the  east,  being  almost  the  only  leaders  who  had  a  regular 
force  under  their  command.  Guerrero  was  a  muleteer,  who  joined  the 
cause  of  independence  from  the  beginning,  fought  under  Morelos,  and 
finally  established  his  base  of  operations  in  the  southern  part  of  Mex- 
ico, which,  favored  by  topographical  conditions  and  climate,  being  very 
mountainous  and  in  some  places  unhealthy,  did  not  allow  the  Spanish 
regular  troops  to  make  much  headway.  He  held  his  own  until  1821 
when  the  cause  of  independence  finally  succeeded. 

Independence  Achieved. — Such  was  the  condition  of  things  when,  in 
1820,  the  Spaniards  at  Madrid  restored  the  Liberal  Constitution  adopted 
by  the  Coites  in  1812,  when  King  Ferdinand  VIL  had  fled  from  Spain 
and  the  country  was  in  possession  of  the  French,  and  that  fact  greatly 
alarmed  the  conservative  Spanish  element  in  Mexico,  who,  fearing  that 
liberal  principles  might  find  a  foothold  in  the  mother-country  and 
extend  thence  to  Mexico,  thought  the  best  course  they  could  pursue 
would  be  to  proclaim  independence  from  Spain,  and  establish  a 
Catholic  monarchy  under  a  Spanish  king,  so  that  they  would  not  be 
subject  to  the  obnoxious  changes  which  liberal  ideas,  that  had  begun 
to  permeate  Spain,  might  bring  about.  They  addressed  themselves, 
therefore,  to  Iturbide,  who,  although  a  native  Mexican,  had  been  one 
of  the  most  successful  leaders  of  the  Spanish  army  against  the  insurrec- 
tion, was  a  good  soldier  and  an  ambitious  man.      Iturbide  fell  in  with 


IPbilosopbi?  of  tbe  /IDejican  IRevolutions.  347 

their  views,  and,  when  appointed  by  the  Viceroy  to  command  the  army 
sent  to  subdue  the  southern  revolutionary  leaders,  he  took  all  the 
available  forces  and  money  which  the  Viceroy  could  spare  and  joined 
Guerrero  and  the  other  revolutionary  leaders,  proclaiming  on  February 
24,  1 82 1,  a  political  platform  called  "  Plan  de  Iguala,"  which  was  a 
compromise  between  the  revolution  and  its  opponents,  as  it  accom- 
plished independence,  but  under  a  thoroughly  Catholic  monarchy,  with 
a  Spanish  prince  on  the  throne,  and  forbidding  the  exercise  of  any 
other  religion.  All  the  other  commanding  officers  of  the  Spanish 
army  in  other  sections  of  the  country  soon  accepted  this  platform, 
and,  as  a  consequence,  independence  was  accomplished  almost  without 
a  blow. 

An  incoming  Viceroy,  Don  Juan  O'Donoju,  accepted  the  Plan  of 
Iguala,  and  signed  at  Cordova,  on  August  24th  of  the  same  year,  a 
treaty  with  Iturbide  by  which  he  recognized  in  behalf  of  the  Spanish 
Government  the  independence  of  Mexico  on  condition  that  an  empire 
be  established  in  Mexico,  calling  to  the  throne  a  member  of  the  Spanish 
family  in  compliance  with  the  Plan  of  Iguala.' 

It  is  a  remarkable  coincidence  that  only  a  little  over  three  months 
before  the  treaty  of  Cordova,  General  San  Martin  agreed  with  the 
Spanish  Viceroy,  La  Serna,  on  some  terms  of  settlement,  almost  iden- 
tical to  the  basis  of  that  treaty.  The  Liberal  Cabinet,  organized  in 
Spain  in  1820  after  the  restoration  of  the  Constitution  of  181 2,  had  sent 
special  Commissioners  to  the  revolted  colonies  to  offer  them  autonomy, 
on  condition  that  they  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  King.  Don 
Manuel  Abreu  was  the  Spanish  Commissioner  sent  to  Peru,  and  under 
his  authority  the  Spanish  Viceroy,  La  Serna,  met  General  San  Martin 
at  Punchauca,  north  of  Lima,  on  May  3,  182 1.  San  Martin  offered  to 
accept  peace  under  the  following  conditions:  i.  Spain  to  recognize  the 
independence  of  Peru;  2.  to  appoint  a  regency  of  three  members,  one 
by  San  Martin,  another  by  the  Spanish  Viceroy,  La  Serna,  and  the  third 
elected  by  the  people;  and,  3.  to  send  to  Madrid  two  commissioners 
to  ask  the  Spanish  royal  family  to  send  one  of  its  members  as  King 
of  Peru.  These  conditions  were  approved  by  General  La  Serna,  subject 
to  the  approval  of  the  civil  councils  of  Peru,  but  his  army  having  dis- 
approved of  them,  they  were  not  carried  out. 

'  It  was  reported  that  King  Ferdinand  VII.  had  written  a  confidential  letter  in 
1820  to  Viceroy  Apodaca,  tiie  ruler  of  Mexico  at  that  time,  informing  him  that  he 
considered  himself  held  in  captivity  by  the  Spanish  Liberals,  and  that  fearing  to  share 
the  fate  of  Louis  XVI.  of  France,  he  had  decided  to  go  to  Mexico  to  use  there  freely 
his  royal  authority,  and  therefore  requested  him  to  keep  New  Spain  free  from  the  con- 
stitutional movement,  so  that  he  could  go  there  as  absolute  King.  .Although  some 
have  considered  this  letter  as  apocryphal,  Alaman  published  the  text  of  it  in  his  History 
of  Mc-xico,  Volume  V.,  pages  61,  62,  and  perhaps  this  explains  why,  in  the  Plan  of 
Iguala  and  the  treaty  of  Cordova,  Ferdinand  VII.  was  ofTcred  the  throne  of  Mexico. 


348  Ibistortcal  IRotes  on  /IDerico. 

This  short  statement  of  facts  shows  that  the  first  movement  for  in- 
dependence, notwithstanding  its  popularity,  was  an  apparent  failure, 
because  it  had  not  the  support  of  the  higher  classes;  but  as  soon  as  it 
became  for  the  interest  of  the  higher  classes  themselves  that  Mexico 
should  be  independent  of  the  Spanish  rule,  their  influence  turned  the 
scale,  and  independence  was  at  once  achieved. 

The  ease  with  which  the  Spanish  Government  was  overthrown  in 
Mexico  by  the  defections  of  the  Spanish  army  tended  greatly  to  the 
subversion  of  military  discipline,  which  was  instrumental  in  subsequent 
military  mutinies  against  the  constituted  authorities.  One  of  the  worst 
effects  of  a  successful  rebellion  is  that  it  sanctions  the  principle  that 
brute  force  shall  rule,  and  awakens  the  personal  ambition  of  unscrupu- 
lous and  successful  soldiers.  All  that  was  necessary  to  overthrow  a 
government  was  to  induce  the  general-in-chief  of  the  government  forces 
to  join  the  rebels,  and  this  offered  so  tempting  a  bait  for  promotion  and 
power  that  few  could  resist  it.  It  brought  about  the  complete  de- 
moralization of  the  old  Mexican  army,  as  will  presently  be  seen,  and 
the  overthrow  of  the  several  regular  constituted  governments,  to  the 
very  great  detriment  of  the  country. 

REVOLUTIONARY    PERIOD. 

Itiirbide  s  Ephemeral  Empire. — Iturbide  entered  victorious  the  City 
of  Mexico  on  September  27,  1821.  A  regency  of  three  members  was 
established,  of  which  he  was  elected  President.  He  convoked  a 
National  Congress  on  February  24,  1822,  and  the  Spanish  Cortes 
having  declared,  on  February  13th  of  the  same  year,  null  and  void  the 
treaty  of  Cordova,  Congress,  under  some  military  pressure,  declared 
Iturbide  Emperor  by  67  votes  against  15,  on  May  19,  1822,  and 
on  July  2ist  he  was  formally  crowned  at  the  Cathedral.  But  the  Mex- 
ican patriots,  who  had  been  fighting  for  ten  years  in  favor  of  indepen- 
dence, material  progress,  and  liberal  principles,  could  not  be  satisfied 
with  the  success  of  their  former  enemies  and  the  establishment  of  an 
empire.  They  thought  that  this  was  depriving  the  country  and  them- 
selves of  the  fruits  of  their  victory,  and  so  they  combined  against 
Iturbide,  and  having  a  majority  in  Congress,  he  had  it  dissolved.  In 
their  efforts  to  overthrow  the  empire,  the  liberals  were  joined,  strange 
to  say,  by  the  ultraconservatives,  who  were  either  jealous,  or  disagreed 
with  Iturbide  because  he  did  not  go  as  far  as  they  intended,  and  they 
joined  in  the  conspiracy  against  him,  and  thus  his  overthrow  was  made 
easy. 

On  December  6,  1822,  Don  Antonio  Lopez  de  Santa  Ana,  of 
whom  I  shall  presently  have  occasion  to  speak  more  at  length,  headed 
a  rebellion  in  Veracruz  against  Iturbide,  proclaiming  a  republican  form 


pbilosopb^  of  tbe  ^ejican  IRevolutions.  349 

of  government.  Iturbide  sent  an  army  under  General  Echavarri,  but 
this  General  joined  Santa  Ana  on  February  i,  1823,  in  a  platform 
(which  we  call  plan)  against  Iturbide,  called  the  "  Plan  of  Casa 
Mata,"  which  was  adopted  in  many  other  sections  of  the  country. 
Iturbide  then  restored  the  Congress  that  he  had  dissolved,  and  sent  his 
resignation  as  Emperor.  On  April  7th,  Congress  decreed  that  Iturbide 
had  not  been  regularly  declared  Emperor,  that  his  resignation  could  not 
therefore  be  accepted,  and  he  was  ordered  out  of  the  country  and  sailed 
for  Leghorn,  Italy,  on  May  11,  1823,  on  the  English  brig  Rawlins. 

Iturbide  was  later  induced  by  his  friends  to  return  to  Mexico  in  the 
supposition  that  he  would  find  the  people  in  his  favor.  He  landed  at 
Soto  de  la  Marina  on  the  14th  of  July,  1824,  and  the  Legislature  of  the 
State  of  Tamaulipas  sentenced  him  to  death,  as  he  had  previously  been 
declared  an  outlaw  by  an  act  of  Congress,  and  he  was  shot  at  Padilla 
on  the  19th  of  the  same  month. 

Establishjnent  of  a  Republic. — After  Iturbide's  downfall  a  republican 
form  of  government  was  unavoidable.  Congress  appointed  an  Execu- 
tive Power  of  three  members,  electing  for  that  position  Generals 
Victoria,  Bravo,  and  Negrete. 

About  this  time  Masonic  lodges  were  established  in  Mexico,  the 
first  being  of  the  Scottish  Rite,  which  was  joined  by  most  of  the  con- 
servative element  of  the  country,  but,  unfortunately,  that  lodge  was 
turned  into  a  political  organization,  and  played  a  very  prominent  part 
in  the  public  disturbances  of  that  period.  The  Liberal  party  was 
divided  into  two  wings:  the  extreme  Liberals,  or  Federalists,  who  were 
in  favor  of  a  government  fashioned  on  the  model  of  that  of  the  United 
States,  the  powers  of  the  Federal  Government  being  limited;  and  the 
moderate  Liberals,  or  Centralists,  who  favored  a  centralized  republic, 
with  a  stronger  government.  This  wing  of  the  Liberal  party  united 
itself  with  the  Monarchists  and  the  friends  of  the  Bourbons,  and  they 
all  joined  the  lodge  of  the  Scottish  Rite,  and  were  called  "  Escoceses  " 
in  Spanish.  The  Liberals  were  the  old  patriots  who  had  fought  for 
independence  from  the  beginning  and  they  were  assisted  by  Iturbide's 
friends  who  out  of  hostility  to  the  existing  government  had  joined  them, 
in  their  turn,  and  to  meet  their  opponents  with  similar  weapons,  organ- 
ized a  lodge  of  the  York  Rite,  whose  members  were  called  "  Yorkinos." 
For  some  years  the  names  by  which  the  political  parties  were  known  in 
Mexico  were  "  Escoceses  "  and  "  Yorkinos,"  equivalent  to  Conserva- 
tives and  Liberals.  Mr.  Poinsett,  the  first  United  States  Minister  sent 
to  Mexico,  was  at  the  time  accused  of  being  the  instigator  of  the 
establishment  of  the  lodges;  but  it  seems  that  while  he  desired  the 
success  of  the  Yorkinos,  he  was  not  the  founder  of  that  Lodge. 

Federal  Coftsfitufion  of  1824. — A  National  Congress  to  organize  the 
country  was  convoked  and  met  on  November  7,  1S23,  and  it  issued  on 


350  HDistorical  IRotes  on  /IDejico. 

January  21,  1S24,  the  primary  bases  of  a  Federal  Constitution,  and  on 
October  4th  of  the  same  year  the  final  Constitution  was  adopted  and 
promulgated.  It  was  modelled  on  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States,  and  was  almost  a  copy  of  it,  and  I  do  not  know  whether,  in 
imitating  so  closely  the  Constitution  of  this  country  we  did  not  make 
a  mistake.  The  Constitution  of  a  nation  should  be  adapted  to  the 
conditions  of  that  country.  Here  in  the  northern  section  of  the  con- 
tinent, there  were  at  the  end  of  the  last  century  thirteen  colonies  inde- 
pendent of  each  other,  which  made  war  against  England,  achieved 
their  independence,  and  then  found  themselves  little  more  than  a 
confederacy  of  infantile  nations,  with  all  the  weaknesses  which  have 
ever  attended  a  simple  confederation.  They  therefore  decided  to 
consolidate  themselves  into  a  single  nation,  under  the  name  of  "  The 
United  States  of  America."  The  Federal  system  of  government  was 
the  only  solution  of  the  problems  which  then  confronted  the  people  of 
this  country.  It  was  the  natural  and  inevitable  outgrowth  of  the  con- 
dition of  things  existing  before  the  adoption  of  the  Constitution.  In 
Mexico  there  was  a  united  country,  subject  to  the  same  authorities  and 
laws,  and  with  only  one  head.  In  adopting  a  republican  federal  system 
there,  the  nation  had  to  be  artificially  divided  up  into  separate  sections, 
to  be  called  States,  which  had  no  separate  existence  before,  and  no 
individual  history  or  experience  in  self-government.  It  is  not  to  be 
wondered  at,  therefore,  that  when  this  Constitution  went  into  operation 
it  caused  great  disturbance.  It  is  easy  to  find  in  this  fact  one  of  the 
causes  of  our  prolonged  civil  wars.  We  were  not  alone  in  suffering 
such  misfortunes,  for  almost  every  other  nation  on  this  continent, 
following  in  our  footsteps,  tried  to  adapt  the  republican  federal  system 
to  a  condition  of  things  to  which  it  was  not  suited.  Brazil  alone 
escaped  this  period  of  turmoil  and  experiment  by  establishing  an 
empire,  with  a  scion  of  the  reigning  house  of  Portugal  on  the  throne, 
and  by  not  adopting  a  federal  republican  form  of  government  until 
nearly  a  century  later,  after  the  people  had  acquired  some  ideas  of 
self-government  and  some  capacity  for  carrying  it  out;  and  it  is  prob- 
ably for  these  reasons  that  she  has  suffered  less  by  civil  commotion 
than  any  other  country  of  similar  origin  in  this  hemisphere. 

Unfortunately,  very  little  regard  was  paid  to  the  provisions  of  the 
Constitution  of  1824  immediately  after  its  promulgation,  as  the  men 
then  in  power  did  not  hesitate  to  infringe  upon  them,  especially  for 
the  purpose  of  placing  their  own  candidates  in  the  high  positions,  thus 
setting  a  very  bad  example,  which  contributed  greatly  to  the  subsequent 
demoralization  of  the  Mexican  political  parties,  as  will  presently  be 
seen. 

Our  Constitution  of  1824  was  a  decided  victory  for  the  Liberal 
party,  but  very  far  from  being  a  final  one.     The  Church  party,  though 


lpibilosopb\?  oX  tbe  /IDejlcan  IRerolutions.  351 

then  defeated,  was  really  the  stronger  of  the  two  during  the  early  years 
of  independent  Mexico.  The  power  of  the  Liberals  was  of  short 
duration  ;  the  Conservative  Church  party  prevailed  upon  some  of 
Mexico's  numerous  military  leaders  to  rebel  against  the  Government 
and  inaugurate  a  series  of  revolutions,  which  ended  in  1835  in  the  over- 
throw of  the  Constitution  of  1824,  thus  giving  a  pretext  to  the  Texas 
settlers  to  rebel  against  Mexico.  Santa  Ana  and  the  Conservative 
leaders  held  that  a  federal  form  of  government  was  not  that  which  was 
best  adapted  to  the  country,  and  that  a  strong  centralized  government 
was  needed. 

It  would  be  too  long  and  rather  uninteresting  to  mention  all  the 
military  mutinies,  or  pronunciamientos  as  we  called  them,  during  the 
revolutionary  period  from  1822  to  1855,  as  it  would  be  a  rather  dry 
and  long  list  of  names  and  dates  almost  unintelligible  to  any  one  not 
very  familiar  with  the  history  of  Mexico.  I  will  pass  therefore  over  this 
dark  period,  mentioning  only  the  leading  and  most  conspicuous  of 
them. 

In  a  recent  article  published  about  Mexico  by  Justice  Walter  Clark, 
of  the  Supreme  Court  of  North  Carolina,'  it  is  stated  that  between  1821 
and  1868  the  form  of  the  Mexican  government  was  changed  ten  times; 
that  over  fifty  persons  succeeded  one  another  as  presidents,  dictators, 
or  emperors,  and  that  more  than  three  hundred  successful  or  abortive 
revolutions  were  recorded.  I  append  to  this  paper  a  list  of  all  the 
rulers  that  Mexico  has  had  before,  during,  and  after  the  conquest  by 
the  Spaniards,  and  that  list  contains  the  exact  number  of  persons  who 
exercised  the  government  in  this  country  during  the  revolutionary 
period,  but  even  supposing  that  Justice  Clark's  figures  be  exact,  they 
will  only  show  the  correctness  of  the  views  just  expressed  on  this  sub- 
ject— that  the  demoralized  condition  of  the  army  made  it  easy  to  start 
revolutions,  that  they  occurred  very  frequently,  and  that  the  army  had 
naturally  a  great  deal  to  do  with  them;  but  it  is  also  plain  that  there 
was  often,  if  not  always,  some  political  motive  or  principle  involved  in 
such  revolutions,  and  although  a  great  many  were  military  mutinies, 
others  were  popular  uprisings,  often  under  cover  of  military  pronuncia- 
mientos. 

All  the  military  leaders  during  the  whole  period  of  our  revolutions 
pretended  in  their  pronunciamientos  that  they  only  desired  to  carry 
out  the  will  of  the  people  as  interpreted  by  themselves,  and  that  their 
only  object  was  to  overthrow  the  existing  government,  which  they  con- 
sidered either  illegal  or  one  which  liad  abused  its  authority,  claiming 
always  to  act  on  behalf  of  the  people  and  for  their  welfare,  recognizing 
in  that  way  that  the  people  are  tlie  source  of  all  power. 

'  Artna,  for  February,  i8y6.  — "  The  l^and  of  the  Noonday  Sun.  Mexico  in 
Midwinter." 


352  Ibistorlcal  IFlotes  on  /IDcjico. 

After  the  adoption  of  the  Federal  Constitution  hostilities  between 
the  two  parties  were  renewed,  the  Liberal  party,  which  had  been  the 
promoter  of  independence  and  which  desired  progress,  and  the  Con- 
servative or  Church  party,  which  aimed  to  maintain  the  status  quo,  and 
which  was  strongly  averse  to  any  change.  It  is  not  strange  that  the 
conflict  between  these  two  parties,  representing  ideas  so  antagonistic, 
should  have  lasted  so  long. 

An  election  took  place  in  September,  1824,  and  General  Victoria 
was  elected  President,  assuming  that  office  on  October  10,  1824, 
General  Bravo  being  elected  Vice-President.  On  January  i,  1825, 
the  first  Constitutional  Congress  opened  its  sessions,  and  on  November 
18,  1825,  the  fortress  of  Ulua,  opposite  Veracruz,  surrendered  to  the 
Mexican  Government.  General  Victoria  finished  his  term  of  office  in 
comparative  peace,  although  some  military  pronunciamientos  had 
taken  place  which  he  was  able  to  subdue,  among  others  one  headed 
by  General  Bravo,  the  Vice-President,  and  another  by  General  Santa 
Ana. 

When  the  following  presidential  election  took  place,  on  September 
I,  1828,  General  Guerrero  was  the  candidate  of  the  Federalist,  or 
Yorkino  party,  and  General  Gomez  Pedraza,  Secretary  of  War  in  the 
Victoria  administration,  of  the  Scottish,  or  Centralist  party,  the  former 
having  had  9  and  the  latter  11  votes  of  the  Legislatures  of  the  States. 
The  Yorkino  party  was  not  satisfied  with  the  result  of  the  election, 
and  General  Santa  Ana  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  a  rebellion  to 
nullify  the  election  and  make  Guerrero  president.  Another  pronun- 
ciamiento  took  place  with  the  same  object  in  view,  in  the  City  of  Mex- 
ico, which  was  finally  successful,  and  Congress,  acting  under  such 
pressure,  declared  on  January  12,  1829,  Guerrero  elected  President, 
and  General  Bustamante,  Vice-President.  General  Guerrero  was  in- 
augurated as  President  on  April  i,  1829. 

During  Guerrero's  presidency,  the  Captain-General  of  Havana  sent 
an  armed  expedition  with  about  4000  selected  Spanish  troops  under 
General  Barradas,  to  reconquer  Mexico,  which  landed  near  Tampico 
in  July,  1829,  and  on  the  4th  of  the  following  August  captured  that 
port.  General  Teran  was  sent  by  the  Mexican  Government  against 
Barradas,  and  Santa  Ana  went  from  Veracruz  of  his  own  accord  and 
without  orders.  Both  attacked  Barradas,  who  capitulated  on  Septem- 
ber II,  1829.  Spain  finally  recognized  the  independence  of  Mexico 
after  the  death  of  Ferdinand  VII.,  by  a  treaty  signed  at  Madrid  on 
December  28,  1836. 

General  Bustamante,  the  Vice-President,  who  was  then  in  command 
of  an  army  in  Jalapa,  rebelled  against  Guerrero,  on  December  4,  1829, 
proclaiming  the  restoration  of  the  Constitution.  Guerrero  himself  took 
the  field  against  Bustamante,  but  as  he  left  the  City  of  Mexico,  the 


pbilosopbs  ot  tbe  /IDejican  lRevoluttons»  353 

garrison  of  the  capital  there  rebelled  against  his  authority,  and 
his  army  having  been  disbanded,  he  abandoned  the  Government. 
Bustamante  filled  part  of  Guerrero's  term.  Guerrero  rebelled  in  the 
South  against  Bustamante,  but  he  was  enticed  to  go  on  board  an  Italian 
vessel,  whose  master  delivered  him  to  Bustamante's  agents,  and  he  was 
shot  on  February  14,  1831.  Several  other  uprisings  took  place  against 
the  Bustamante  government,  Santa  Ana  coming  again  at  the  head  of 
them,  and  he  defeated  Bustamante's  forces  at  Puebla  in  December, 
1832,  whereupon  Bustamante  signed  an  agreement  with  Santa  Ana, 
called  the  "  Zabaleta  "  agreement,  by  which  it  was  stipulated  that 
Gomez  Pedraza,  having  been  elected  President,  should  be  installed  as 
such,  and  he  therefore  remained  in  power  until  the  end  of  that  term, 
on  April  i,  1833. 

Santa  Ana' s  Leadership. — In  the  following  election  Santa  Ana 
was  elected  President,  and  Valentin  Gomez  Farias,  Vice-President, 
the  new  Government  being  inaugurated  on  April  i,  1833. 

The  military  leaders  continued  to  play  a  very  important  part  in 
public  affairs.  The  most  remarkable  instance  was  that  of  General 
Santa  Anna.  He  was  active,  cunning,  courageous,  plausible,  and 
even  magnetic;  but  he  was  at  the  same  time  an  ambitious,  unprin- 
cipled, and  selfish  man,  who  sided  with  all  parties  and  betrayed  them 
all.  He  was  a  successful  military  leader  in  an  irregular  guerrilla  war- 
fare; but  he  had  no  ability  as  a  soldier.  He  fought  with  the  Spanish 
army  against  the  independent  cause  up  to  1821,  and  he  went  over  to 
Iturbide,  when  the  latter  joined  the  independent  leaders;  in  1822  he 
rebelled  against  Iturbide,  and  proclaimed  a  federal  republic,  and  in 
1834  he  abolished  the  Federal  Constitution  of  1824  and  established  a 
military  dictatorship,  which  he  reassumed  at  three  different  periods. 
From  1822  to  1855  he  really  had  the  fate  of  Mexico  in  his  hands, 
having  been  President  five  different  times,  but  he  never  served  the 
country  in  any  way  except  in  his  readiness  to  take  part  in  our  foreign 
wars,  although  his  participation  in  them  was  often  disastrous  to 
Mexico.  He  began  his  political  career  as  a  Radical  Liberal,  and 
ended  it  as. an  ultra-reactionary  leader  of  the  Church  party.  In  his 
campaigns  against  the  Texans  he  allowed  himself  to  be  surprised  at 
San  Jacinto  by  a  handful  of  men,  when  he  had  superior  numbers;  and 
he  being  then  the  President  of  Mexico  committed  the  baseness  of 
offering  the  recognition  of  Texan  independence  as  the  price  of  his 
personal  liberation  by  the  enemy,  although  secretly  resolving  not  to 
carry  out  the  agreement.  His  military  incompetence  was  apparent  in 
his  campaigns  against  the  armies  of  the  United  States  under  General 
Taylor  at  Angostura,  and  under  General  Scott  at  Cerro  Gordo  and  the 
Valley  of  Mexico,  where  under  better  generalship  we  might  have  been 
victorious,  having  superior  numbers.     Although  the  final  result  of  that 


354  UDistorical  IRotes  on  /IDejico. 

war,  under  the  then  existing  conditions,  was  of  necessity  against  us, 
we  certainly  could  have  made  a  much  better  stand,  had  we  had  an 
abler  man  at  the  head  of  our  armies.  Santa  Ana  was  often  very 
easily  discouraged,  and  more  than  once  fled  from  the  country,  for- 
saking a  power  which  he  might  have  wielded  longer,  thus  showing  that 
he  lacked  tenacity  of  purpose.  But  this  does  not  show,  as  a  superficial 
observer  might  be  disposed  to  believe,  that  the  struggle  was  the  result 
only  of  the  personal  ambition  of  unscrupulous  military  leaders,  as  what 
really  happened  was  that  the  political  parties  used  these  leaders  for 
their  convenience,  and  had,  of  course,  to  share  the  power  with  them 
and  to  submit  to  some  of  their  whims. 

During  Santa  Ana's  administration,  military  insurrections  con- 
tinued, but  he  was  able  to  overpower  them.  Gomez  Farias  was  an 
enlightened  man  of  decidedly  liberal  tendencies,  and,  having  a  major- 
ity in  Congress,  he  succeeded  in  passing  several  liberal  measures, 
especially  some  destined  to  diminish  the  political  influence  of  the 
clergy,  like  the  repeal  of  the  law  making  obligatory  the  payment  of 
tithes.  The  Conservative  party  worked  upon  Santa  Ana's  suscepti- 
bilities to  place  him  in  antagonism  to  Gomez  Farias.  He  therefore 
favored  a  revolution  which  broke  out  in  Cuernavaca  in  1834,  proclaim- 
ing him  as  Dictator,  and  in  April  of  that  year  he  assumed  the  functions 
of  such,  dissolved  Congress,  repealed  all  the  liberal  laws  which  had 
just  been  issued,  exiled  from  the  country  Gomez  Farias,  and  convoked 
a  new  Congress,  which  met  January  4,  1835,  and  which  approved  all 
that  Santa  Ana  had  done  and  declared  him  Dictator.  Francisco 
Garcia,  Governor  of  Zacatecas,  rebelled  against  Santa  Ana,  but  was 
defeated,  and  after  his  victory  in  Zacatecas  he  went  to  Texas.  That 
Congress  declared  itself  with  authority  to  make  a  new  Constitution. 

Federal  Constitution  of  1833. — When  the  Church  party  had  the 
ascendency  under  Santa  Ana's  first  presidency,  they  repealed  the 
Federal  Constitution  of  1824,  and  on  October  23,  1835,  they  issued 
some  bases  for  a  new  Constitution,  which  was  finally  proclaimed  on 
December  29,  1836,  under  the  title  of  "  Constitutional  Laws,"  and 
which  abolished  the  Federal  system  of  government,  and  several  of  the 
liberal  features  of  the  Federal  Constitution  of  1824.  The  "  Constitu- 
tional Laws  "  of  1836  were,  apparently,  not  conservative  enough  for  the 
Church  party,  and  they  issued,  on  June  13,  1843,  also  under  another 
one  of  Santa  Ana's  adm.inistrations,  what  was  called  the  "  Organic 
Bases,"  a  still  more  conservative  Constitution,  as  I  will  presently  state. 

The  Church  party  being  so  wealthy  and  powerful,  and  having  so 
much  influence  in  the  country,  could  very  easily  have  brought  about  a 
civil  war  of  so  serious  a  character  as  would  have  made  it  difficult  for 
the  Liberal  side  to  defeat  them;  but,  as  time  elapsed,  the  Liberal 
party,  which  really  represented  the  patriotic  element  of  the  country, 


pbilosopbi^  of  tbe  /IDejican  IRevolutions.  35s 

grew  stronger  through  education  and  contact  with  foreign  nations,  and 
was  materially  assisted  in  its  task  by  the  demoralization  of  the  clergy 
and  their  unpatriotic  conduct  during  our  foreign  wars — as,  besides  our 
civil  wars,  we  had,  in  1829,  a  war  with  Spain,  already  mentioned, 
which  sent  an  expedition  to  reconquer  Mexico;  in  1838,  a  war  with 
France;  in  1846  and  1847,  a  war  with  the  United  States,  and  from 
1862  to  1867,  the  war  of  the  French  Intervention.  It  was  not  difficult, 
therefore,  for  the  Liberal  party  to  inaugurate  in  its  turn  a  counter- 
revolution, which  in  the  course  of  time  was  successful,  and  which 
finally  restored  it  to  power.  It  was  in  this  way  that  the  period  of  our 
civil  wars  lasted  so  long,  and  that  we  came  to  have  so  many  different 
Constitutions. 

The  Congress  of  1836,  finally  convoked  the  people  to  elect  a  Presi- 
dent and  a  new  Congress.  In  this  election  General  Bustamante  was 
elected  President,  and  took  his  office  on  April  29,  1837.  Several  in- 
surrections broke  out  against  centralism  and  the  Bustamante  adminis- 
tration, but  they  were  easily  subdued.  Bustamante  himself  marched 
with  his  army  against  General  Urrea,  who  had  pronounced  in  Tampico, 
and  during  his  absence  from  the  capital  Santa  Ana  was  appointed 
President  ad  interim.  Santa  Ana  himself  marched  against  Generals 
Urrea  and  Mejia,  and  defeated  them  at  Acajete,  near  the  City  of 
Mexico,  capturing  and  shooting  Mejia,  General  Urrea  pronounced 
again  at  the  City  of  Mexico,  on  July  15,  1840,  but  he  was  finally  de- 
feated. A  final  pronunciamiento  against  Bustamante  took  place  in 
Guadalajara,  on  August  8,  1841,  under  General  Paredes.  General 
Valencia  soon  afterwards  revolted  at  the  City  of  Mexico,  and  finally 
Santa  Ana  on  the  9th  of  the  following  September  pronounced  himself 
at  Perote,  Veracruz.  Bustamante  went  to  fight  the  rebels,  but  his 
troops  abandoned  him,  and  this  gave  success  to  the  revolution. 

Santa  Ana  s  Third  Presidency. — Santa  Ana  entered  victorious 
the  City  of  Mexico,  and  called  a  meeting  of  all  the  military  leaders  of 
the  forces  which  had  rebelled  against  Bustamante,  which  resulted  in 
the  agreement  signed  at  Tacubaya  on  September  28,  1841,  called  the 
Bases  0/  Tacitbaya,  by  which  it  was  provided  that  he  should  appoint  a 
Junta  to  represent  the  several  states,  and  that  such  Junta  was  to  elect 
a  President,  who  should  have  dictatorial  powers  until  a  national  Con- 
gress should  meet.  It  is  needless  to  say  that  Santa  Ana  was  appointed 
Provisional  President  under  that  agreement,  and  such  was  the  source 
of  the  dictatorial  power  he  exercised  for  nearly  three  years,  having 
taken  the  office  on  October  10,  1841,  remaining  in  power  with  interrup- 
tions until  June,  1844.  During  his  absence  from  the  City  of  Mexico, 
Generals  Bravo  and  Canalizo  exercised  the  government. 

Conservative  Constitution  of  J^une  12,  1843. — Santa  Ana's  adminis- 
tration during  that  period  was  a  military  dictatorship  under  the  plan 


356  ibistorical  Motes  on  /iDejico. 

proclaimed  at  Tacubaya  on  September  28,  1841,  which  gave  him  full 
legislative  powers.  A  Congress  was  elected  under  this  regime,  which 
formulated  a  Constitution  with  some  liberal  tendencies,  and  for  this 
reason  it  was  not  approved  by  the  Administration,  and  Congress  was 
dismissed  in  December,  1842.  A  Junta  of  notables  was  appointed  by 
the  Administration,  and  it  issued  a  Constitution  on  June  12,  1843,  es- 
tablishing a  strong  centralized  government,  that  Constitution  being 
known  by  the  name  of  "  Organic  Bases." 

Under  this  Constitution  a  Congress  was  elected,  and  met  on  Janu- 
ary I,  1844,  and  Santa  Ana  was  elected  Constitutional  President.  The 
sixth  of  the  Tacubaya  Bases  required  the  President  to  account  to  Con- 
gress for  what  he  had  done  as  Provisional  President;  and  as  Santa 
Ana  did  not  comply  with  that  duty,  General  Paredes  rebelled  against 
him,  in  Guadalajara,  and  Santa  Ana  went  to  subdue  him,  leaving  as 
President  ad  interim  General  Canalizo.  Canalizo  dissolved  Congress 
on  November  29,  1844,  and  that  caused  a  popular  uprising  in  the  City  of 
]vIexico  on  December  6th  of  the  same  year,  the  insurrectionists  captur- 
ing Canalizo  and  his  cabinet.  Santa  Ana  returned  from  Guadalajara 
to  attack  the  City  of  Mexico,  but,  finding  it  well  fortified,  went  to 
Puebla,  which  had  also  rebelled  against  him,  and  finally  left  the 
country,  being  arrested  at  Jico,  on  his  way  to  Veracruz.  He  was 
tried,  but  before  his  trial  was  over,  a  general  amnesty  was  declared  by 
Congress,  in  consequence  of  which  he  left  the  country. 

General  Herrera  then  assumed  the  government  from  December  6, 
1844,  until  January  2,  1846.  General  Paredes,  who  had  been  given 
the  command  of  a  division  sent  to  oppose  the  United  States  army  which 
had  invaded  Mexico  under  General  Taylor,  rebelled  against  the  Gov- 
ernment on  his  way  to  the  frontier  at  San  Luis  Potosi,  on  December 
14,  1845,  and  marched  against  the  City  of  Mexico,  where  he  arrived  on 
January  2,  1846,  and  the  garrison  of  the  city  having  joined  him, 
General  Herrera  was  deposed  as  President.  A  Junta  of  notables  was 
convened  by  Paredes,  and  by  them  he  was  elected  President,  assuming 
that  office  on  January  4,  1846.  General  Paredes  thought  of  establish- 
ing a  monarchical  form  of  government;  but  on  May  20,  1846,  General 
Yanez  rebelled  at  Guadalajara  against  him,  taking  the  field.  Paredes 
left  the  capital  on  July  29th.  On  August  4th,  General  Salas  pro- 
nounced against  Paredes  at  the  citadel  of  Mexico,  joined  the  rebels  of 
Guadalajara,  and  asked  the  restoration  of  a  Federal  Republic.  Pare- 
des returned  to  the  City  of  Mexico,  but  his  troops  abandoned  him,  and 
he  had  to  fly  for  his  safety. 

Restoration  of  the  Federal  Constitution  0/1824. — General  Salas  ex- 
ercised the  government  from  August  5  to  December  24,  1846.  By  a 
decree  of  August  220,  he  restored  the  Federal  Constitution  of  October 
4,  1824,  and  he  convoked  a  National  Congress,  which  met  on  Decern- 


I 


lpbilo5opb^  of  tbe  /IDejicau  IRevoIutions.  357 

ber  6th,  and  elected  President  General  Santa  Ana,  and  Vice-President, 
Don  Valentin  Gomez  Farias. 

A  Congress  was  elected  for  the  purpose  of  issuing  a  Constitution, 
and  on  May  21,  1847,  they  restored  the  Constitution  of  October  4, 
1824,  with  some  amendments  embraced  in  a  statute  called  "  Acta  de 
Reformas  "  (act  of  amendments). 

Santa  Ana  marched  with  his  army  towards  the  North  to  oppose 
General  Taylor,  and  Gomez  Farias  exercised  the  government  from 
December  24,  1846,  to  March  27,  1847.  Under  this  Administration 
Congress,  who  had  a  liberal  majority,  decreed  by  an  act  of  January 
II,  1847,  that  ecclesiastical  property  should  be  nationalized  for  the 
purpose  of  using  its  proceeds  in  the  defence  of  the  integrity  of  the 
country  in  the  war  with  the  United  States.  But  the  clergy  brought 
about  a  rebellion,  headed  by  Generals  Salas  and  Pena,  and  they  suc- 
ceeded in  bribing  some  regular  troops  and  most  of  the  national  guard, 
called  "  polkos,"  which  Gomez  Farias  had  organized,  and  which  were 
ready  to  march  to  Veracruz  to  oppose  General  Scott,  who  had  just 
landed  there.  From  February  25  to  March  21,  1847,  the  capital  was 
the  scene  of  daily  battles,  just  at  the  moment  when  foreign  troops  were 
coming  from  the  North,  and  when  the  squadron  of  the  United  States 
was  bombarding  Veracruz.  After  the  battle  of  Buena  Vista,  Santa 
Ana  returned  from  the  North  and  assumed  the  government  on  March 
21,  1847,  and  that  put  an  end  to  the  disturbances.  But  he  sided  with 
the  clergy,  because  when  he  left  again  the  capital  on  April  2d  to  meet 
General  Scott  he  left  General  Anaya  as  President  ad  interim^  instead  of 
leaving  Gomez  Farias,  who  was  the  Vice-President. 

War  with  the  United  States  of  1846  and  184^. — The  events  of  the 
war  with  the  United  States  of  1846  and  1847  are  well  known  in  this 
country,  and  are  not  pertinent  to  my  purpose  in  writing  this  paper, 
and  I  will  therefore  not  attempt  to  relate  them,  and  will  only  say  that 
the  incidents  connected  with  the  same  afford  the  best  proofs  that  could 
be  adduced  of  the  want  of  patriotism  of  the  Mexican  clergy,  since,  for 
the  purpose  of  avoiding  the  execution  of  a  law  which  affected  their 
pecuniary  interests,  they  did  not  hesitate  to  cause  a  revolution,  when 
the  country  was  invaded  by  a  foreign  nation,  and  to  use  for  that  re- 
bellion the  troops  which  were  intended  for  the  defence  of  the  honor 
and  integrity  of  the  country. 

It  has  been  stated  by  prominent  persons,  among  others  Mr.  Benton, 
that  President  Polk  entered  into  a  secret  agreement  with  General  Santa 
Ana,  to  the  effect  that  the  struggle  would  be  confined  to  a  few  skir- 
mishes to  be  followed  by  a  treaty  of  peace,  recognizing  the  Rio  Grande 
as  the  western  boundary  of  Texas,  and  that  under  this  agreement 
President  Polk  forced  Congress  to  declare  war  against  Mexico.  Mr. 
Benton  is  also  authority  for  saying  that  the  price  offered  to  Santa  Ana 


358  Ibistorical  IFlotes  on  /iDeyico. 

was  two  millions  of  dollars,  and  it  is  a  fact  that  precisely  that  sum  was 
appropriated  by  Congress  to  be  used  by  the  President  at  his  discretion, 
in  opening  a  way  for  peace  negotiations,  and  that  the  declaration  of 
war  by  the  United  States  was  immediately  followed  by  orders  to  the 
Gulf  Squadron  blockading  the  Mexican  coast  to  place  no  obstacle  in 
the  way  of  Santa  Ana's  return  to  Mexico,  and  he  did  return,  landing 
at  Veracruz  after  the  war  had  been  waged  for  some  time.  But  what- 
ever engagements  Santa  Ana  might  have  entered  into  with  the  United 
States,  it  seems  to  me  clear  that  he  had  not  the  intention  of  complying 
with  them,  and  only  entered  into  them  for  the  sake  of  securing  his  safe 
return  to  Mexico.' 

When  the  army  of  the  United  States  occupied  the  City  of  Mexico, 
on  September  14,  1847,  General  Santa  Ana  fled  from  the  country,  as 
he  had  done  before,  and  Don  Manuel  de  la  Peiia  y  Pena,  a  civilian 
President  of  the  Supreme  Court,  and,  under  the  Constitution  of  1847, 
ex-officio  Vice-President,  assumed  the  government  and  established  the 
capital  at  Queretaro,  and  under  his  administration  peace  was  made 
with  the  United  States  by  the  treaty  of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo,  of  Febru- 
ary 2,  1848. 

Anaya's,  Peiia  y  Peiia  s,  Het-rera' s,  and  Arista  s  Administrations. — 
The  Mexican  Congress  met  at  Queretaro  on  November  12,  1847,  and 
appointed  President  ad  interim  General  Anaya,  who  remained  in  office 
until  January  18,  1848,  when  Pena  y  Pena  was  called  again  to  fill  that 
office. 

'  The  Midland  Monthly  of  Desmoines  and  Chicago,  for  May,  1897,  published  an 
article  on  General  Grant's  life  by  Mr.  John  W.  Emerson,  in  which  it  was  stated  that 
overtures  were  made  to  General  Scott  to  induce  him  to  remain  in  Mexico,  of  which  the 
following  is  an  extract : 

"It  may  surprise  many  readers  to  learn  that  overtures  were  made  to  General 
Scott  by  many  Mexicans  of  position  and  by  many  American  officers  to  permanently 
occupy  Mexico  and  organize  a  new  government.  The  scheme  proposed  to  General 
Scott  was  in  substance  this  :  It  was  supposed  that  upon  the  conclusion  of  a  treaty  of 
peace  at  least  three-fourths  of  the  American  army  would  be  discharged,  and  that  a 
large  portion  of  the  officers  would  resign,  and  with  many  of  the  men  would  enter  the 
new  army  of  Mexico,  and  enough  others  could  be  recruited  in  the  United  States  to 
make  the  American  contingent  15,000  strong,  and  to  this  might  be  added  a  like  num- 
ber of  Mexican  soldiers.  With  such  an  army  it  was  suggested  that  Mexico  could  be 
held  and  governed  in  an  orderly  way  and  prosperity  might  be  assured.  The  plan  con- 
templated &  pronunciamiento,  in  which  General  Scott  should  declare  himself  Dictator 
of  the  Republic  for  a  term  of  five  years  or  more,  to  give  time  for  agitators  to  acquire 
pacific  habits  and  to  learn  to  govern  themselves  and  to  respect  an  orderly  government, 
where  the  rights  of  property  were  not  only  respected,  but  fully  protected.  Already  in 
possession  of  the  forts,  arsenals,  foundries,  cities,  mines,  and  ports  of  entry,  with 
nearly  all  the  arms,  it  was  not  doubted  that  a  general  acquiesence  would  follow." 

I  have  heard  that  the  higher  clergy  in  Mexico  made  some  overtures  of  that  kind 
to  General  Scott  with  the  expectation  of  establishing  under  their  control  a  firm  govern- 
ment, but  I  am  sure  that  that  idea  was  not  a  popular  one  in  Mexico. 


pbilosopb^  of  tbe  /iDejicau  IRevolutions.         359 

An  election  was  held  under  the  existing  Constitution,  and  General 
Herrera  was  elected  President,  and  assumed  that  office  on  June  3, 
1848,  returning  to  the  City  of  Mexico  when  it  was  evacuated  by  the 
troops  of  the  United  States.  General  Herrera  finished  his  term  of 
office,  being  the  only  such  case  after  Victoria's  administration,  but 
several  military  uprisings  occurred  during  his  administration.  Gen- 
eral Paredes  rebelled  against  Herrera,  but  was  defeated,  and  Herrera's 
administration  was  noted  for  its  simplicity  and  morality. 

When  General  Herrera's  term  was  over,  General  Arista,  Herrera's 
Secretary  of  War,  was  elected  President,  assuming  the  government  on 
January  15,  185 1.  General  Arista  followed  the  traditions  of  his  prede- 
cessor; but,  his  government  being  a  remarkably  good  one  with  tenden- 
cies to  a  liberal  policy,  it  had  the  opposition  of  the  Church  party, 
which  organized  several  uprisings  against  him.  Colonel  Blancarte 
rebelled  in  Guadalajara  on  July  27,  1852,  first  against  the  Governor 
of  the  State  of  Jalisco,  and  finally  proclaimed  the  return  of  Santa 
Ana  as  President.  General  Arista  sent  General  Uraga  against  Blan- 
carte; but,  instead  of  attacking  the  rebels,  Uraga  joined  them  with  the 
army  that  the  President  had  entrusted  to  him.  Several  other  uprisings 
occurred  in  different  sections  of  the  country,  and,  the  rebels  having  a 
majority  in  Congress,  General  Arista's  only  alternative  was  either  to 
dissolve  Congress  or  resign,  and,  like  a  man  of  principle,  he  followed 
the  second  extreme,  and  on  the  5th  of  January,  1853,  he  sent  in  his 
resignation,  and  left  the  City  of  Mexico. 

Ceballos,  the  President  of  the  Supreme  Court,  was  called  to  assume 
the  government  ;  but  he  dissolved  Congress.  Congress  appointed 
Don  Juan  Mujica  y  Osorio,  President,  ad  interim^  and  Ceballos  sent 
against  him  an  army  under  General  Robles  Pezuela,  who  joined  the  in 
surgents,  and  this  finally  ended  in  the  recall  of  Santa  Ana  as  Dictator, 
and  with  full  powers. 

Santa  Ana  s  Last  Administration. — Santa  Ana  landed  at  Vera- 
cruz on  April  i,  1853,  and  sided  entirely  with  the  Church  party,  estab- 
lishing a  kind  of  empire,  giving  himself  the  title  of  Serene  Highness. 
To  procure  himself  means  to  remain  in  power  he  sold  to  the  United 
States  a  portion  of  territory  called  the  Messilla  Valley,  and  ruled  the 
country  with  an  iron  hand.  The  Liberal  party  could  not  stand  such 
government,  and  the  leaders  of  the  South,  under  General  Alvarez,  pro- 
claimed, on  March  i,  1854,  the  Plan  of  Ayutla,  which  proposed  the 
restoration  of  a  Constitutional  Government.  Santa  Ana  took  the  field 
in  person  against  the  insurgents,  and  went  as  far  as  Acapulco,  without 
being  able  to  capture  that  city,  and  after  several  efforts  on  his  part  to  sub- 
due the  insurrection,  which  had  spread  all  over  the  country,  abandoned 
the  Government,  and  on  the  9th  of  August,  1S55,  left  the  City  of  Mexico 
for  Veracruz,  where  he  sailed  for  his  estate  in  Turbaco,  New  Granada. 


36o  Ibistorical  Botes  on  /IDejico. 

WAR  OF  REFORM  AND  FRENCH  INTERVENTION. 

The  Ayutla  revolution  finally  succeeded,  and  General  Alvarez  was 
appointed  President,  assuming  that  office  on  October  4,  1855,  when  he 
organized  a  Liberal  cabinet,  of  which  Benito  Juarez  was  Secretary  of 
Justice,  occupying  soon  afterwards  the  City  of  Mexico.  Before  an 
election  could  be  held,  General  Alvarez  appointed  his  successor  as 
President  ad  interim^  General  Comonfort,  one  of  the  supporters  of  the 
Plan  of  Ayutla,  and  who  belonged  to  the  moderate  wing  of  the  Liberal 
party,  and  who  assumed  that  office  on  December  12,  1855. 

Federal  Constitution  of  JSj/. — Several  military  insurrections,  pro- 
moted by  the  Church,  took  place  against  Comonfort  in  1858,  the  city 
of  Puebla  having  been  twice  the  headquarters  of  the  rebels  ;  but 
General  Comonfort  finally  succeeded  in  subduing  them.  Under  the 
Plan  of  Ayutla,  a  Constitutional  Congress  was  convened  on  February 
18,  1856,  which  issued  the  present  Constitution  of  February  5,  1857. 
An  election  was  held,  and  Comonfort  was  elected  Constitutional  Presi- 
dent for  four  years,  his  inauguration  taking  place  on  December  i,  1857. 
He  appointed  Juarez  his  Secretary  of  the  Interior  during  his  new  ad- 
ministration. Unfortunately,  Comonfort  wavered  in  his  political  views, 
and  he  was  persuaded  by  the  Church  party  to  annul  the  Constitution, 
under  the  plea  that  it  was  impracticable,  and  that  it  would  keep  up 
political  agitation,  and  on  December  11,  1857,  he  dissolved  the  Con- 
stitutional Congress  which  had  just  convened,  and  on  the  17th  of  the 
same  month  he  abolished  the  Federal  Constitution  which  he  had  sworn 
to  support  on  the  first  of  the  month,  and  to  which  he  owed  his  position, 
and  declared  himself  Dictator.  The  Liberal  party  could  not,  of  course, 
stand,  such  conduct,  and  they  raised  as  a  man  against  Comonfort's 
usurpation.  Soon  afterwards  he  saw  that  he  had  been  betrayed  by  the 
Church  party,  as  they  proclaimed  President,  General  Zuluaga,  one  of 
Comonfort's  most  devout  friends,  and  Comonfort  left  the  country. 

Juarez' s  Leadership. — Juarez  was  a  most  remarkable  man.  He 
was  a  full-blooded  Indian,  born  in  a  small  town,  Guelatao,  inhabited 
only  by  Indians,  and  where  there  was  but  one  man — the  parish  priest— 
who  spoke  Spanish  and  could  read  and  write.  Juarez  was  so  anxious 
to  learn  Spanish  and  to  acquire  an  education  that  he  offered  his  ser- 
vices as  a  domestic  to  the  priest  on  condition  that  he  should  be  taught. 
The  priest  found  him  so  intelligent  that  he  sent  him  to  the  adjoining 
City  of  Oaxaca  to  be  educated.  From  such  humble  beginnings  he  rose 
to  be  a  prominent  lawyer  and  a  distinguished  statesman.  He  was,  at 
different  times.  Secretary  of  State  of  his  own  state,  member  of  the 
State  Legislature,  State  Senator,  Governor  of  his  state  for  several 
terms,  Representative  to  the  Federal  Congress,  Secretary  of  Justice 
and  of  the  Interior,  Chief-Justice,   Vice-President,   and  finally  Presi- 


Ipbilosopbs  ot  tbe  /iDejican  IRevolutions.         361 

dent  of  the  Republic.  His  principal  characteristics  were  his  profound 
attachment  to  liberal  principles,  his  clearness  of  intellect,  his  remark- 
ably good  common  sense,  his  great  moral  courage,  his  unimpeachable 
integrity  and  honesty,  his  ardent  patriotism,  his  tenacity  of  purpose, 
and  his  devotion  to  civil  government.  In  time  of  war,  when  the 
destinies  of  the  country  often  depended  on  the  result  of  a  battle,  and 
when  many  others  in  his  place  would  have  led  an  army,  he  purposely 
abstained  from  exercising  any  military  duties.  These  he  left  entirely 
to  those  of  his  associates  who  had  shown  talent  for  war,  and  he  himself 
gave  the  example  of  a  purely  civil  government.  He  had  as  much  per- 
sonal courage  as  any  man  in  the  world.  I  saw  him  more  than  once 
facing  as  near  certain  death  as  any  man  ever  faced  with  perfect  calm- 
ness and  almost  indifference,  but  without  bravado.  I  am  sure  that  he 
felt  that  it  is  best  for  a  patriot  to  die  in  the  service  of  his  country, 
because  in  that  case  he  wins  for  himself  immortality,  and  on  this  theory 
I  account  for  the  fact  that  he  was  never  afraid  of  death  if  it  should 
come  to  him,  while  in  the  performance  of  a  patriotic  duty.' 

'  Mr.  Seward's  estimate  of  the  character  of  Juarez  shows  how  the  Anglo-Saxon 
was  impressed  by  the  little  Indian.  When  Mr.  Seward  visited  Mexico  on  his  trip 
around  the  world,  he  was  heartily  welcomed  by  my  country,  and  in  a  remarkable 
speech  that  he  made  at  the  city  of  Puebla  he  said  that  Juarez  was  the  greatest  man  tliat 
he  had  ever  met  in  his  life.  His  speech  was  taken  down  in  shorthand,  and  Mr.  Thomas 
H.  Nelson  of  Terre  Haute,  Ind.,  then  United  States  Minister  to  Mexico,  noticing  this 
phrase  and  thinking  that  in  the  excitement  of  the  moment  Mr.  Seward  had  gone  fur- 
ther than  he  intended,  and  further  than  he  would  like  to  have  repeated  on  sober  second 
thought,  took  it  to  Mr.  Seward  and  said  to  him  :  "  Governor,  will  you  be  willing  to 
stand  by  what  you  said  in  your  speech  about  Juarez  being  the  greatest  man  you  ever 
knew  '  Remember  that  you  have  been  the  peer  and  contemporary  of  Webster,  Clay, 
Calhoun,  and  many  other  distinguished  men  of  our  country,  and  that  you  place  Juarez 
above  them  all."  Mr.  Seward  answered  :  "  What  I  said  about  Juarez  was  after  mature 
consideration,  and  I  am  willing  to  stand  by  my  opinion."  This  statement  has  been 
submitted  to  General  Nelson  and  his  reply,  which  I  insert  below,  shows  that  he  found 
it  correct. 

Terre  Haute,  Indiana,  September  30,  1895. 

His  Excellency  Matias  Romero,  etc.,   Washington,  D.  C.  : 
My  dear  Mr.  Romero  : 

The  receipt  of  your  kind  note  would  have  been  acknowledged  sooner  but  for  my 
absence  from  home. 

During  Mr.  Seward's  visit  to  Mexico  he  often  spoke  of  President  Juarez  in  terms 
of  enthusiastic  praise,  in  private  conversation  and  in  public  speeches.  In  his  speech  at 
the  banquet  in  Puebla  especially  he  paid  a  lofty  and  eloquent  tribute  to  the  ability, 
statesmanship,  and  patriotism  of  the  President,  ranking  him  among  the  most  illustrious 
names  of  the  century.  If  I  can  find  a  copy  it  will  afford  me  pleasure  to  send  it  to  you; 
also  some  allusions  of  mine  in  public  addresses  to  Mr.  Seward's  estimate  of  the  exalted 
character  and  public  services  of  that  truly  great  man. 

With  kind  regards,  I  remain,  como  siempre. 

Very  truly  yours,  Thomas  II.   NELSON. 


362  ibistorical  IHotes  on  ^ejico. 

As  already  stated,  Benito  Juarez  was  appointed  Secretary  of  Justice 
by  President  Alvarez,  and  on  November  23,  1855,  he  issued  the  first 
law  against  the  clergy,  which  deprived  them  of  the  civil  privileges  they 
were  enjoying  in  the  exercise  of  their  religious  functions.  Under  the 
Spanish  rule,  and  also  after  the  independence  of  Mexico  up  to  that 
date,  the  clergy  had  special  courts  made  up  of  clergymen  to  try  them 
for  any  offence  that  they  might  commit.  This  was  a  privilege  which 
insured  them  almost  perfect  immunity,  and  exempted  them  from  the 
control  of  the  civil  laws  of  the  country.  The  Liberals  thought  that 
this  was  an  outrage,  but  they  could  not  change  the  condition  of  things 
until  the  Juarez  law  of  1855,  although  they  had  attempted  it  in  1833. 
The  army  enjoyed  similar  privileges,  of  which  the  Juarez  law  also 
deprived  them,  by  restricting  the  jurisdiction  of  military  courts  to 
military  offences. 

The  Juarez  law  was  succeeded  by  the  Lerdo  law  of  June  25,  1856, 
which  provided  that  no  corporation  —  meaning  the  clergy,  as  the 
Church  was  the  only  corporation  existing  in  Mexico — could  hold  real 
estate,  and  that  such  as  was  held  then  by  any  corporation  should  be 
sold  to  the  actual  tenants  at  a  price  which  was  to  be  arrived  at  by 
capitalizing  the  rent  on  a  basis  of  six  per  cent,  per  annum  rate  of  in- 
terest. Thereafter  the  tenant  was  to  be  the  owner  of  the  property,  the 
corporation  retaining  a  mortgage  equal  to  the  price  fixed  in  this  way. 
These  two  laws  were  the  cause  of  the  two  insurrections  already  referred 
to,  promoted  by  the  Church  and  subdued  by  President  Comonfort. 

Juarez,  after  the  enactment  of  the  law  which  bore  his  name,  had 
for  a  time  been  Governor  of  the  State  of  Oaxaca,  and  while  holding 
that  office  he  had  been  elected  Chief-Justice  of  the  Republic  and  ex- 
officio  Vice-President,  and  was  at  the  time  of  the  Comonfort  rebellion 
acting  as  Secretary  of  the  Interior.  He  became  Comonfort's  succes- 
sor, and  undertook  to  stem  the  tide  of  rebellion  and  reaction.  In  the 
City  of  Mexico  most  of  the  old  regular  army  of  the  country  were  in 
favor  of  the  Conservative  or  Church  party,  and  the  city,  therefore,  fell 
into  the  hands  of  Juarez'  enemies,  and  he  had  to  fly  from  it.  He 
went  to  the  interior,  where  he  established  his  government,  first  at  Quere- 
taro  and  afterwards  at  Guanajuato  and  Guadalajara.  Finally  he  sailed 
from  Manzanillo,  a  Mexican  port  on  the  Pacific,  to  Panama,  thence 
to  New  Orleans,  and  then  back  to  Veracruz,  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
where  he  remained  for  about  two  years.  Veracruz  was  the  stronghold 
of  the  Liberal  party,  as  it  was  naturally  a  strong  place  and  was  well  for- 
tified. It  was  protected  also  by  its  bad  climate  and  prevalence  of  yellow 
fever,  and  was  the  best  place  that  Juarez  could  have  selected  to 
establish  his  government,  and,  being  more  in  contact  with  foreigners, 
its  inhabitants  were  Liberals.  He  remained  at  Veracruz  from  March, 
1858,  to  January,  1861,  the  principal  cities  of  the  country  being  during 


IPbilosopbi^  of  the  /IDejican  IRc volutions.  363 

that  time  in  the  hands  of  the  Church  party.  The  Liberal  armies, 
though  often  defeated,  were  never  destroyed,  for  the  people  were  with 
them,  and  recruits  came  in  abundance.  After  a  defeat,  the  Liberal 
leaders  reorganized  their  armies  and  were  soon  ready  to  meet  the 
enemy  again.  Their  courage  and  persistence  were  finally  rewarded, 
and  they  were  victorious  in  the  decisive  battle  of  Calpulalpan,  on 
December  19,  i860. 

Our  old  regular  army,  with  very  few  exceptions,  sided  with  the 
Church  party,  and  that  prolonged  considerably  the  struggle,  because 
the  Liberals  could  only  oppose  disorganized  and  undisciplined  masses 
to  the  regular  troops  of  the  Church  party  ;  but  after  some  time  they  suc- 
ceeded in  organizing  armies  as  well  disciplined  as  those  of  our  enemies, 
and  in  that  way  the  war  was  brought  to  a  close  in  December,  i860. 

Laivs  of  Refo?-m. — During  the  terrible  struggle  which  we  call  the 
war  of  reform,  Juarez  issued,  from  Veracruz,  on  July  12  and  23,  1859, 
our  reform  laws,  which  had  for  their  object  to  destroy  the  political 
power  that  the  clergy  had  exercised  before.  The  church  property  was 
declared  National  property,  and  was  sold  by  the  Government  to  the 
occupants  of  it  at  a  nominal  price,  payable  partially  in  National  bonds, 
then  selling  at  a  very  low  price,  about  five  per  cent,  of  their  face  value. 
To  prevent  that  in  the  future  the  Church  should  accumulate  the  real 
estate  taken  from  her,  she  was  disqualified  to  own  real  estate.  The 
clergy  were  then  deprived  of  all  political  rights — that  is,  they  were 
disqualified  to  be  elected  for  any  office.  Their  convents,  both  of 
monks  and  nuns,  were  suppressed.  The  number  of  churches  existing 
in  the  country  was  considerably  reduced.  Complete  separation  be- 
tween Church  and  State  was  proclaimed.  A  civil  registry  of  births, 
marriages,  and  deaths  was  established,  taking  from  the  clergy  all  in- 
terference with  such  subjects;  which  had  been  up  to  that  time  under 
their  sole  supervision.  Processions  and  all  other  religious  demonstra- 
tions outside  of  the  church,  as  well  as  the  ringing  of  bells,  were  pro- 
hibited. The  number  of  feast  days,  which  then  amounted  to  nearly 
one  fourth  of  all  the  days  of  the  year,  and  tended  to  keep  the  people 
in  idleness,  were  reduced  to  not  more  than  two  or  three^lor  the  whole 
year.  The  wearing  outside  of  the  church  of  the  priest's  peculiar  habit 
was  prohibited,  and  many  other  stringent  measures  against  the  clergy 
were  adopted,  with  a  view  to  destroy  their  political  power  and  to 
deprive  them  of  the  means  to  bring  about  another  insurrection  against 
the  Government. 

It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  most  of  the  Liberal  leaders  were  lawyers, 
who,  influenced  by  patriotism  and  a  desire  for  the  success  of  the 
Liberal  cause,  and  without  any  military  education,  had  to  lead  our 
armies  during  the  long  civil  wars.  Some  of  them  became  very  dis- 
tinguished soldiers  in  our  war,  as  happened  here  in  the  United  States. 


364  Ibistorical  IRotes  on  /IDejico, 

So  it  can  truly  be  said  that  the  final  success  of  the  Liberal  cause  in 
Mexico  was  due  in  a  great  measure  to  the  jurists  of  the  nation;  so 
much  so,  indeed,  that  they  incurred  the  special  hatred  of  the  Church 
party,  by  whom  the  name  of  "  lawyer  "  was  wont  to  be  used  as  a  con- 
temptuous designation  for  the  Liberal  leaders. 

After  the  battle  of  Calpulalpan,  fought  on  December  19,  i860, 
where  General  Miramon,  the  last  Church  party  President,  was  defeated, 
Juarez  left  Veracruz  and  established  his  government  at  the  City  of  Mex- 
ico. He  then  convened  Congress,  ordered  an  election,  and  in  1861  he 
was  elected  President  for  the  first  Constitutional  term.  The  reform 
laws  became  operative  when  Juarez  occupied  the  City  of  Mexico,  and 
his  rule  was  extended  over  the  country. 

The  Church  party  did  not  give  up  the  struggle,  but  began  again 
with  renewed  vigor  to  start  a  new  insurrection  in  1861,  directed  espec- 
ially against  the  execution  of  the  reform  laws.  Although  this  insurrec- 
tion was  not  of  a  serious  character,  and  the  insurgents  could  not 
capture  any  important  places  or  defeat  the  Government  troops,  they 
did  succeed  in  keeping  up  an  unsettled  condition  of  things  throughout 
the  whole  country,  involving  great  insecurity  to  life  and  property. 

French  Intervention  in  Mexico  and  Maxiinilian' s  Rule. — When  the 
Church  party  became  satisfied  that  the  Liberal  party  had  grown  so 
much  that  they  had  not  strength  enough  at  home  to  overcome  it,  they 
went  to  Europe  and  continued  their  intrigues  with  European  courts  to 
secure  foreign  intervention  in  Mexico.  Unfortunately,  about  that  time 
the  civil  war  broke  out  in  the  United  States  and  insured  the  success  of 
the  Mexican  Church  leaders  in  obtaining  European  intervention,  as  the 
French  Emperor  was  apparently  quite  certain  of  the  success  of  the  Con- 
federacy, and  was  very  well  disposed  to  avail  himself  of  the  opportunity 
offered  by  the  Mexican  Church  party  of  gaining  a  foothold  in  Mexico 
and  effectually  aiding  in  the  permanent  division  of  the  United  States. 
He  had,  besides,  a  dream  of  establishing  a  French  empire  in  America, 
bordering  on  the  Pacific.  Under  his  influence  an  alliance  was  made 
A  f  between  France,  England,  and  Spain,  by  a  treaty  signed  at  London 
•Z  \  *'  •  on  Octoberj,  1861,  and  Maximilian  was  persuaded  to  come  to  Mexico. 
England  and  Spain  withdrew  before  the  war  actually  began,  and 
Napoleon's  first  army,  under  General  Lorencez,  was  defeated  at 
Puebla  on  May  5,  1862;  but,  after  being  considerably  reinforced,  the 
French  army,  under  Marshal  Forey,  succeeded  in  occupying  both 
Puebla  and  the  City  of  Mexico  in  1S63,  and  so  began  the  French  inter- 
vention. The  details  of  that  intervention  are  quite  familiar  in  this 
country,  and  therefore  it  is  not  necessary  to  say  anything  more  about 
it  here. 

When  peace  was  restored  in  the  United  States  after  the  collapse  of 
the  Confederacy,  Louis  Napoleon  of  course  understood  that  he  could 


V 


IPbtlosopbg  of  tbe  /IDejican  IRevolutions.  365 

not  continue  for  an  indefinite  period  his  occupation  of  Mexico,  and 
that  he  had  to  give  up  his  Mexican  plans  and  withdraw  his  army  from 
the  country.  We  could  by  our  own  efforts  and  without  any  foreign  aid 
have  finally  driven  the  French  from  our  country,  but  it  would  have 
taken  us  some  time  longer,  as  Napoleon  could  have  kept  his  army  in 
Mexico  for  one  or  perhaps  two  years  longer;  through  the  assistance  of 
the  United  States  it  was  withdrawn  that  much  sooner,  which  was  a 
great  service  to  Mexico.'  Maximilian  well  knew,  also,  that  he  could 
not  remain  in  Mexico  after  the  withdrawal  of  the  French,  and  he  de- 
cided to  leave  the  country  as  soon  as  he  heard  that  the  French  army 
was  to  be  withdrawn,  and  was  satisfied  that  his  wife's  mission  to  Europe 
(where  she  was  overtaken  by  a  dreadful  calamity/  to  obtain  a  revoca- 
tion of  the  order  of  withdrawal  was  fruitless;  but,  unfortunately,  he 
was  a  dreamer,  without  force  of  character,  and  he  was  not  a  man  equal 
to  the  occasion.  He  was  not  steady  in  his  resolutions,  and  he  was 
easily  persuaded  by  the  leaders  of  the  Church  party  to  return  to  the 
City  of  Mexico  after  he  had  already  started  on  his  homeward  journey, 
and  had  gone  in  October,  1866,  as  far  as  Orizaba,  two  thirds  of  the 
way  between  the  City  of  Mexico  and  Veracruz,  where  the  JVovara,  the 
same  Austrian  man-of-war  which  had  brought  him  to  Mexico  in  1864, 
lay  ready  to  take  him  back  to  his  native  country,  having  been  sent  over 
at  his  request  by  the  Emperor  of  Austria,  and  after  he  knew  of  the 
failure  of  his  wife's  mission  to  Europe  to  induce  Napoleon  III.  to  keep 
his  army  in  Mexico.  Early  in  February,  1867,  Maximilian  left  the 
City  of  Mexico  and  went  to  Queretaro,  where  he  was  finally  captured, 
tried,  and  shot  on  the  19th  of  the  following  June. 

The  fate  of  Maximilian  was  indeed  a  very  sad  one,  but  when  it  is 
considered  that  on  October  2,  i86fc,^  a  few  months  only  before  his 
execution,  he  had  issued  a  decree  ordering  all  Mexicans  fighting  for 
the  independence  of  their  country  to  be  shot  without  any  trial  or  other 
formality,  and  that  had  he  lived  he  would  have  been  a  permanent 
centre  of  conspiracies  of  the  monarchical  party  to  overthrow  the  Re- 
public in  Mexico  and  restore  the  empire,  it  will  be  seen  that  his  death 
might  be  considered  as  a  political  necessity.  Besides,  Maximilian's  par- 
don would  not  have  been  considered  in  Europe  as  an  act  of  generosity 
on  the  part  of  Mexico,  but  as  a  proof  of  weakness,  and  thus  it  might 
have  encouraged  the  repetition  of  the  experiment  which  ended  his  life, 
and  it  was  thought  necessary  to  give  a  lesson  which  would  serve  the 
purpose  of  discouraging,  and  thus  preventing  all  such  experiments  in 
the  future.     The  sadness  of  the  tragedy  was  considerably  increased  by 

'  In  the  Century  Illustrated  Monthly  Magazine  for  May,  1897,  I  published  an 
article  entitled,  "  The  Fall  of  the  Second  Empire,  as  related  to  French  Intervention  in 
Mexico,"  which,  in  my  opinion,  shows  that  the  French  intervention  was  the  primary 
cause  of  Napoleon's  downfall. 


366  Ibistovical  IRotes  on  /IDcEico. 

the  unhappy  fate  of  his  wife.'  It  has  been  intimated  sometimes  that  I 
had  an  important  share  in  Maximilian's  execution,  but  I  had  noth- 
ing whatever  to  do  with  it. 

Restoration  of  the  Republic. — In  July  1867,  the  Juarez  Govern- 
ment was  again  established  at  the  City  of  Mexico,  and  another  popular 
election  took  place,  in  which  Juarez  was  almost  unanimously  elected 
by  the  people  for  another  term,  from  1867  to  1871. 

The  patriotism  and  firmness  of  Juarez  were  remarkable.  There  was 
a  time  during  the  P'rench  intervention  in  which  many  seemed  to  despair 
of  the  fate  of  Mexico,  and  that  feeling  was  not  entirely  unreasonable, 

'  Mme.  Del  Barrio,  who  was  with  Archduchess  Carlotta  in  Mexico,  and  who  jour- 
neyed with  her  to  France,  when  she  went  to  solicit  the  aid  of  Napoleon  III.,  in  the 
hope  that  the  French  emperor  would  assist  Maximilian  in  the  great  task  of  crushing  the 
Mexican  patriots,  gave  in  a  letter  the  following  details  of  the  calamity  which  over- 
took her  young  friend:  "  Her  majesty  was  in  a  state  of  great  nervous  excitement 
bordering  on  insanity  even  before  we  neared  the  coast  of  France  in  that  unhappy  sum- 
mer of  1866.  It  is  generally  assumed  that  her  mental  malady  first  asserted  itself  during 
her  interview  with  the  Pope,  October  4th  of  that  year.  The  fact  is  that  her  majesty 
became  a  raving  maniac  in  the  castle  of  St.  Cloud. 

"  These  are  the  circumstances  :  When  our  steamer  landed  at  Brest  there  was  no- 
body to  offer  a  royal  welcome,  or  any  kind  of  welcome.  Neither  the  French  govern- 
ment nor  the  Belgian  embassy  was  represented.  The  same  happened  upon  our  arrival 
in  Paris.  The  empress  trembled  from  head  to  foot  as  she  stepped  into  the  hired  coach 
that  brought  us  to  our  hotel. 

"  The  day  passed  without  a  word  from  Emperor  Napoleon,  On  the  second  day 
the  Empress  Eugenie's  chamberlain  came  to  invite  her  majesty  to  breakfast  at  St. 
Cloud.  She  refused  the  invitation,  but  said  she  would  come  to  St.  Cloud  the  following 
afternoon.  At  the  castle  my  mistress  and  their  majesties  of  France  were  closeted  for 
an  hour  longer,  I  remaining  in  the  anteroom. 

"  Suddenly  I  heard  the  Empress  Carlotta  cry  out  in  agonized  tones,  which  were 
full  of  contempt  at  the  same  time,  '  Indeed  I  should  have  known  who  you  are  and  who 
I  am.  I  should  not  have  dishonored  the  blood  of  the  Bourbons  in  my  veins  by  hum- 
bling myself  before  a  Bonaparte,  who  is  nothing  but  an  adventurer.' 

"  A  second  later  I  heard  a  sound  as  if  a  heavy  body  had  struck  the  floor.  I  ran 
to  the  door,  which  was  locked,  but  after  a  little  while  the  Emperor  Napoleon  came 
out  with  a  troubled  face.  On  entering,  I  found  my  mistress  on  a  lounge,  and  kneeling 
by  her  side  the  Empress  Eugenie,  who  was  rubbing  her  hands  and  feet.  She  had 
opened  her  corsets,  had  pulled  off  her  stockings,  and,  in  short,  done  everything  to 
arouse  her  from  the  fainting  spell. 

"  The  emperor's  statement  that  he  could  do  nothing  for  his  majesty  of  Mexico  had 
brought  on  this  trouble,  said  Eugenie.  Then  she  got  up  to  get  a  glass  of  water,  but, 
as  she  held  it  to  my  mistress'  lips,  the  Empress  Carlotta  awoke  and  threw  the  water 
over  her  friend's  dress,  crying:  '  Away,  cursed  murderer  ;  away  with  your  poison  !' 
and  then,  falling  on  my  neck,  she  added  :  '  You  are  witness  to  this  plot.  They  want 
to  poison  me.     For  God's  sake  do  not  leave  me  ! '  " 

After  that  she  had  lucid  intervals  for  some  time,  but  she  collapsed  again  during 
the  historic  interview  with  Pope  Pius  IX.  and  it  was  this  scene  at  the  Vatican  which 
first  attracted  the  attention  of  Europe  to  the  mental  irresponsibility  of  the  unfortunate 
Carlotta. 


pbilosopbi?  of  tbe  /IDejican  IRevolutions.  367 

considering  that  the  country  was  invaded  by  a  very  large  French  army 
— some  60,000  or  80,000  men,  I  think.  Besides,  Napoleon  and  Maxi- 
milian had  contrived  to  obtain  an  Austrian  auxiliary  corps,  a  corps 
from  Hungary,  and  another  from  Belgium — Princess  Carlotta,  Maxi- 
milian's wife,  was  a  daughter  of  the  former  King  of  Belgium  and  a 
sister  of  the  present  King — and  Maximilian  had  also  a  contingent  from 
the  French  colony  of  Algiers,  and  the  command  of  the  troops  of  the 
Church  party,  which  were  on  his  side,  and  which  embraced  most  of  our 
old  regular  army,  and,  finally,  he  had  all  the  aristocratic  element  of 
Mexico  in  his  favor.  Altogether  the  array  was  so  great  that  it  was  no 
wonder  that  many  of  our  public  men  had  at  times  little  hope  of  success. 
But  Juarez  never  despaired  for  a  moment.  He  was  perfectly  certain  of 
final  success,  and  was  ready  to  sacrifice  his  life  for  his  country's  cause. 

Diaz  s  Leadership. — General  Diaz  was  born  in  the  city  of  Oaxaca, 
on  September  15,  1830,  of  an  humble  but  good  family,  having  a  small 
portion  of  Mixteco-Indian  blood  in  his  veins,  of  which  he  is  very 
proud.  He  followed  a  literary  career,  and  was  near  being  graduated 
as  a  lawyer  when  he  joined,  in  1854,  the  Ayutla  Revolution  against 
Santa  Ana,  having  followed  since  then  a  military  career,  for  which  he 
was  especially  fitted,  and  in  which  he  soon  achieved  great  distinction. 
From  1857  to  i860  he  fought  in  the  Tehuantepec  District,  under  the 
most  difficult  and  perilous  circumstances,  and  holding  his  own  in  a 
very  creditable  campaign. 

General  Diaz  began  to  take  a  very  prominent  part  in  the  military 
affairs  of  Mexico  during  the  war  of  reform  and  the  war  against  the 
French  intervention,  having  had  an  important  command  at  the  battle 
of  May  5,  1862,  and  at  the  siege  of  Puebla  in  April  and  May,  1863. 

During  the  war  of  intervention,  the  Mexican  government  divided 
the  country  into  four  military  Departments,the  eastern,  western,  north- 
ern, and  southern,  and  General  Diaz  was  given  the  command  of  the 
eastern  Department,  embracing  the  States  of  Oaxaca,  Veracruz,  Pueb- 
la, and  others.  In  1865  he  defended  the  City  of  Oaxaca  against  the 
French,  and  General  Bazaine  had  to  take  the  field  in  person  with  a 
very  large  French  force  before  he  could  capture  that  city.  General 
Diaz  was  made  prisoner  and  brought  to  Puebla,  from  where  he  escaped 
and  went  south,  where  he  organized  a  new  army  with  which  he  began 
operations  against  the  French  intervention.  He  defeated  the  Im- 
perialists, who  had  been  joined  by  a  portion  of  the  Austrian  mili- 
tary contingent,  at  Carbonera  on  October  18,  1S66,  having  previously 
obtained  a  great  victory  at  Miahuatlan  on  the  3d  of  the  same  month, 
and  afterwards  captured  successively  the  cities  of  Oaxaca,  Puebla,  and 
Mexico.  After  the  restoration  of  the  Republic  he  began  to  take  a  very 
prominent  part  in  public  affairs,  and  since  1877  his  leadership  has 
been  undisputed. 


368  Ibistorical  IRotes  on  /IDejico. 

Ci'vi/  Wars  from  1 868  to  1873. — ^^^  ^  country  where  civil  war  and 
the  disturbances  consequent  to  it  had  lasted  for  so  long  a  time  it  was 
natural  that  everything  should  be  demoralized,  and  thus  even  after  our 
complete  success  against  the  French  intervention  and  the  so-called 
Empire  of  Maximilian,  some  uprisings  took  place,  which  were  headed 
by  dissatisfied  Liberal  leaders;  and  although  they  were  not  of  a  serious 
nature,  and  were  easily  subdued  by  President  Juarez,  they  kept  the 
country  in  an  unsettled  condition,  and  contributed  to  support  the 
opinion  that  we  were  unable  to  maintain  peace. 

The  principal  of  these  insurrections,  that  of  La  Noria,  was  headed 
by  General  Porfirio  Diaz  and  other  prominent  members  of  the  Liberal 
party,  who  were  not  satisfied  with  the  policy  of  President  Juarez,  and 
who  opposed  his  re-election  in  187 1,  and  proclaimed  the  principles  of 
no  re-election  and  a  free  ballot.  His  death  on  July  18,  1872,  put  an 
end  to  that  insurrection,  and  the  leaders  submitted  to  the  provisional 
government  of  Senor  Don  Sebastian  Lerdo  de  Tejada,  who,  as  Chief 
Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court,  was  the  ex-officio  President.  A  popu- 
lar election  took  place  in  1872,  and  Senor  Lerdo  de  Tejada  was 
elected  Constitutional  President.  In  the  year  1876  he  was  a  candidate 
for  re-election,  and  that  brought  about  the  revolution  of  Tuxtepec, 
promoted  by  prominent  leaders  of  the  Liberal  party,  who  again  pro- 
claimed the  anti-election  and  free  ballot  principles,  under  the  leadership 
of  General  Diaz,  who  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  that  revolution. 
The  battle  of  Tecoac,  fought  on  November  16,  1876,  decided  the  suc- 
cess of  the  Tuxtepec  revolution,  and  General  Diaz  was  installed  as 
Chief  Executive  with  full  legislative  powers.  In  April,  1877,  he  was 
elected  Constitutional  President,  and  since  then  he  has  been  at  the 
head  of  the  Executive  Department,  excepting  a  four-years  term,  from 
1880  to  1884,  when  General  Don  Manuel  Gonzalez  occupied  the  Ex- 
ecutive office.  The  great  progress  which  has  taken  place  in  Mexico  in 
recent  years  is  mainly  due  to  the  wise  policy  and  earnest  efforts  of 
General  Diaz.  Among  the  many  distinguished  services  that  General 
Diaz  has  rendered  to  Mexico,  perhaps  the  principal  one  is  to  have 
restored  complete  peace  to  the  country.  During  the  several  terms  in 
which  he  has  filled  the  executive  office  he  has  earnestly  encouraged 
the  material  development  of  the  country,  and  firmly  established  peace 
and  order.  Material  development  always  furnishes  the  best  security 
that  public  peace  will  be  maintained.  It  would  be  impossible,  in  the 
limited  space  at  my  command,  to  attempt,  even,  to  give  a  superficial 
idea  of  the  great  services  that  General  Diaz  has  rendered  to  Mexico, 
but  as  they  are  of  recent  date  they  are  well  known  by  all  cotempo- 
raries  taking  any  interest  in  Mexican  affairs. 

It  has  sometimes  been  stated  that  Mexico  is  ruled  by  an  oligarchy, 
and  if  by  this  it  is  meant  that  the  nation  is  divided  into  classes,  and 


IPbilosopb^  of  tbe  /ll>esicau  IRevoIutions.  369 

that  one  of  these  classes  is  the  ruling  power,  then  the  statement  may  be 
taken  as  correct,  as  Mexico  is  ruled  by  her  educated  class;  but  if  by 
it  it  is  meant  that  a  few  families  have  the  ruling  power  by  inheritance  and 
do  not  allow  others  to  share  it,  then  it  is  altogether  incorrect,  as  the 
humblest  citizen  in  Mexico,  belonging  to  any  race  whatsoever,  even 
the  pure  Indian,  can  hold  the  highest  position  in  the  land,  if  his  talents, 
his  services,  and  his  character  entitle  him  to  it.  A  case  in  point  is 
that  of  Juarez,  who  was  by  birth  an  humble  Indian,  and,  after  being 
educated,  became  the  foremost  man  in  the  country. 

Disappearance  of  the  Causes  of  Civil  War. — It  will  be  readily  seen 
from  this  brief  synopsis  that  the  causes  which  brought  about  the  civil 
wars  in  Mexico  no  longer  exist.  Ours  was  a  contest  for  supremacy  be- 
tween the  vital  forces  of  the  nation,  between  the  old  and  the  new  ideas, 
which  in  other  countries  it  has  taken  many  years,  and  even  centuries, 
to  settle;  but  now  our  political  problem  is  solved,  the  Church  party  is 
completely  broken  up  as  a  political  organization,  and  cannot  cause 
again  any  serious  disturbance,  and  the  elements  of  civil  war  are  now 
lacking. 

The  conditions  in  Mexico  during  the  Spanish  rule  and  even  after  the 
independence,  and  more  or  less  up  to  the  issue  of  our  reform  laws  in 
1859,  were  very  similar  to  those  existing  in  European  countries  during 
the  feudal  system.  The  clergy  and  their  agents  and  followers  were,  in 
fact,  the  Mexican  feudal  barons,  and  their  power  and  influence  in  the 
country  were  as  great  as  those  of  the  European  barons,  as  they  not  only 
monopolized  the  wealth  and  education  of  the  country,  but  also  exer- 
cised great  spiritual  or  religious  influence  upon  the  minds  of  the 
people.  The  position  of  the  Mexican  barons  was  perhaps  even 
stronger,  because,  instead  of  being  at  cross  purposes  with  the  king  or 
ruling  power,  as  the  European  barons  often  were,  they  had  a  kind  of 
alliance  with  the  temporal  power,  by  which  each  agreed  to  support  and 
protect  the  other.  When  it  is  considered  how  long  it  took  the  kings  of 
Europe  to  subdue  the  barons,  how  many  efforts  the  people  had  to  make 
to  accomplish  that  end,  and  what  protracted  and  bloody  wars  had  to 
be  fought  before  it  was  accomplished,  which  was  not  wholly  until  the 
French  Revolution,  it  is  rather  a  matter  of  surprise  that  Mexico  and  the 
other  Spanish  American  countries  similarly  situated  should  have  de- 
stroyed their  feudalism  in  comparatively  so  short  a  time. 

Mexico  for  nearly  twenty  years  has  been  free  from  political  disturb- 
ances and  enjoying  all  the  advantages  of  a  permanent  peace.  Those 
who  took  part  in  former  revolutions  have  either  died  off,  disappeared, 
or  are  now  interested  in  the  maintenance  of  peace,  because  they  are 
thriving  in  consequence  of  the  development  of  the  country.  Even  in 
case  President  Diaz's  guidance  should  fail  Mexico,  I  am  sure  peace 

would  still  be  preserved,  because  there  are  very  strong  reasons  in  its;, 

24 


37°  Ibistorical  IRotes  on  /[Dejico. 

favor.  Railways  and  telegraphs  are  great  preservers  of  peace.  In 
case  of  an  insurrection  it  was  not  long  ago  that  it  took  months  before 
the  Government  could  reach  the  insurgents,  and  in  the  meantime  they 
could  organize  and  fortify  themselves  and  make  considerable  headway 
before  they  were  confronted  by  an  enemy.  Now  the  Government  can 
send  troops  at  once  to  quell  an  insurrection. 

Peace  in  Mexico  is  as  assured  as  it  is  in  any  other  country,  and  life 
and  property  are  as  safe  there  as  anywhere  else.  Public  opinion 
seems  to  share  this  view,  and  capital,  especially  foreign  capital,  which 
is  so  conservative  and  timid,  is  now  being  freely  invested  in  Mexican 
enterprises. 

Conchision. — I  intend  to  show  that  the  Mexican  revolutions  have 
not  been,  as  many  have  believed,  the  result  of  the  turbulent  character 
of  the  Mexican  people  and  of  their  incapacity  for  self-government,  but 
the  necessary  consequence  of  sociological  laws,  which,  operating  in  a 
community  with  opposing  interests  and  tendencies,  produced  in  Mexico 
— as  they  have  produced  in  almost  every  country  under  similar  circum- 
stances— serious  crises  which  have  been  the  necessary  conditions  and 
the  preliminary  steps  toward  the  final  political  organization  of  the 
country.  In  fact,  to  judge  Mexico,  which  is  a  young  country,  by  the 
standard  of  older  ones,  like  the  English  nation,  for  instance,  which 
several  centuries  ago  passed  through  similar  crises,  would  not  be 
reasonable.  Several  centuries  passed  before  the  Magna  Charta  could 
become  operative  in  England.  During  her  reign.  Parliament  yielded 
the  most  abject  submission  to  the  arrogant  despotism  of  Queen  Eliza- 
beth, and  later  to  the  strong  will  of  Cromwell;  and  Protestant  intoler- 
ance there  showed  itself  no  less  fierce  than  Catholic  intolerance  did  in 
Spain  under  Philip  II.,  and  yet  England  has  passed  through  crises 
similar  to  those  of  Mexico,  until  finally  she  has  reached  a  normal  con- 
dition of  things,  and  is  now  perhaps  the  country  where  more  real  free- 
dom is  enjoyed,  and  where  life  and  property  are  best  protected  in  the 
world.  To  judge  Mexico,  which  has  been  struggling  to  attain  that 
condition  after  many  years  of  war  and  disturbances,  by  the  standard  of 
England  in  her  present  condition,  or  of  any  other  equally  old  country, 
would  be  unphilosophical  and  unjust. 

RULERS   OF    MEXICO    FROM    THE    MOST    REMOTE    PERIOD    UP    TO    THE 

PRESENT    TIME. 

First  Period. 

Before  the  Conquest  j  Kingdom  of  Tula  (  Tollari). 

The  Toltecs  were  117  years  making  their  journey  from  Huehuet- 
lapallan  to  Tollan. 


Ipbilosopbs  ot  tbe  /IDcjican  TRevolutions.         371 

The  Toltec  monarchy  lasted  449  years — from  667  a.d.  to  11 16  a.d., 
and  the  successive  sovereigns  who  reigned  during  that  period  were  : 
Chalchinhtlatonac,  founder  of  the  dynasty  ;  Izacatecatl,  Huetzin, 
Totepeuh,  Nacaxoc,  Mitl,  Queen  Xiuhtlaltzin,  Tecpancaltzin,  and 
Topiltzin. 

During  the  reign  of  the  last  king  the  destruction  of  the  kingdom 
took  place  (11 16),  and  the  Toltecs  were  no  longer  a  nation. 

Kingdom  of  the  Chichimecans  {afterivards  of  Acolhtcacaii). 

The  Chichimecans  made  their  appearance  in  the  plateau  of  Anahuac 
in  the  year  11 17  a.d.  Their  capital  was  at  first  Tenayuca,  then  it  was 
Texcoco. 

Their  kings  reigned  as  follows  : 

Year. 

1.  Xolotl,  the  Great 1 1 20 

2.  Nopaltzin 1232 

3.  Tlotzin — Pochotl 1263 

4.  Quinantzin 1298 

5.  Techotlata ^357 

6.  Ixthlxochitl 1409 

7.  Tezozomoc  (usurper) 1418 

8.  Maxtlaton  (usurper) 1427 

9.  Nezahuealcoyotl  (legal  ruler) 1431 

10.  Nezahualpilli 1472 

11.  Cacamatzin 1516 

12.  Cuicuitzcatzin 1520 

13.  Coanacotzin 1521 

14.  Ixthlxochitl , 1521 

The  kingdom  of  Texcoco,  or  Acolhuacan,  ended  with  this  sovereign, 
who  was  the  most  faithful  ally  of  Cortez. 

Aztec  Kingdom. 

The  Aztecs  settled  in  Anahuac  in  1243  a.d.,  and  after  many  years 
of  servitude  succeeded  in  establishing  the  City  of  Tenochtitlan  in  1325. 
Before  they  established  this  city  their  leaders  had  been  Huitzilihuitl 
and  Xiuhtemoc, 

Then  their  kings  succeeded  each  other  as  follows  : 

Year. 

1.  Acamapichtly  ascended  the  throne  in 1376 

2.  Huitzilihuitl 1396 

3.  Chimalpopoca 1417 

4.  Itzcoatl 1425 


372  Ibistorical  IRotes  on  ^cjico. 

Year. 

5.  Motecutzoma  I,  (Ilhuicanina) 1440 

6.  Axayacatl 1469 

7.  Tizoc 1481 

8.  Ahuitzotl i486 

9.  Motecutzoma  II.  (Xocoyotzin) 1502 

10.  Cuitlahuatl 1520 

11.  Cuauhtemoc 1520     ^^ 

By  the  taking  of  the  capital  by  the  Spaniards  in  1521  and  the  exe- 
cution of  Cuauhtemoc  in  1525,  the  kingdom  of  the  Aztecs  or  Mexicans 
terminated. 

Second  Perioa. 
From  the  Conquest  until  the  End  of  the  War  of  Independence. 

1.  Hernando  Cortez,  Governor  and  Captain-General 1521 

2.  Luis  Ponce,  Governor 1526 

3.  Marcos  de  Aguilar,  Governor 1526 

4.  Alonso  de  Estrada  and  Gonzalo  de  Sandoval,  Governors.. . .  1527 

5.  Alonso  de  Estrada,  Governor 1527 

i  Nuno  de  Guzman,       \ 

6.  \  Juan  Ortiz  Matienzo,  \  First  Council 152 

(  Diego  Delgadillo,         ) 
'Sebastian  Ramirez  de  Fuenleal. 

Vasco  de  Quiroga, 

7.  \  Alonso  Maldonado, 

Francisco  Ceinos, 
Juan  de  Salmeron, 


y  Second  Council 1531 


: 


During  the  Reign  of  Charles  V. 

1.  Antonio  de  Mendoza 1535 

2.  Luis  de  Velasco ^55° 

During  the  Reign  of  Philip  II. 

3.  Gaston  de  Peralta,  Marquis  of  Falces 1566 

4.  Martin  Enriquez  de  Almanza 1568 

5.  Lorenzo  de  Mendoza,  Count  of  Coruna 1580 

6.  Pedro  Moya  de  Contreras,  Archbishop  of  Mexico 1584 

7.  Alonso  Manrique  de  Zuniga,  Marquis  of  Villa  Manrique  .  . .  1585 

8.  Luis  de  Velasco,  the  second 1590 

9.  Caspar  de  Zuniga  y  Acevedo,  Count  of  Monterrey 1595 


pbilosopb^  of  tbe  /Rejican  IRevoIutfons.  373 

During  the  Reign  of  Philip  III. 

Year. 

10.  Juan  de  Mendoza  y  Luna,  Marquis  of  Monies  Claros 1603 

1 1.  Luis  de  Velasco,  the  second,  for  the  second  time 1607 

12.  Francisco  Garcia  Guerra,  Archbishop  of  Mexico 161 1 

13.  Diego  Fernandez  de  Cordoba,  Marquis  of  Guadalcazar 161 2 

During  the  Reign  of  Philip  IV. 

14.  Diego  Carrillo  Mendoza,  Marquis  of  Gelves ,,,.  1621 

15.  Rodrigo  Pacheco  Osorio,  Marquis  of  Cerralvo 1624 

16.  Lope  Diaz  de  Armendariz,  Marquis  of  Cadereita 1635 

17.  Diego  Lopez  Pacheco,  Duke  of  Escalona 1640 

18.  Juan  de  Palafox  y  Mendoza,  Archbishop  of  Mexico 1642 

|i    19.  Garcia  Sarmiento  de  Sotomayor,  Count  of  Salvatierra 1642 

20.  Marcos  Torres  y  Rueda,  Bishop  of  Yucatan 1648 

21.  Luis  Enriquez  de  Guzman,  Count  of  Alba  de  Liste 1650 

22.  Francisco  Fernandez  de  la  Cueva,  Duke  of  Alburquerque. . .  1653 

23.  Juan  de  Leiva  y  de  la  Cerda,  Marquis  of  Leiva 1660 

24.  Diego  Osorio  de  Escobar,  Bishop  of  Puebla 1664 

25.  Antonio  Sebastian  de  Toledo,  Marquis  of  Mancera 1664 

During  the  Reigti  of  Charles  II. 

26.  Pedro  Nuno  de  Colon,  Duke  of  Veragua 1673 

27.  Francisco  Payo  de  Rivera  Enriquez,  Archbishop  of  Mexico.  1673 

28.  Tomas  Antonio  de  la  Cerda,  Marquis  of  Laguna 1680 

29.  Melchor  Portocarrero,  Count  of  Monclova 1686 

30.  Caspar  de  la  Cerda  Sandoval,  Count  of  Galvez 1688 

31.  Juan  de  Ortega  Montanez,  Bishop  of  Michoacan 1696 

32.  ]os6  Sarmiento  Valladares,  Count  of  Montezuma 1696 

During  the  Reign  of  Philip  V. 

^"if  Juan  de  Ortega  Montanez,  the  second  time 1701 

34.  Francisco  Fernandez  de  la  Cueva,  Duke  of  Albuquerque 1702 

35.  Fernando  de  Alencastre,  Duke  of  Linares 1711 

36.  Baltazar  de  Zuniga,  Marquis  of  Valero 17 16 

37.  Juan  de  Acufia,  Marquis  of  Casafuerte 1722 

^  38,  Juan  Antonio  Vizarron,  Archbishop  of  Mexico 1734 

39.  Pedro  de  Castro  y  Figueroa,  Duke  of  Conquista   1740 

40.  Pedro  Cebrian  y  Agustin,  Count  of  Fuenclara 1742 

During  the  Reign  of  Ferdinand  VI 

41.  Juan  F.  de  Giiemes  y  Horcasitas,  Count  of  Revillagigedo. . .  1746 

42.  Agustin  Ahumada  y  Villalon,  Marquis  of  Amarillas 1755 


374  fjistorical  IRotes  on  /IDejico* 

Duritig  the  Reign  of  Charles  III. 

Year. 

43.  Francisco  Cajigal  de  la  Vega 1760 

44.  Joaquin  de  Monserrat,  Marquis  of  Cruillas 1760 

45.  Carlos  Francisco  de  Croix,  Marquis  of  Croix 1766 

46.  Antonio  Maria  de  Bucareli 1771 

47.  Martin  de  Mayorga 1779 

48.  Matias  de  Galvez,  Lieutenant-General 1783 

49.  Bernardo  de  Galvez,  Count  of  Galvez 1785 

50.  Alonso  Nunez  de  Haro,  Archbishop  of  Mexico 1787 

51.  Manuel  Antonio  Flores 1787 

During  the  Reign  of  Charles  IV. 

52.  Juan  Vicente  Guemes  Pacheco,  Count  of  Revillagigedo 1789 

53.  Miguel  de  la  Grua  Salamanca,  Marquis  of  Branceforte.    ...  1794 

54.  Miguel  Jose  de  Azanza 1798 

55.  Felix  Berenguer  de  Marquina 1800 

56.  Jose  de  Iturrigaray 1 803 

57.  Pedro  Garibay,  Field-Marshal 1808 

During  the  Reign  of  Ferdi?iand  VII. 

58.  Francisco  Javier  de  Lizana,  Archbishop  of  Mexico 1809 

59.  Francisco  Javier  Venegas,  Lieutenant-General 1810 

60.  Felix  Calleja  del  Rey,  Lieutenant-General 1813 

61.  Juan  Ruiz  de  Apodaca,  Lieutenant-General 1816 

62.  Juan  O'Donojd 1821 

Third  Period. 
After  the  Independence —  The  Regency. 


>■ 1821 


'Agustin  de  Iturbide,  President,^ 
Juan  O'Donojii, 

1.  ^  Manuel  de  la  Barcena, 

Jose  Isidro  Yanez, 
.Manuel  Velazquez  de  Leon, 
Agustin  de  Iturbide,  President,*^ 
Count  of  Casa  de  Heras, 

2.  ^  General  Nicolas  Bravo, 

Jose  Isidro  Yanez, 
Doctor  Valentin, 

Einpire. 

3.  Agustin  I.  (Iturbide),  from  May  19,  1822,  to  end  of  March. .    1823 


I»22 


4-    i 


IPbilosopbs  ot  tbe  /iDejican  IRevolutions* 


Provisional  Government. — Executive  Power. 


General  Nicolas  Bravo, 

General  Guadalupe  Victoria, 

General  Pedro  C.  Negrete, 

General  Vicente  Guerrero  (alternate), 

General  Mariano  Michelena  (alternate), 

Miguel  Dominguez  (alternate). 


375 


Year. 


1823 


811 


t 


Federal  Republic — Presidents. 

5.  General  Guadalupe  Victoria 1824 

6.  General  Vicente  Guerrero 1 829 

7.  Jose  Maria  Bocanegra 1829 

(  Pedro  Velez,  \ 

8.  ■<  General  Luis  Quintanar,  >  Triumvirate 1829 

(  Lucas  Alaman,  ) 

9.  General  Anastasio  Bustamante 1830 

10.  General  Melchor  Muzquiz,  ad  interim 1832 

11.  General  Manuel  Gomez  Pedraza 1832 

12.  Valentin  Gomez  Farias,  Vice-President 1833 

13.  General  Antonio  Lopez  de  Santa  Ana 1833 

Central  Republic. 

14.  General  Antonio  Lopez  de  Santa  Ana 1835 

15.  General  Miguel  Barragan,  ad  interim 1835 

16.  Jose  Justo  Corro,  ad  interim 1835 

17.  General  Anastasio  Bustamante 1837 

18.  General  Antonio  Lopez  de  Santa  Ana,  ad  interim 1839 

19.  Javier  Echevarria,  ad  interim 1841 

20.  General    Antonio    Lopez    de    Santa    Ana,    as    Provisional 

President 1841 

21.  General  Nicolas  Bravo  and  General  Valentin  Canalizo,  as  act- 

ing Presidents  in  place  of  Santa  Ana  from  1841  to 1843 


Federal  Republic. 
22.  General  Jose  Joaquin  Herrera , 


1844 


.  Cefitral  Republic. 

23.  General  Mariano  Paredes  y  Arrillaga 1846 

I       54.  General  Nicolas  Bravo,  ad  interim 1846 


376  HDistorical  Botes  on  /iDcsico. 

Federal  Republic. 

Year. 

25.  General  Jose  Mariano  Salas,  as  Provisional  President 1846 

26.  General  Antonio  Lopez  de  Santa  Ana 1846 

27.  Valentin  Gomez  Farias,  Vice-President 1846 

28.  General  Antonio  Lopez  de  Santa- Anna 1847 

29.  General  Pedro  Maria  Anaya,  as  substitute 1847 

30.  General  Antonio  Lopez  de  Santa  Ana 1 847 

31.  Manuel  de  la  Pena  y  Pena,  as  substitute 1847 

32.  General  Pedro  Maria  Anaya,  second  time  as  substitute 1847 

■if2i.  Manuel  de  la  Pena  y  Pena,  second  time  as  substitute 1848 

34.  General  Jose  Joaquin  de  Herrera 1848 

35.  General  Mariano  Arista 185 1 

36.  Juan  Bautista  Ceballos,  ad  interim 1853 

Central  Republic. — Dictatorship.  ^ 

37.  General  Manuel  Maria  Lombardini,  President  ad  interifn. . . .    1853 

38.  General  Antonio  Lopez  Santa  Ana,  dictator,  from  April  i, 

1853,  till  August  9 1855 

Federal  Republic.  {;, 

39.  General  Martin  Carrera  as  President  ad  interim 1855 

40.  General  Juan  Alvarez,  ad  interim 1855 

41.  General  Ignacio  Comonfort,  as  substitute  at  first  and  then  as 

Constitutional  President 1855 

'  Benito  Juarez,  ad  interim  at  first 1857 

The  same  as  Constitutional  President 1861 

42.  \  The  same  as  Constitutional  President 1867 

The  same  as  Constitutional  President  in 1871 

and  up  to  the  time  of  his  death,  July  18,  1872. 

43.  Sebastian  Lerdo  de  Tejada,  as  President  ad  interim  at  first 

and  then  as  Constitutional  President 1872 

44.  General  Juan  N.  Mendez,  in  charge  of  the  Executive  Power 

(November) 1876 

45.  General  Porfirio  Diaz    1877 

46.  General  Manuel  Gonzalez 1880 

47.  General  Porfirio  Diaz  (re-elected  four  times) 1884 

Revolutionary  leaders  who,  ivithout  legal  title,  held  possession  of  the  City 
of  Mexico  during  the  War  of  Reform. 

I.  Felix    Zuloaga,    from    the    23d    of   January   till   the   end   of 

December 1858 


■fe 


Ipbilosopbi^  of  tbe  /IDejicau  IRevolutions.  377 

Year 

2.  Manuel   Robles  Pezuela,  towards  the  end  of   1858   and  the 

beginning  of 1 859 

3.  Counsellor  Jose  Ignacio  Pavon,  a  few  days  in 1859 

4.  Miguel  Miramon,  from  March,  1859,  till  the  24th  of  December.   1859 

Administrations  upheld  by  the  French  invaders,  and  who  governed  in  the 
places  that  were  in  the  hands  0/  the  foreign  arfny. — Regency. 

Pelagio  de  Labastida  y  Davalos,  Archbishop  of  Mexico  ;  Juan 
N.  Almonte  ;  Juan  B.  de  Ormachea,  Bishop  of  Tulan- 
cingo  ;  Mariano  Salas  ;  and  Jose  Ignacio  Pavon 1863 

Archduke  of  Austria,  Maximilian  Ferdinand,  from  June,  1864, 
until  May,  1867. 

MEXICAN    INTERVENTION    AND    NAPOLEOn's    DOWNFALL.' 

I  have  always  thought  that  the  downfall  of  the  Napoleonic  dynasty  at 
Sedan  in  1870  was  due  to  Louis  Napoleon's  intervention  in  Mexico. 
But  further  to  confirm  this  opinion  I  laid  my  views  on  the  subject 
before  competent  persons  who  knew  a  great  deal  more  about  the  events 
causing  the  crushing  defeat  of  1870  than  myself.  One  of  these  was 
Senor  Don  Luis  Maneyro,  a  Mexican  gentleman  who  lived  for  many 
years  in  France  ;  who  resided  there  during  the  inception,  progress,  and 
termination  of  the  intervention,  acting  both  before  and  after  the  inter- 
vention as  Mexican  consul  at  Bordeaux  ;  and  who  kept  himself  very  well 
posted  about  the  political  affairs  of  that  country.  Another  gentleman 
whose  opinion  I  regarded  as  carrying  great  weight  was  Mr.  John  Bige- 
low,  United  States  Minister  to  France  during  the  same  period.  I 
received  answers  from  both  gentlemen,  which  I  do  not  feel  at  liberty  to 
publish,  altogether  confirming  my  views.  I  append  here  a  copy  of  the 
memorandum  which  I  submitted  to  both  gentlemen  for  their  criticism. 

Memorandum. — The  defeat  of  the  French  army  under  General 
Lorencez  at  Puebla,  on  May  5,  1862,  and  more  particularly  the  com- 
plete failure  of  the  French  intervention  in  Mexico,  ending  with  the 
withdrawal  of  the  French  army,  and  the  fall  and  execution  of  Maxi- 
milian in  1867,  were  in  my  opinion,  the  origin  and  the  principal  cause 
of  the  humiliation  of  France  in  1870,  and  the  consequent  downfall  of 
Louis  Napoleon.  It  seems  to  me  that  the  French  emperor,  artfully 
using  the  controlling  power  of  France  to  further  his  own  ends,  was 
always   eager   and    ready    to   take  part  in  the  international  troubles 

*  This  article  was  published  by  the  Century  Illustrated  Monthly  Magazine  of  New 
York,  in  vol.  liv.,  No.  i,  of  May,  1897,  under  the  title  of  "The  Fall  of  the  Second 
Empire  as  Related  to  French  Intervention  in  Mexico,"  and  it  is  reproduced  here  with- 
out any  change. 


378  1bi5torical  IRotes  on  /IDcjico* 

arising  in  Europe,  and  very  naturally  the  side  to  which  he  allied  him- 
self was  in  every  instance  the  victorious  one.  Napoleon  always  made 
the  best  use  of  his  victories,  which  gave  him  great  prestige,  thereby 
increasing  proportionately  his  moral  influence.  He  was  considered  by 
Europe  as  a  great  political  genius  who  was  leading  France  in  the  path- 
way of  greatness  and  prosperity,  and  who  could  make  no  mistakes; 
and  he  became  in  fact  the  arbiter  of  the  destinies  of  that  continent. 
His  military  defeat  in  Mexico  in  1862,  the  first  one  he  had  suffered, 
and  which  showed  that  he  did  not  possess  the  foresight  with  which  he 
was  credited,  and  his  moral  and  political  defeat  in  1867,  caused  by  the 
fall  and  execution  of  Maximilian,  showed  the  thinking  men  of  the 
world  that  he  also  could  fall  into  errors  of  judgment,  and  that  he  was 
not  by  any  means  the  great  man  he  had  been  supposed  to  be,  causing 
him  at  once  to  descend  from  the  high  pedestal  upon  which  his  former 
success  had  placed  him. 

Men  like  Prince  Bismarck  saw  that  his  reputation  was  usurped,  and 
that  he  was  not  greatly  above  the  average  mortal,  and  prepared  to  strike 
the  decisive  blow  which  was  dealt  to  him  by  Prussia  in  1870.  To  deal 
this  blow.  Prince  Bismarck  took  advantage  of  the  complicated  situation 
which  Napoleon  had  created  for  himself  in  Mexico  by  declaring  in 
1866  the  war  against  Austria  which  ended  with  the  battle  of  Sadowa, 
thus  strengthening  Prussia,  and  putting  her  at  the  head  of  the  North 
German  Confederation  at  a  time  when  Napoleon,  engaged  in  Mexico, 
and  in  imminent  danger  of  becoming  involved  in  difficulties  with  the 
United  States,  could  not  well  take  part  in  that  contest  without  running 
serious  risks.  The  talent  of  Prince  Bismarck  consisted  in  taking  ad- 
vantage of  the  right  moment.  If  Napoleon  had  not  been  engaged  with 
the  Mexican  intervention,  he  undoubtedly  would  have  taken  the  side 
either  of  Austria  or  of  Prussia,  and  the  war  would  have  terminated  in 
favor  of  the  power  backed  by  France,  with  territorial  advantages  for 
the  latter;  and  thus  he  would  have  increased  his  reputation  as  a  saga- 
cious statesman.  But  had  Napoleon  supported  either  power,  the 
probabilities  are  that  the  matter  would  have  been  settled  without  any 
war,  or,  if  a  war  had  broken  out,  it  would  have  ended  in  favor  of  the 
allies  of  France.  All  this  was  swept  away  by  the  terrible  collapse  of 
1867,  which  brought  about  his  humiliation  at  Sedan  and  the  fall  of  the 
empire. 

It  is  true  that  before  declaring  war  on  Austria,  Bismarck  obtained 
assurances  from  Napoleon  that  he  would  remain  neutral;  but  the  diffi- 
culties in  which  the  French  emperor  had  involved  himself  by  his  Mexi- 
can venture  decided  his  course  in  this  case,  and  Prince  Bismarck  knew 
very  well  that  while  the  Mexican  scheme  was  pending  the  Emperor  of 
the  French  could  not  well  afford  to  take  part  in  any  other  undertaking 
of  a  serious  character. 


I 


IPbilosopbv?  of  tbe  /IDejican  IRevolutions.  379 

I  believe  that  future  historians,  looking  at  these  events  without 
passion  or  prejudice,  and  inspired  by  a  desire  to  present  facts  as  they 
really  are,  can  reason  only  in  this  way.  Mexico  will  have,  as  a  repara- 
tion for  the  injustice  done  her  by  the  French  intervention,  the  sad 
satisfaction  of  having  been  the  prime  factor  in  the  emancipation  of 
Europe  from  the  Napoleonic  rule.  Matias  Ro.mero. 

The  foregoing  paper  caused  Senor  Don  Luis  Maneyro,  Mexican 
Consul  at  Bordeaux,  to  write  a  memorandum  confirming  the  assertions 
contained  in  the  same,  and  considering  the  circumstances  that  Senor 
Maneyro  has  lived  in  France  since  his  infancy,  and  that  his  father  and 
himself  had  been  prominently  connected  with  public  affairs,  the  former 
being  a  witness  of  the  events  connected  with  the  French  intervention 
in  Mexico,  and  has  had  exceptional  opportunities  to  know  what  took 
place  there,  his  opinion  has  a  great  deal  of  weight,  I  submitted  to 
President  Diaz  this  memorandum  with  the  request  that  he  should 
examine  it  and  advise  me  whether  it  was  correct  in  so  far  as  the 
reported  transactions  between  himself  and  Marshal  Bazaine,  com- 
mander of  the  French  army,  were  concerned,  and  General  Diaz  in  a 
letter,  dated  at  the  City  of  Mexico,  June  5,  1897,  answered  me  that 
before  leaving  the  country.  Marshal  Bazaine  offered  to  sell  him,  not 
his  transportation  material,  but  his  powder,  arms,  and  army  clothing 
that  he  had  in  excess,  and  did  not  have  the  means  of  carrying  with 
him.     I  give  below  Sefior  Maneyro's  memorandum. 

MEMORANDUM    BY    SE5fOR    DON    LUIS    MANEYRO,   MEXICAN    CONSUL 
AT    BORDEAUX. 

In  1866  France  was  not  bound  by  any  treaty  or  agreement  that 
could  have  prevented  her  from  taking  part  in  the  German  struggle  for 
supremacy.  She  could  have  made  the  balance  lean  on  the  side  she 
would  have  preferred,  be  it  in  favor  of  Prussia,  be  it  in  favor  of  the 
independent  States  of  the  German  Confederation. 

The  consequences  of  such  an  intervention  in  the  war  of  1866,  it  is 
plainly  to  be  seen,  would  have  been  most  important  for  France  and  the 
empire;  in  fact  it  is  impossible  to  exaggerate  how  far  the  result  of 
events  and  the  condition  of  affairs  would  have  changed. 

Perhaps  merely  the  moral  weight  of  French  intervention  on  one 
side  or  the  other  would  have  given  the  final  victory  to  her  allies,  per- 
haps Sadowa  would  not  have  taken  place.  All  these  conjectures  are 
allowable,  and  the  preponderance  of  France  would  then  have  been 
undeniable. 

At  that  time  the  French  army  enjoyed  in  Europe  a  well  earned 
reputation,  owing  to  its  repeated  triumphs  after  the  fall  of  Napoleon  I. 


38o  HDistorical  IRotes  on  /IDcjtco. 

The  restoration  of  Louis  Philippe's  Government  and  the  Second  Em- 
pire had  been  most  successful  in  all  their  undertakings. 

Everybody  believed  in  the  perfect  organization  and  the  easy  mobil- 
ization of  that  most  fortunate  army,  and  although  the  system  of  Marshal 
Neil,  who  created  the  "  Garde  mobile  "  in  imitation  of  the  "  landwehr," 
was  not  yet  in  existence,  public  confidence  in  the  success  of  the  French 
flag  was  thoroughly  established. 

The  Luxembourg  question  presented  a  most  plausible  pretext  for 
the  intervention  of  France  in  the  conflict.  A  very  powerful  party  was 
inducing  the  Emperor  to  declare  war,  and  the  cabals  nearest  the  two 
sovereigns  at  the  Palace — those  who  influenced  the  Empress  unfor- 
tunately comprised  in  their  midst  some  Mexicans  whose  names  are 
known  to  all,  much  to  their  disadvantage — were  pushing  them  to  form 
an  alliance  with  Austria,  Bavaria,  Hanover,  and  against  Prussia,  then 
increasing  in  influence  and  power. 

These  courtiers  who  had  had  such  disastrous  influence  during  the 
period  of  hesitancy  regarding  the  war  of  Mexico  were  then  repaid  for 
their  former  mistake. 

Fate  decreed  that  their  unwholesome  influence  in  1862  should  pre- 
vent the  putting  into  practise  their  happy  thought  in  1866.  That  was 
really  another  of  the  evil  consequences  of  the  war  of  Mexico  on  un- 
happy France,  and  as  determining  the  fall  of  the  empire. 

The  following  data  which  have  been  carefully  examined  were  col- 
lected by  a  Mexican  who  is  well  acquainted  with  Paris,  and  mingled 
with  the  actors  and  spectators  of  those  dramas  of  1862-66  and  1870. 

In  May,  1866,  the  war  party  was  very  much  in  the  majority  at  the 
Tuileries.  Every  day  it  was  expected  that  the  Luxembourg  would  be 
invaded  by  French  troops,  or  at  least  that  a  declaration  of  war  would 
be  issued  or  some  step  taken  which  would  admit  of  no  backing  out. 

The  reports  of  the  French  military  attaches  residing  in  various 
countries  encouraged  the  hopes  of  success,  and  it  was  not  to  be  sup- 
posed that  Austria  would  be  utterly  defeated,  on  account  of  the  num- 
ber of  her  allies,  but  rather  it  could  be  well  imagined  that  Prussia  was 
about  to  be  annihilated. 

France  had  it  in  her  power  to  give  the  victory  to  either  side.  The 
Emperor  was  determined,  and  the  chiefs  of  his  army  corps  who  were 
consulted  said  that  all  reliance  could  be  placed  on  their  troops. 

It  was  then  that  the  grain  of  sand  was  visible,  that  grain  of  sand 
sent  by  God,  as  Bossuet  terms  it,  which  brings  about  the  downfall  of 
empires  when  they  are  most  occupied  with  their  glory  and  their  pride. 

That  grain  of  sand  became  the  retribution  that  Fate  reserved  for  the 
unjust  aggression  against  Mexico,  it  was  the  betrayal  of  the  Commissary 
Department  which  made  it  impossible  for  France  to  undertake  an 
European  war. 


pbilosopbv?  ot  tbe  /IDerican  IRcvoliuioiit?.  381 

When  the  Commissiary  Department  was  consulted,  the  scaffolding 
broke  down,  carrying  with  it  all  the  combinations  then  made,  and 
compelling  France  to  remain  passive,  to  paralyze  her  efforts,  to  reduce 
her  to  a  mere  spectator  of  a  movement  which  changed  the  situation  of 
Europe,  built  the  powerful  German  nation  threatening  France  at  her 
very  doors.  Germany  was  already  hostile  to  France,  was  cognizant  of 
her  superiority,  and  wished  to  restore  the  old  frontiers  existing  before 
the  Palatinate  War. 

France  had  50,000  men  in  Mexico.  Outside  of  Algiers,  she  still 
had  160,000  men  distributed  in  four  large  military  divisions.  If  half 
of  these  troops  would  cross  the  Rhine,  they  might  decide  the  princes 
who  were  hesitating  to  ally  themselves  to  France,  since,  until  the  first 
victories  of  the  Prussians  took  place  and  until  the  affair  of  Langensalz, 
many  petty  sovereigns  and  principalities  were  sorely  troubled  and  did 
not  know  with  what  party  they  should  side. 

The  answer  given  by  the  Commissary  Department  when  consulted 
was  as  follows  : 

"  It  is  impossible  to  undertake  a  campaign  under  existing  condi- 
tions of  things.  All  the  train  material  that  could  be  used  is  in  Mexico. 
We  could  not  collect  nor  keep  in  store  the  necessary  provisions,  sup- 
plies, rations,  ammunition,  etc.,  for  an  army  corps  of  six  thousand  men." 

And  yet  the  Commissaires  Wolf  and  Friant  kept  up  their  urgent 
demand  from  Mexico  for  more  train  and  artillery  material! 

The  army  corps  of  50,000  men  had  required  and  absorbed  war 
material  sufficient  for  an  army  of  200,000  men  in  active  campaign  in 
Europe. 

Everything  had  been  taken  away  from  the  various  warehouses, 
everything  was  in  Mexico.  The  lack  of  railways,  the  bad  condition 
of  the  roads,  the  immense  extent  of  land  that  the  army  had  to  cross, 
the  army  which  was  greatly  subdivided  and  whose  sections  were  at 
enormous  distances  from  each  other — the  difficulty  of  providing  the 
means  of  subsistence  in  a  hostile  country,  where  the  places  actually 
occupied  were  under  the  dominion  of  the  invader,  the  necessities  of  an 
European  army,  which  was  not  accustomed  to  the  frugality  and  sobriety 
of  the  Mexican  soldiers,  all  the  above  rendered  necessary  four  times 
the  amount  of  war  material  required  in  European  countries. 

The  condition  of  the  roads  and  the  difficulties  encountered  in  the 
moving  of  army  trains  had  at  times  even  brought  about  the  destruction 
of  war  material  which  could  not  be  carried  away  or  had  to  remain 
buried  in  the  mud.  The  large  pieces  for  siege  artillery,  which  had 
been  brought  for  the  investment  of  Oaxaca,  had  to  be  carried  on  men's 
shoulders;  and  portions  of  them  had  to  be  left  dismounted  and  scattered 
on  the  trunks  of  trees.  All  the  military  trains  were  in  Mexico,  and 
still  they  were  not  sufficient  to  perform  the  work  assigned  to  them. 


382  Iblstorical  IRotes  on  (l^c^ico. 

The  transport  ships  v/hich  carried  that  material  would  arrive  one 
after  the  other,  and  immediately  had  to  return  to  France  to  look  for 
some  more  freight  of  a  like  nature,  which  could  not  be  obtained. 

The  stormy  passage  of  some  of  those  vessels  had  resulted  in  the 
throwing  overboard  of  a  portion  of  their  cargoes. 

The  transportation  of  the  wounded,  of  provisions,  and  of  ammuni- 
tion was  made  under  contract  with  the  mule  drivers  of  the  country. 
No  wagons  or  carts  remained  in  France. 

Upon  the  eve  of  abandoning  Maximilian,  Marshal  Bazaine,  when 
he  knew  that  General  Porfirio  Diaz  refused  to  buy  his  powder  and  the 
mules  for  his  trains,  had  to  drown  the  latter  and  burn  the  former. 
The  French  army  was  compelled  to  return  to  France,  owing  princi- 
pally to  the  active  influence  brought  to  bear  on  Mr.  Seward  by  Mr. 
Romero,  Mexican  Minister  at  Washington,  which  gave  rise  to  the  de- 
mand made  by  the  United  States  on  France  to  abandon  Mexican 
territory  gradually  and  at  stated  periods. 

But  that  army  returned  to  France  without  any  war  material  and 
found  none  awaiting  it  in  its  native  country. 

The  war  against  Germany  was  impossible,  as  was  well  understood 
by  those  who  knew  what  an  important  part  the  Commissary  Depart- 
ment plays  in  any  war. 

The  Emperor  and  those  who  foresaw  coming  events,  much  against 
their  will,  had  to  abandon  the  opportunity  that  presented  itself  in  the 
spring  of   1866,   and  which  was  the   only  one  which  could  possibly 
occur.     The  results  of  such  a  step  we  all  know  well  enough;  they  were   ! 
the  disasters  and  fall  of  the  empire,  the  humiliation  of  France,  and  the  , 
loss  of  a  portion  of  her  territory. 

Mexico  had  obtained  her  full  revenge. 


E 


Cl 


ADDRESSES  ON  THE  CAUSES  OF  THE  MEXICAN 
REVOLUTIONS. 

I  have  tried  to  make  it  clear  in  the  minds  of  the  people  of  the 
United  States,  availing  myself  of  all  the  opportunities  which  have  been 
presented  to  me,  that  there  were  sufficient  causes  for  the  revolutions  that 
we  had  in  Mexico,  and  that  such  causes  having  come  to  an  end,  there 
was  no  danger  of  any  new  outbreaks.  It  would  be  very  long  to  in- 
sert here  all  the  addresses  that  I  have  made  with  that  object  in  view, 
in  the  many  years  of  my  official  residence  in  this  country,  and  I  will 
therefore  only  mention  such  as,  considering  the  occasion  on  which 
they  were  delivered,  and  the  standing  and  character  of  the  gentlemen 
participating  in  the  same,  I  regard  of  more  importance. 

Banquet  in  Neiv  York  City  o?i  March  2Q,  1864. — On  March  29,  1864, 
after  my  return  from   Mexico  as  Envoy  Extraordinary  and  Minister    B*^, 


Causes  ot  tbe  /IDejican  lRevolutions»  383 

Plenipotentiary,  a  banquet  was  given  to  me  in  the  city  of  New  York 
by  prominent  citizens,  for  the  purpose  of  expressing  their  sympathy 
for  the  cause  of  Mexican  independence  and  liberty. 

The  proceedings  of  this  banquet  were  communicated  by  President 
Lincoln  to  the  Senate  of  the  United  States  with  his  Message  of  June 
16,  1864,  concerning  Mexican  affairs. 

The  citizens  who  tendered  me  that  banquet  were  the  following  : 

William  C.  Bryant.  Frederick  de  Peyster.  C.  A.  Bkisted. 

William  H.  Aspinwall.  W.  Butler  Duncan.  Alexander  Van  Renssel.»er.- 

Hamilton  Fish.  William  Curtis  Noves.  George  Folsom. 

John  W.  Hamersley.  Henrv  Clews.  Washington  Hunt. 

Jonathan  Sturges.  Frederick  C.  Gebhard.  Charles  King. 

James  W.  Beekman.  George  T.  Strong.  Willard  Parker. 

J.  J.  Astor,  Jr.  Henry  Delafield.  Adrian  Iselin. 

Smith  Clift.  Henry  E.  Pierrepont.  Robert  J.  Livingston. 

W.  E.  Dodge,  Jr.  George  Opdyke.  Samuel  B.  Ruggles. 

David  Hoadlev.  David  Dudley  Field.  James  T.  Brady. 
George  Bancroft, 

On  that  occasion  I  delivered  the  following  address  : 

Mr.  Chairman — Gentlemen  : — I  feel  entirely  unable  to  express  to  you  in  a  suffi- 
cient manner  my  sincere  thanks  for  the  great  honor  you  have  bestowed  upon  me  and 
my  country  in  this  refined  and  splendid  demonstration  of  your  sympathy  for  struggling 
Mexico.  It  is,  indeed,  particularly  gratifying  to  me  that  this  significant  demonstration 
is  made  by  so  many  of  the  most  distinguished  and  most  eminent  citizens,  who  are  an 
ornament  to  this  great  metropolis,  and  whose  virtues,  learning,  and  enterprise  have 
contributed  so  much  to  make  your  city  in  so  brief  a  period  the  first,  not  only  of  the 
broad  United  States,  but  of  the  whole  American  continent,  as  well  as  to  make  your 
country  one  of  the  most  powerful,  wealthy,  and  civilized  on  the  globe. 

It  is,  indeed,  another  motive  which  greatly  adds  to  my  gratification,  and  for  which, 
in  the  name  of  my  country,  I  beg  to  express  to  you  my  gratitude  for  the  kind  words 
with  which  our  distinguished  friend  has  proposed  the  health  of  Benito  Juarez,  the  Con- 
stitutional President  of  the  Republic  of  Mexico,  and  for  the  prompt  heartiness  and 
cordiality  with  which  that  toast  has  been  received.  I  perceive,  with  joy  and  gratitude, 
gentlemen,  that  you  appreciate  tjie  high  quahties  of  that  statesman  and  patriot,  and 
hold  a  strong  and  pure  sympathy  for  the  noble  cause  of  which  he  is  the  leader. 

1  am  rejoiced  that  I  have  the  opportunity  to  see  with  my  own  eyes  the  proof  that 
the  eminent  French  statesman,  M.  Thiers,  was  somewhat  mistaken  when,  in  a  speech 
he  recently  delivered  before  the  Corps  Legislatif,  of  Paris,  against  the  policy  pursued 
by  the  Emperor  Napoleon  in  Mexican  affairs,  he  stated  that  the  United  States  would 
not,  under  present  circumstances,  object  in  any  way  to  that  policy  ;  and  that,  sliould 
the  Archduke  Maximilian  come  to  this  city  en  route  to  Mexico,  he  would  meet  with  a 
cordial  reception  ai  your  hands.  It  could  scarcely  be  possible  to  have  a  more  distin- 
guished, complete,  and  genuine  representation  of  the  patriotism,  intelligence,  and 
wealth  of  the  great  city  of  New  York — the  leading  city  of  the  Union — than  that  I  see 
assembled  here  this  evening  ;  yet,  if  I  can  trust  my  senses,  gentlemen,  I  venture  to 
assert  that  the  sympathies  of  your  great  city  run  in  a  direction  very  different  from 
that  imagined  by  M.  Thiers. 

I  am  very  happy  to  say  that  the  kind  of  feeling  you  express  for  Mexico  is  fully 
reciprocated.     In  Mexico  there  are  now  but  the  sentiments  of  regard  and  admiration 


384  Ibistorical  Botes  on  /iDejico. 

for  the  United  States,  and  the  desire  to  pursue  such  a  course  as  will  draw  more  closely 
all  those  powerful  ties  by  which  both  nations  should  be  united. 

It  has  sometimes  appeared  to  me,  that  the  gentlemen  who  controlled  the  Govern- 
ment of  the  United  States  for  thirty-five  years  previous  to  1S61,  cared  for  nothing  so 
much  as  for  the  acquisition  of  territory.  Those  gentlemen  thus  caused  their  country 
to  appear  in  the  character  of  a  very  covetous  man,  who,  without  knowing  the  boun- 
daries of  his  own  estate,  or  endeavoring  to  improve  it,  constantly  exerts  himself  to 
enlarge  its  limits,  without  being  very  scrupulous  as  to  the  means  of  its  accomplishment. 

Just  before  the  war  with  Mexico  commenced,  the  United  States  had  a  boundary 
question  with  England,  which  threatened  a  rupture  between  the  two  countries,  and  I 
have  been  informed  that  the  same  documents  which  were  prepared  as  a  declaration  of 
war  against  Great  Britain  were  used  when  war  was  finally  declared  against  Mexico. 
Thus,  while  the  idea  of  acquiring  domain  from  Great  Britain  by  a  dubious  title,  to  say 
the  least,  was  relinquished,  the  same  scheme  was  carried  out  against  Mexico,  not  only 
without  any  plausible  reason,  but,  I  must  say,  in  violation  of  all  principles  of  justice. 

I  beg  of  you,  gentlemen,  to  excuse  me  if  I  have  referred  to  an  unpleasant  point  in 
the  history  of  late  events.  But  I  wish  to  forcibly  present  to  your  minds  the  idea  that 
the  unfair  policy  I  have  alluded  to  led,  in  a  great  measure,  to  the  troubles  and  compli- 
cations in  which  you  are  now  involved,  and  one  of  the  consequences  of  which  is  French 
intervention  in  Mexico,  as  that  intervention  would  never  have  been  but  for  the  civil 
war  in  the  United  States. 

Those  who  have  pursued  this  policy  appear  to  have  been,  in  the  main,  under  the 
influence  of  the  slave  power,  and  to  have  had  in  view  their  own  political  influence  and 
personal  aggrandizement,  rather  than  the  great  interests  of  their  country.  They  very 
properly  thought  that,  by  extending  the  area  of  slavery,  they  would  extend  in  propor- 
tion their  influence  and  strength.  For  that  reason  they  did  not  insist  on  increasing  the 
territory  of  the  United  States  in  the  far  Northwest,  where  their  peculiar  institution 
could  not  be  acclimated,  but  rather  set  their  eyes  toward  the  sunny  regions  of  Mexico. 
By  that  means  the  institution  of  human  slavery  had  so  large  an  increase,  that  a  short 
time  afterward  it  was  strong  enough  to  commence  a  gigantic  war  against  the  Govern- 
ment of  the  United  States.  In  my  opinion,  the  leaders  of  the  slavery  party  always 
had  in  view  the  separation  of  their  own  States  from  the  free  States  of  the  North,  and 
to  replace  the  loss  of  Northern  aimed  at  the  acquisition  of  Southern  territory. 

I  will  not  conceal  from  you,  gentlemen,  the  fact  that  we  have  looked  with  deep 
apprehension  upon  such  an  aggressive  policy,  which  threatened  to  deprive  us  of  our 
independence  and  nationality — the  highest  and  most  precious  rights  that  man  can  enjoy 
on  earth.  We  were,  of  course,  fully  determined  not  to  give  up  this  precious  inherit- 
ance, and  we  had  resolved  to  fight  to  the  last.  In  our  present  war  with  France,  we 
are  giving  a  proof  of  our  determination.  It  may  appear  foolish  and  unavailing  for 
Mexico,  that  has  been  so  often  exhausted  in  her  struggles  to  obtain  true  liberty  during 
the  last  forty  years,  to  accept  war  with  the  greatest  military  power  in  Europe  ;  but 
there  are  circumstances  in  the  life  of  nations  which  cause  them  to  overlook  all  second- 
arj'  considerations,  and  determine  to  exert  themselves  to  overcome  all  difficulties. 
Besides,  our  situation  is  not  so  bad  as  many  think. 

Fortunately,  the  change  of  policy  toward  Mexico  operated  in  the  United  States 
brought  up  a  consequent  change  in  the  feelings  of  my  country  in  regard  to  yours.  We 
do  not  wish  now  to  have  any  interest  antagonistical  to  yours,  because  we  mean  to  keep 
peace  with  you.  and  that  object  could  scarcely  be  accomplished  if  our  respective  inter- 
ests were  in  opposition.  For  that  reason,  among  other  very  material  ones  that  we 
had,  we  established  a  republican  form  of  government  and  democratic  institutions, 
modeled  on  the  same  basis  as  yours. 

The  Emperor  of  the  French  pretends  that  the  object  of  his  interference  in  Mexi- 


Causes  ot  tbe  /IDejican  IRevoluttons.  385 

can  affairs  is  to  prevent  the  annexation  of  Mexico  to  the  United  Stales  ;  and  yet  that 
very  result  would,  most  likely,  be  ultimately  accomplished  if  a  monarchy  were  estab- 
lished in  Mexico.     Fortunately  for  us,  that  scheme  is  by  no  means  a  feasible  one. 

Mexico  is  most  bountifully  blessed  by  nature.  She  can  produce  of  the  best 
quality  and  in  large  quantities  all  of  the  principal  agricultural  staples  of  the  world — 
cotton,  coffee,  sugar,  tobacco,  vanilla,  wheat,  and  corn.  Her  mines  have  yielded  the 
largest  portion  of  all  the  silver  which  now  circulates  throughout  the  world,  and  there 
still  remain  to  her  mountains  of  that  precious  metal,  as  well  as  of  gold,  which  only 
require  labor,  skill,  and  capital  to  make  them  available  and  valuable.  The  wealth  of 
California  is  nothing  when  compared  with  what  still  remains  in  Mexico. 

My  country,  therefore,  opens  a  most  desirable  field  for  the  enterprise  of  a  com- 
mercial nation.  Far-sighted  England  discovered  this  many  years  ago,  and  by  estab- 
lishing a  line  of  mail  steamers  from  Southampton  to  Veracruz  and  Tampico,  and 
negotiating  advantageous  treaties  of  commerce,  has,  beyond  all  other  nations,  enjoyed 
the  best  of  the  Mexican  trade.  France,  seeing  this,  and  wishing  to  vie  with  England, 
has  undertaken  an  enterprise  which,  besides  being  ruinous  to  her,  will  not  produce  the 
desired  end,  as  the  means  adopted  must  surely  cause  the  opposite  result.  The  United 
States  are  the  best  situated  to  avail  themselves  of  the  immense  wealth  of  Mexico. 
Being  a  neighbor  nation,  they  have  more  advantages  than  any  other  for  the  frontier 
and  coasting  trade  ;  and,  furthermore,  being  a  nation  second  to  none  in  wealth,  activity, 
skill,  and  enterprise,  they  are  called  by  nature  to  speculate  in  and  enjoy  the  resources 
of  Mexico. 

We  are  willing  to  grant  to  the  United  States  every  commercial  facility  that  will 
not  be  derogatory  to  our  independence  and  sovereignty.  This  will  give  to  the  United 
States  all  possible  advantages  that  could  be  derived  from  annexation,  without  any  of 
its  inconveniences.  That  once  done,  our  common  interests,  political  as  well  as  commer- 
cial, will  give  us  a  common  American  continental  policy  which  no  European  nation 
would  dare  disregard. 

The  bright  future  which  I  plainly  see  for  both  nations  had  made  me  forget  for  a 
moment  the  present  troubles  in  which  they  are  now  involved.  I  consider  these  trou- 
bles of  so  transitory  a  nature  as  not  to  interfere  materially  with  the  common  destiny 
I  have  foreshadowed  ;  but,  as  they  have  the  interest  of  actuality,  I  beg  to  be  allowed 
to  make  a  few  remarks  in  regard  to  them. 

Every  careful  observer  of  events  could  not  help  noticing,  when  the  expedition 
against  Mexico  was  organized  in  Europe,  that  it  would,  sooner  or  later,  draw  the 
United  States  into  the  most  serious  complications,  and  involve  them  in  the  diffi- 
culty. The  object  of  that  expedition  being  no  less  than  a  direct  and  armed  inter- 
ference in  the  political  affairs  of  an  American  nation,  with  a  view  to  overthrow  its  re- 
publican institutions  and  establish  on  their  ruins  a  monarchy,  with  a  European  prince 
on  the  throne, — the  only  question  to  be  determined  by  the  United  States  and  the 
other  nations  concerned,  was  as  to  the  time  when  they  would  be  willing  or  ready  to 
meet  the  issue  thus  boldly  and  openly  held  out  by  the  antagonistic  nations  of  Europe. 

The  United  States  could  not  be  indifferent  to  this  question  ;  just  as  a  man  who 
sees  his  neighbor's  house  set  on  fire  by  an  incendiary,  could  not  remain  an  uncon- 
cerned spectator,  while  his  own  house  contains  his  family  and  all  his  fortune,  and  com- 
bustible matter  lies  in  the  basement.  The  only  alternative  left  to  him  should  be, 
whether  it  would  be  more  convenient  to  his  interests  to  help  his  neighbor  in  putting 
out  the  fire  from  the  beginning,  and  with  the  same  earnestness  as  if  his  own  house 
were  already  caught  by  that  destructive  element,  or  to  await  inactive  until  the  incen- 
diary has  succeeded  in  making  a  perfect  blaze  of  his  neighbor's  property,  by  which  all 
will  inevitably  be- involved  in  one  common  ruin. 

This,  in  my  opinion,  is  the  situation  in  which  the  United  States  is  placed  with 


386  IFDistortcal  IWotcs  on  /IDejico. 

regard  to  Mexico.  Taking  into  consideration  the  well-known  sagacity  of  American 
statesmen,  the  often-proved  devotion  of  the  American  people  to  republican  institutions, 
and  the  patriotism  and  zeal  of  the  Administration  that  presides  over  the  destinies  of 
the  country,  I  cannot  entertain  the  slightest  doubt  that  the  United  States  will  act  in 
this  emergency  as  will  conduce  to  the  best  interests  they  and  mankind  at  large  have  at 
stake  in  the  Mexican  question. 

In  the  meantime,  however,  I  consider  it  of  the  highest  importance  that  the  delu- 
sion prevailing  throughout  Europe  that  the  United  States  do  not  oppose,  and  rather 
favor,  the  establishment  of  a  monarchy  in  Mexico  by  French  bayonets,  should  be  dis- 
pelled. The  French  government  has  been  working  steadily  in  causing  that  delusion 
to  prevail  on  the  other  side  of  the  water,  and,  so  far,  has  succeeded  more  than  could  be 
expected,  considering  the  absurdity  of  such  an  idea.  The  war  against  Mexico  would 
be  ten  times  more  unpopular  in  France  than  it  is  now — in  fact,  it  could  not  be  main- 
tained any  longer — if  the  French  people  were  made  to  understand  that  the  people  of 
the  United  States  will  never  tolerate,  much  less  favor  or  encourage,  the  establishment, 
by  force  of  arms,  of  a  European  monarchy  upon  the  ruins  of  a  sister  neighboring  re- 
public. The  French  people  are  friendly  to  the  United  States ;  old  traditions,  the 
common  love  of  liberty,  and  the  absence  of  opposing  interests,  make  them  friendly. 
They  would,  therefore,  be  wholly  opposed  to  anything  that,  without  bringing  them 
any  real  benefit,  might,  sooner  or  later,  lead  to  a  war  with  this  country.  They  very 
well  know  that  such  a  war  could  not  but  be  disastrous  to  France,  since  France  would 
liave  everything  to  lose  and  nothing  to  gain  by  such  a  war,  whatever  may  be  her 
influence  and  power  in  the  European  continental  politics. 

The  United  States  may  find  that  they  are  brought  squarely  to  the  issue  on  the 
Mexican  question  sooner  than  they  e.^pected,  should  the  report,  lately  reached  here, 
of  any  understanding  between  Maximilian,  as  so-called  Emperor  of  Mexico,  and  tlie 
insurgents  in  this  country,  prove  correct.  The  archduke,  it  is  stated,  will  inaugurate 
his  administration  by  acknowledging  the  independence  of  the  South,  and,  perhaps,  he 
will  go  further  ;  and  this,  of  course,  by  the  advice,  consent,  and  support  of  the  French 
Government,  whose  satellite,  and  nothing  else,  will  the  archduke  be  in  Mexico, 

The  French  official  and  semi-official  papers  assure  us  that  Maximilian  will  soon 
depart  for  Mexico.  All  present  appearances  indicate  that  he  is  willing  to  change  his 
high  position  in  Europe  for  a  hazardous  one  in  Mexico.  He  cannot  stay  there  unless 
supported  by  a  French  army,  and  he  will  not,  therefore,  be  anything  more  than  the 
shadow  of  the  French  emperor.  Should  he  ever  have  a  different  viev/  or  de.sire  from  the 
French  government,  or  even  the  French  general-in-chief,  he  will  be  obliged  to  submit 
to  the  humiliating  condition  of  forbearing  to  do  that  which  he  thinks  best  in  a  country 
where  he  will  call  himself  emperor.  As  far  as  the  personality  of  the  Austrian  duke  is 
concerned,  he  is  nothing.  If  he  goes  to  Mexico  to  meddle  in  our  affairs,  we  shall  con- 
sider him  as  our  enemy,  and  deal  with  him  accordingly.  We  hold  that  in  the  political 
question  which  is  being  agitated  in  Mexico  the  person  of  the  Austrian  duke  is  not  of 
much  account  :  and  whether  he  does  or  does  not  go  there,  that  question  can  ultimately 
have  only  one  possible  solution — namely,  the  triumph  and  maintenance  of  republican 
institutions. 

As  far  as  I  am  concerned,  I  prefer  that  Maximilian  should  go  to  Mexico,  so  as  to 
give  the  European  dreamers  on  monarchies  a  fair  chance  to  realize  their  dreams  of 
America.  As  for  Mexico,  I  can  say  that  nothing  that  has  transpired  in  my  country 
should  surprise  any  one  who  is  familiar  with  our  afifairs.  It  is  true  that  we  have  been 
unfortunate  during  the  past  year ;  we  have  lost  nearly  all  the  battles  we  have  fought 
with  the  French  ;  they  have  occupied  some  of  our  principal  cities  ;  they  have  block- 
aded our  ports  ;  but  all  these  gains  on  the  part  of  the  French  are  nothing  when  com- 
pared with  the  elements  of  opposition  and  endurance  which  remains  with  the  National 


Causes  ot  tbe  /IDcjican  IRevolutions.  387 

Government  of  Mexico,  niling  a  people  numbering  eight  millions,  determinedly  op- 
posed to  intervention,  ready  to  fight,  and  fighting  already  for  their  independence  ;  a 
country  that  will  require  half  a  million  soldiers  to  subdue  and  possess  ;  naturally  strong 
in  defences,  possessing  inaccessible  mountains,  impracticable  roads,  where  the  patriots 
will  be  able  to  make  a  perpetual  warfare  upon  the  invader,  until  he  is  persuaded  of 
the  impossibility  of  accomplishing  the  conquest,  or  be  compelled  to  leave  for  other 
causes.  Such  is  the  prospect  before  us,  and  that  in  case  we  could  do  nothing  more 
than  make  a  passive  resistance.     But  we  can  do  better  than  this. 

Among  the  many  events  calculated  to  terminate  immediately  French  intervention 
in  Mexico,  the  European  complications  which  threaten  to  cause  a  general  war  on  that 
continent  should  be  particularly  mentioned.  It  is  certainly  wonderful  that  while 
Europe  is  in  so  insecure  and  agitated  a  condition,  menaced  by  revolutions  everywhere, 
and  wrestling  to  recover  its  own  existence  and  independence,  the  French  emperor 
should  be  thinking  about  arranging  other  people's  affairs,  as  if  his  own  did  not  require 
his  immediate  and  most  particular  attention. 

The  only  serious  support  the  French  intervention  had  among  the  Mexicans  was 
that  afforded  by  the  Church  party,  which  was,  in  fact,  the  promoter  and  supporter  of 
the  intervention.  The  generals  of  the  Church  party  have,  with  the  aid  of  the  French 
army,  been  conscripting  Mexican  citizens  to  make  them  fight  with  the  foreign  invader 
against  their  brothers  and  the  independence  of  their  country.  The  Church  party  ex- 
pected, of  course,  as  a  small  compensation  for  the  services  rendered  to  the  intervention, 
that  as  soon  as  the  French  should  take  the  City  of  Mexico  they  would  restore  the 
Church  property  confiscated  by  the  National  Government,  and  \.\\q  fueros  of  the  clergy, 
of  which  they  had  been  deprived.  But  the  French  have  thus  far  failed  to  do  this. 
They  discovered  that  the  Church  party  was  the  weakest,  and  that  with  that  party  they 
had  no  chance  of  subduing  the  country.  The  French  now  wish  to  conciliate  tbe  Lib- 
eral party  by  sustaining  and  enforcing  all  the  important  measures  and  laws  decreed  by 
the  National  Government.  But  the  Liberals  of  Mexico  are  true  patriots,  not  partisans, 
and  will  not  be  conciliated,  so  long  as  the  foot  of  the  invader  is  on  Mexican  soil.  The 
policy  of  the  French  so  incensed  the  Church  party  that  they  broke  altogether  with  the 
French.  The  Archbishop  of  Mexico,  who  was  a  member  of  the  so-called  regency,  with- 
drew at  once,  and  was  afterward  dismissed  by  General  Bazaine.  The  so-called  supreme 
tribunal  protested  against  those  measures,  and  shared  the  fate  of  the  archbishop.  All 
the  archbishops  and  bishops  in  the  republic  then  joined  in  signing  a  protest,  in  which 
they  declared  the  condition  of  the  Church  to  be  far  worse  than  it  ever  was  under  the 
rule  of  the  Liberal  Government  ;  that  now  they  are  not  allowed  even  to  issue  their 
pastorals,  a  right  never  denied  to  them  while  the  Liberals  were  in  power  in  the  City  of 
Mexico.  The  protest  concluded  by  excommunicating  the  French  Government,  the 
French  army  in  Mexico,  all  Mexicans  who  take  sides  with  the  French,  and  everybody 
who  supports  the  French  cause  in  any  way.  These  proceedings  have  left  the  French 
without  the  support  of  the  only  part  of  the  native  population  they  ever  had  in  their 
favor,  and  have  combined  against  them  all  the  elements  of  the  country. 

1  fear  that  I  have  already  imposed  too  much  upon  your  kindness,  and,  in  con- 
cluding my  remarks,  I  beg  to  express  my  earnest  and  sincere  desire  that  this  demon- 
stration may  be  the  beginning  of  a  new  era  of  perpetual  peace  and  cordiality  in  the 
relations  between  the  United  States  and  Mexico.     (Prolonged  cheers.) 

Banquet  at  Neiv  York  City  on  Gctobcr  2,  iSdy. — When  the  War  of 
Intervention  was  over  in  Mexico,  prominent  citizens  of  New  York 
City,  desirous  of  testifying  in  some  public  manner  their  interest  in  the 
welfare  of  that  country,  and  their  esteem  for  my  adhering  to  its  cause 


\ 


388  Ibistorical  Botes  on  /iDejico. 

amid  the  greatest  discouragements,  tendered  me  a  banquet  which  took 
place  at  the  city  of  New  York  on  October  2,  1867,  previous  to  my 
return  home.  The  gentlemen  who  made  the  invitation  and  partici- 
pated at  the  banquet  were  the  following  : 

Peter  Cooper,  Wm.  H.  Aspinwall,  Paul  Spofford, 

M.  H.  Grinnell,  H.  H.  Van  Dyck,  Henry  Clews, 

Sam'l  G.  Courtney,  James  Robb,  Chas.  W.  Sandford, 

Francis  Skiddv,  Shepard  Gandv,  Parke  Godwin 

Wm.  R.  Garrison,  Benj.  Hollidav,  Ellicott  C.  Cowdin, 

Wm.  C.  Bryant,  James  W.  Beekman  Hiram  Barney, 

Wm.  E.  Dodge,  Jr.,  John  Jay,  Henry  Ward  Beecher, 

Dan'l  Butterfield,  Theodore  Roosevelt  John  A.  Stewart, 

Henry  A.  Smythe,  David  Hoadley,  Rufus  Ingalls, 

Jas.  R.  Whiting,  J.  Grant  Wilson,  Wm.  G.  Fargo. 

On  that  occasion  I  made  the  following  address  : 

Mr.  Chairman — Gentlemen  : — It  is  nearly  eight  years  since  I  landed  in  an 
official  capacity  on  this  hospitable  shore.  Soon  afterward,  I  became  the  representa- 
tive of  my  country,  or  at  least  of  such  a  portion  of  it,  as  believing  that  they  had  in  the 
United  States  a  great  example  to  imitate,  were  eager  to  give  Mexico  the  same  advan- 
tages that  this  country  enjoyed,  by  following  the  same  line  of  policy. 

About  that  very  time,  the  elements  of  a  gigantic  political  struggle  were  maturing, 
which  produced  soon  afterward  the  great  Civil  War  of  the  United  States.  This  ter- 
rible shock  was  felt  at  once  in  Mexico,  in  the  shape  of  an  European  intervention  avow- 
edly for  the  purpose  of  overthrowing  the  Republican  institutions  existing  there.  All 
of  you,  gentlemen,  are  quite  familiar  with  what  followed  here  as  well  as  there.  It 
pleased  Heaven  to  crown  with  success  the  noble  efforts  of  the  patriots  and  philanthro- 
pists who,  while  defending  in  both  countries  the  independence  and  integrity  of  their 
homes  and  the  institutions  of  their  choice,  were  also  struggling  for  the  advancement  of 
humanity,  and  the  amelioration  of  the  social  condition  of  the  masses  throughout  the 
world. 

I  call  your  attention  to  this  difficult  crisis,  only  to  express  on  this  solemn  occasion, 
before  this  distinguished  assembly  of  representative  men,  my  testimony  of  the  high- 
toned,  enlightened,  and  disinterested  sympathy  which  the  cause  of  Mexico  awakened 
in  the  hearts  of  the  people  of  the  United  States  ;  a  sympathy  which,  while  encouraging 
the  Mexican  people  in  the  defense  of  their  outraged  rights,  made  European  encroach- 
ments more  guarded,  and  thus  contributed  in  a  great  measure  to  the  final  success  at 
which  we  now  all  rejoice. 

In  closing,  or  at  least  suspending,  temporarily,  my  official  duties  at  Washington,  it 
behooves  me  to  say  that  I  carry  home  a  very  lively  and  most  pleasant  recollection  of 
my  long  sojourn  among  you  ;  that  I  take  also  with  me  the  lasting  experience  of  eight 
years  of  political  agitation,  in  which  very  momentous  events  have  taken  place ;  that, 
faithful  to  the  political  creed  of  the  Liberal  national  party  of  Mexico,  I  will  do  ali  I 
can  to  contribute  in  establishing  there  the  same  political  principles  I  have  been  taught 
to  admire  and  appreciate  here,  and  which,  in  my  opinion,  are  indispensable  to  the 
welfare  of  Mexico  ;  and  it  will  be  my  pride  as  well  as  my  pleasure  to  be  the  friend  of 
the  United  States  so  long  as  they  entertain  no  hostile  or  unfriendly  designs  against  my 
own  country. 

On  a  former  occasion,  and  in  this  very  place,  I  availed  myself  of  the  opportunity 
to  express  what  I  consider  to  be  a  philosophical  view,  based  on  facts,  of  the  causes  and 
objects  of  the  civil  wars  in  Mexico  since  the  Declaration  of  its  Independence.     I  do  not 


f 


Causes  of  tbe  /IDejican  IRcvolutions^  389 

believe  that  Nature  has  made  different  sets  of  rules  for  each  people,  or  for  each  family 
of  peoples,  called  races.  It  is,  in  my  opinion,  wiser  to  suppose  that  Providence  con- 
trols mankind  by  the  same  code  of  rules,  which  are  equally  applicable  to  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  as  to  the  Latin  races — to  the  Indians  as  to  the  Africans. 

In  these  modern  times,  political  revolutions  seem  to  have  for  their  object  the 
amelioration  of  the  condition  of  the  masses,  by  breaking  or  attempting  to  break  down 
the  old  system  of  the  organization  of  society  when  this  becomes  oppressive.  Follow- 
ing this  theory,  it  appears  to  me  that  in  all  modern  revolutions  there  have  been  two 
sides :  the  aristocratic  side,  or  the  side  of  the  few,  who  have  in  the  course  of  time,  ac- 
cumulated wealth,  power,  and  influence,  often  exercised  to  the  disadvantage  of  the 
people ;  and  the  popular  side,  or  the  side  of  the  many,  who  lose  those  advantages  in 
proportion  as  they  are  monopolized  by  their  opponents.  A  point  is  reached  where 
the  exactions  of  the  few  become  intolerable,  and  then  comes  a  popular  uprising  ;  or 
either  the  aristocratic  element,  foreseeing  that  this  result  is  to  happen,  precipitates  it 
by  taking  the  initiative  with  a  view  to  forcing  the  contest,  before  their  enemies  are 
fully  organized  and  prepared.  This  was,  in  my  opinion,  the  cause  of  the  English 
revolution  of  the  17th  century,  which  culminated  in  the  establishment  of  the  Com- 
monwealth ;  of  the  French  revolution  of  the  l8th  century,  which  ended  in  a  similar 
manner  ;  of  the  last  civil  war  in  the  United  States,  and  of  the  civil  wars  in  Mexico 
and  other  Spanish-American  Republics. 

Our  aristocracy  in  Mexico  has  been  an  ambitious  and  unscrupulous  priesthood, 
who  had  wielded  for  centuries  political  power,  and  would  rather  see  their  country  sub- 
jugated by  a  foreign  despot  than  under  the  control  of  their  political  opponents  who 
desire,  in  good  faith,  its  advancement  and  prosperity,  and  its  emancipation  from  re- 
ligious intolerance,  and  from  opposition  to  popular  and  free  education.  Fortunately 
for  us,  the  question  at  home  has  been  of  a  mere  political  character,  notwithstanding 
the  efforts  of  the  clergy  to  make  it  also  a  religious  one. 

Our  success  against  the  French  once  achieved,  I  have  very  strong  and  well- 
grounded  reasons  to  expect  that  we  shall  have  peace  and  tranquillity,  and  that  our 
country  will  be  developed  and  enjoy  fully  their  attending  blessings. 

Within  a  brief  period  we  shall  hold  our  election  for  the  functionaries  to  be  chosen 
by  the  people,  and  we  shall  then  enter  again  into  our  constitutional  existence,  some- 
what interrupted  by  the  French  intervention.  Our  policy  will  then  be  to  enforce  our 
laws  which  allow  the  free  exercise  of  all  religions,  and  give  no  preference  to  any  ; 
which  provide  a  perfect  separation  between  Church  and  State  ;  to  establish  a  system 
of  free  schools,  which  will  educate  the  masses  of  our  people,  and  make  them  produc- 
tive and  happy ;  to  encourage  the  immigration  of  peaceable  and  laboring  citizens  of 
the  United  States,  which  will  assist  us  in  developing  our  resources ;  to  invite  the  in- 
vestment of  the  surplus  capital  of  the  United  States  in  Mexican  enterprises,  and  to 
look  up  to  this  privileged  country  as  our  eldest  sister,  affording  us  an  example  worthy 
of  imitation.  When  these  objects  are  attained,  when  both  countries  stand  in  the  rela- 
tion of  friendly  powers,  with  a  common  object  and  a  common  destiny,  realizing  the 
responsibility  they  have  before  the  world  as  the  guardians  of  republican  institutions, 
my  life-long  ambition  and  my  fondest  wishes  w  ill  have  been  realized. 

The  condition  of  the  Mexican  people  is  not  fully  understood  outside  of  Mexico, 
and  causes  very  many  to  distrust  their  capacity  for  self-government.  It  is  certainly 
not  so  far  advanced  in  civilization  as  the  people  of  the  United  States.  Education  is 
not  so  much  extended  there  as  here  ;  there  is  little  homogeneousness  in  the  elements 
of  which  it  is  composed;  yet  they  are  a  peaceful,  laborious  people,  well-meaning  and 
docile,  and  they  only  need  the  establishment  of  free  schools  and  the  consolidation  of 
peace,  to  become  one  of  the  best  regulated  people  upon  earth.  The  greater  portion 
of  our  population  has  been  purposely  kept  in  the  most  complete  ignorance  by  the 


390  IfDistorical  IHotes  on  /IDcinco. 

Spaniards  and  the  Church  party,  with  a  view  of  controlling  them  more  easily,  and 
when  we  shall  have  educated  them  we  shall  double  or  treble  the  working  energies  of 
the  country. 

The  conduct  of  the  Mexican  people  during  our  late  war  with  France  shows, 
in  my  opinion,  beyond  all  doubt,  that  they  possess  very  many  of  the  virtues  which  con- 
stitute a  free  people  ;  their  perseverance  under  the  greatest  discouragement,  their 
courage  and  determination  to  fight  constantly  against  an  enemy  vastly  superior  in  re- 
sources, their  moderation  in  the  hour  of  success,  their  well-known  endurance,  are  all 
facts  which  speak  very  clearly  in  their  behalf.  I  have  full  confidence  in  them,  and 
earnestly  believe  that,  if  they  are  not  as  advanced  as  it  is  desirable  they  should  be 
they  are  capable  and  desirous  of  improvement. 

As  to  their  ability  for  self-government,  I  will  only  say  that  either  republican  in- 
stitutions are  adaptable  to  mankind,  and  calculated  to  promote  their  welfare  and  hap- 
piness, or  they  are  not.  If  they  are,  I  see  no  reason  why  the  Mexican  people  should 
be  considered  unfit  for  them.  If  they  are  not,  I  could  not  explain  their  development 
in  this  country. 

I  think  it  is  a  mistaken  view  of  the  case  to  say  that  because  we  have  had  a  civil 
war  in  Mexico,  or  rather  a  social  war,  which  has  lasted  for  many  years,  it  should  be 
concluded  that  we  are  incapable  of  self-government.  None  can  suppose  that  we  have 
been  fighting  all  that  time  merely  for  the  pleasure  of  it.  We  have  had,  to  be  sure, 
unscrupulous  and  designing  men,  who  have  ostensibly  appeared  as  fighting  to  gratify 
their  own  ambition  and  self-aggrandizement ;  but,  in  fact,  they  have  only  been  used 
by  one  or  the  other  of  the  contending  political  parties  ;  and  principles  have  been  in- 
volved at  the  bottom  of  our  troubles. 

As  for  the  motives  which  prompted  the  late  Maximilian  to  go  to  Mexico — much 
as  I  regret  to  speak  of  them,  since  he  is  now  shielded  by  the  sacred  asylum  of  his 
grave — I,  nevertheless,  cannot  help  saying  in  defence  of  my  own  country,  that  what- 
ever good  intentions  he  may  have  entertained  towards  Mexico,  if  any,  they  have  little 
to  do  with  the  question  of  his  intervention  there. 

When  he  was  asked  to  go  to  Mexico,  it  is  charitable  to  suppose  that  he  did  not  un- 
derstand the  true  condition  of  the  country  so  far  removed  from  his  own.  But  the  mere 
fact  that  he  was  asked  to  go  by  a  foreign  state,  at  war  with  Mexico,  and  by  a  few 
Mexicans  who  were  accomplices  in  the  crime  of  overthrowing  the  institutions  of  their 
country  by  means  of  a  foreign  army,  it  seems  to  me,  ought  to  have  been  sufficient  to 
make  him  very  careful  before  deciding  to  take  part  in  and  increase  the  political  diffi- 
culties of  Mexico.  The  inducements  held  out  to  him  by  the  French  emperor  pre- 
vailed at  last,  and  he  determined  to  go  under  French  protection  and  French  auspices, 
notwithstanding  that  he  never  received  a  single  vote  from  any  place  in  Mexico  not  in 
possession  of  the  French  army  of  occupation. 

The  simple  case  was  clearly  before  him.  He  may  have  supposed  that  if  he  suc- 
ceeded in  forcing  the  rule  over  the  Mexican  people,  he  would  be  the  founder  of  a 
great  European  empire  in  the  New  World ;  if  he  failed,  he  would  return  to  Europe 
with  the  prestige  of  having  attempted  to  establish  one,  with  the  title  of  Emperor, 
with  a  higher  position  than  he  had  ever  had  before,  and  a  greater  probability  to  suc- 
ceed his  brother  as  the  ruler  of  the  Austrian  Empire,  or  to  be  the  occupant  of  any 
vacant  throne  in  that  continent. 

On  leaving  Miramar,  and  before  arriving  in  Mexico,  he  went  to  Rome,  to  secure, 
as  he  said,  the  benediction  of  the  Pope,  and  what  we  cannot  understand  in  America,  to 
consult  with  the  Holy  See  about  the  temporal  government  of  an  American  republic. 
The  result  was,  that  notwithstanding  that  consultation,  he  not  only  failed  in  estab- 
lishing his  rule  in  Mexico,  but  that  soon  after  he  arrived  there  he  had  almost  an  open 
rupture  with  the  Pope  and  the  Mexican  clergy. 


Causes  of  tbe  /IDejicau  IRevolutious,  391 

On  arriving  in  Mexico  he  began  to  see  that  his  task  was  more  difficult  than  he 
had  imagined.  In  the  beginning,  however,  it  was  but  light,  as  the  French  govern- 
ment had  taken  care  to  provide  him  with  funds  even  before  he  left  Europe,  making 
so  of  this,  another  inducement  for  him  to  go.  When  these  were  exhausted,  and  the 
French  emperor, — satisfied  of  the  impracticability  of  his  task, — made  up  his  mind  to 
withdraw  his  troops  from  Mexico,  Maximilian  thought  of  returning  to  Europe  as  the 
only  alternative  left  him.  I  pass  over,  without  comment,  the  unhappy  though  not  un- 
important role  of  the  partner  of  his  life.  The  result  of  this  last  and  vain  effort  is  well 
known  to  all. 

Maximilian  then  determined  to  carry  out  his  plan  of  leaving  Mexico,  and  sailing 
from  Veracruz,  where  an  Austrian  war  vessel  had  been  in  readiness,  awaiting  to  con- 
vey him  to  his  home.  He  came  almost  by  stealth  from  the  City  of  Mexico  to  Orizaba, 
having  previously  shipped  all  his  baggage  and  effects,  which  he  took  from  the  country. 

On  arriving  at  this  latter  place,  he  was  overtaken  by  some  of  his  supporters,  who 
came  to  persuade  him  to  remain,  and  who,  as  they  were  committed  to  the  empire,  saw 
in  him  at  least  one  guarantee  of  foreign  support.  They  represented  to  him,  as  they  had 
done  a  few  years  before  to  the  French  emperor,  and  other  European  governments, 
that  they  controlled  the  Mexican  people  ;  that  they  could  give  him  the  men  and  money 
necessary  to  consolidate  his  rule  in  Mexico.  They  enlarged  upon  the  glory  he  would 
achieve  by  accomplishing  this  result  without  the  aid  of  the  French,  and  availing  them- 
selves of  the  difficulties  which  had  arisen  between  him  and  his  supporters,  they  urged 
him.  by  exciting  his  wounded  pride,  to  make  at  least  another  effort  to  remain  ;  in  this 
instance  they  succeeded  as  well  as  in  the  former.  Their  efforts,  however,  would  not 
have  had  this  result,  in  my  opinion,  had  they  not  been  supported  by  the  advice  of  one 
of  Maximilian's  most  trusted  counsellors — a  Belgian — who  accompanied  him  to  Mexico, 
and  who,  on  writing  him  a  letter  from  Brussels,  on  the  17th  of  September,  1866,  (the 
original  of  which  has  been  in  my  hands),  told  him  that  he  ought  under  no  circum- 
stances then  to  leave  Mexico ;  that  the  French  desired  him  to  do  so,  to  heap  upon  him 
the  responsibility  of  their  failure,  and  that  he  ought  not  to  gratify  them,  but,  by  re- 
maining, place  this  responsibility  where  it  properly  belonged.  He  advised  his  master 
furthermore,  to  call,  after  the  withdrawal  of  the  French,  for  a  popular  election  to  de- 
cide whether  the  Mexican  people  desired  him  or  not,  as  the  best  means  of  leaving, 
without  dishonor,  a  difficult  position,  and  to  return  to  Europe  without  prestige. 

Maximilian's  subsequent  action  showed  that  he  undertook  to  carry  out  to  the  very 
letter  this  advice,  given  by  a  man  entirely  ignorant  of  the  condition  of  Mexico.  He 
returned  to  the  City  of  Mexico,  after  having  promised  to  call  for  a  National  Congress 
to  decide  whether  the  people  desired  the  Republic  or  the  Empire  under  him. 

On  arriving  there  he  found  that  the  National  troops  were  closing  their  lines  and 
carrying  everything  before  them,  and,  supposing  that  he  could  arrest  these  advances  by 
taking  to  the  interior  all  the  available  forces  accumulated  in  the  City  of  Mexico,  he 
marched  to  Queretaro.  It  would  be  unnecessary  to  say  what  happened  there.  Through 
the  want  of  military  ability  he  allowed  our  troops  to  concentrate  upon  and  beseige 
Queretaro,  until  he  was  finally  overcome.  From  the  tenor  of  his  communications 
while  he  was  surrounded  at  Queretaro,  it  appears  very  clearly  that  he  never  realized 
the  difficulties  of  his  position,  and  much  less  the  disastrous  end  of  the  campaign  ;  and 
his  letters  to  President  Juarez  after  he  was  captured,  showed  not  less  plainly  that, 
until  then,  he  had  never  dreamed  of  the  sad  fate  which,  by  invading  a  hannless  and 
innocent  people  in  their  American  mountain  homes,  he  had  provoked  and  deserved. 

But  Maximilian,  although  a  grand  duke  and  heir  of  empire  in  Austria,  was 
nothing  of  a  Caesar,  and  only  a  French  automaton  in  the  revolutionary  drama  of  my 
country.  Let  this  unhappy  fate  be  accepted  in  extenuation  of  his  crime,  in  consenting 
to  be  the  automaton  of  the  ambition  of  the  French  Csesar  in  the  revolution  of  Mexico. 


392 


iDistorical  Botes  on  /IDejlco. 


Mexico  can  hereafter  have  no  fears ;  for  her  safety  against  foreign  invasion  is  se- 
cured ;  no  revenges  will  follow  the  revolution  which  her  enemies  inaugurated,  and 
which  has  resulted  in  their  own  overthrow  and  ruin. 

In  concluding  these  remarks,  I  fear  I  have  already  intruded  too  long  upon  your 
patience  [cries  of  "  No,  no"],  I  must  say  that  I  believe  the  Mexican  Government  is 
preparing  several  documents  to  be  given  to  the  v/orld,  in  which  its  position  and  the 
relations  of  Maximilian  towards  Mexico  will  be  fully  explained.  I  am  certain  when 
these  documents  see  the  light,  that  all  who  doubted  the  correctness  and  propriety  of 
the  policy  adopted  by  the  Mexican  Government,  will  be  inclined  to  change  their  minds. 
I  cannot  resume  my  seat  without  again  thanking  the  gentlemen  present  this  evening 
for  their  kindness  and  courtesy  in  tendering  to  me  this  demonstration.  I  shall  always 
remember  it  as  one  of  the  most  pleasant  evenings,  and  one  of  the  most  pleasing  events 
that  has  taken  place  in  my  life. 


Banquet  at  New  York  City  on  December  i6,  i8gi. — Mr.  Walter  S. 
Logan,  a  prominent  lawyer  of  New  York,  of  whom  I  have  before 
spoken,  was  also  kind  enough  to  tender  me  a  banquet  in  the  Demo- 
cratic Club  of  the  City  of  New  York,  which  took  place  on  December 
i6,  1891,  with  the  attendance  of  the  following  gentlemen  : 


Dr.  Lyman  Abbott, 
Mr. Charles  Frederick  Adams, 
Mr.  Lawrence  D.  Alexander, 
Mr.  E.  Ellerv  Anderson, 
Hon.  John  H.  V.  Arnold, 
Hon.  William  H.  Arnoux 
Mr.  Edward  G.  Bailey, 
Mr.  Peter  T.  Barlow, 
Hon.  Hiram  Barney, 
Mr.  Henry  W.  Bean, 
Hon.  Henry  R.  Beekman, 
Hon.  James  D.  Bell, 
Mr.  William  L.  Bennett, 
SeSor    Don   Nicanor    Bolet- 

Peraza, 
Capt.  E.  C.  Bowen, 
Mr.  Cephas  Brainerd, 
Mr.  George  W.  Bramwell, 
Mr.  Eugene  V.  Brewster, 
Mr.  H.  L.  Bridgman, 
Mr.  Isaac  H.  Bro.mley, 
Hon.  William  L.  Brown, 
Mr.  Charles  H.  Brush. 
Dr.  Joseph  D.  Bryant, 
Mr.  Walter  C.  Cady, 
Mr.  John  C.  Calhoun, 
SeRor  Don  Joaquin  Bernado 

Calvo, 
Hon.  Charles  J.  Canda, 
Hon.  Alfred  C.  Chapin, 
Hon.  Norton  P.  Chase, 
Hon.  L.  E.  Chittenden, 
Mr.  Gardner  K.  Clark,  Jr., 
Mr.  Salter  S.  Clark, 
Mr.  Charles  W.  Coleman, 
Hon.  Alfred  R.  Conkling, 
Mr.  Charles  A.  Coombs, 
Mr.  Magrane  Coxe, 
Hon.  J.  Sergeant  Cram, 


Mr.  Thomas  D.  Crimmins, 

Hon.  William  E.  Curtis, 

Hon.  Noah  Davis, 

Mr.  Charles  W.  Dayton, 

Mr  Lewis  L.  Delafield, 

Mr.  Clarence  Deming, 

Mr.  Charles  M.  Demond, 

Mr.  Rhinelander  Dillon, 

Mr.  Augustus  T.  Docharty, 

Hon.  Daniel  Dougherty, 

Hon.  C.  T.  Driscoll, 

Mr.  Frank  J.  Dupignac, 

Hon.  Dorman  B.  Eaton, 

Col.  M.  V.  B.  Edgerly, 

Mr.  Walter  Edwards, 

Mr.  George  Cary  Eggleston, 

Mr.  Rudolph  Eickemeyer, 

Hon.  Smith  Ely, 

Mr.  William  T.  Emmett, 

Mr.  J.  Rockwell  Fay, 

Mr.  Charles  S.  Findlay, 

Prof.  John  Fiske, 

Dr.  Austin  Flint, 

Mr.  Roger  Foster, 

Mr.  a.  B.  de  Frece, 

Senor  Don  Jose  G.  Garcia, 

Capt.  Hugh  R.  Garden, 

Mr.  William  J.  Gardner, 

Mr.  James  C.  Goddard, 

Rev.  John  C.  Goddard, 

Mr.  Walter  L.  Goddard, 

Hon.  E.  L.  Godkin, 

Mr.  Antonio  C.  Gonzalez, 

Mr.  Frank  C.  Hatch, 

Mr.  Frederick  H.  Hatch, 

Mr.  John  R.  Hatch, 

Mr.  Marx  E.  Harby, 

Hon.  William  F.  Harrity, 

Mr.  Burton  N.  Harrison, 


Hon.  Michal  D.  Harter, 
Mr.  Henry  W.  Havden, 
Hon.  Joseph  C.  Hendrix, 
Hon.  Abram  S.  Hewitt, 
Mr.  Thomas  B.  Hewitt, 
Mr.  Stephen  R.  Hewlett, 
Mr.  John  R.  Howard, 
Mr.  Edward  C.  Hurlbert, 
Mr.  Collis  p.  Huntington, 
Hon.  Thomas  L.  James, 
Mr.  George  W.  Kenyon, 
Mr.  John  D.  Kernan, 
Hon.  John  Jay  Knox, 
Mr.  Gilbert  D.  Lamb, 
Col.  Daniel  S.  Lamont, 
Hon.  Jefferson  M.  Levy, 
Mr.  Herbert  H.  Logan, 
Mr.  Grosvenor  P.  Lowrey, 
Mr.  Hart  Lyman, 
Hon.  W.  Gordon  McCabe, 
Mr.  Walter  L.  McCorklk, 
Mr.  St.  Clair  McKelway, 
Gen.  James  McLeer, 
Mr.  James  F.  Merriam, 
Prof.  John  B.  Moore, 
Mr.  Rollin  M.  Morgan, 
Hon.  Samuel  D.  Morris, 
Hon.  Theodore  W.  Myers, 
Hon.  Juan  Navarro, 
Hon.  Henry  L.  Nelson, 
Mr.  Emmet  R.  Olcott, 
Mr.  a.  C.  Palmer, 
Mr.  George  F.  Parker, 
Mr.  Wheeler  H.  Peckham, 
Hon.  James  J.  Phelan, 
Mr.  Charles  E.  Phelps, 
Hon.  Orlando  B.  Potter, 
Mr.  Louis  Prang, 
Hon.  Roger  A.  Pryor, 


Causes  ot  tbe  /IDejican  IRevolutions. 


393 


Mr.  George  Haven  Putnam,       Mr.  Lucius  P.  Starr, 


Mr.  John  E.  Risley, 
Mr.  Oliver  H.  K.  Risley, 
Hon.  Ellis  H.  Roberts, 
SeRor  Don  Matias  Romero, 
Hon.  Horace  Russell, 
Mr.  Louis  H.  Scott, 
Mr.  George  H.  Sexton, 
Mr.  John  C.  Sheehan, 
Hon.  Nelson  Smith, 
Mr.  Santiago  Smithers, 
Mr.  Henry  B.  Stapler, 


Mr.  Simon  Sterne, 
Dr.  George  T.  Stevens, 
Mr.  John  Stewart, 
Mr.  Albert  Stickney, 
Hon.  W.  E.  D.  Stokes, 
Mk.  Isidor  Straus, 
Hon.  Oscar  S.  Straus, 
Hon.  John  A.  Taylor, 
Mr.  Henry  T.  Thomas, 
Mr.  Daniel  G.  Thompson, 


Hon.  W.  L.  Trenholm, 
Hon.  John  R.  Voorhis, 
Mr.  Arthur  E.  Walradt, 
Mr.  J.  Langdon  Ward, 
Hon.  John  DeWitt  Warner, 
Hon.  Bartow  S.  Weeks, 
Prof.  Arthur  M.  Wheeler, 
Hon.  Everett  P.  Wheeler, 
Hon.  Andrew  D.  White, 
Hon.  Horace  White, 
Mr.  T.  C.  Woodward, 


Mr.  Hamilton  B.  Tompkins,        Mr.  Willis  H.  Young. 
Prof.  George  A.  Treadwell, 


I 


A  great  many  speeches,  and  some  of  them  of  very  great  interest, 
were  delivered  on  that  occasion,  and  I  am  sorry  that  I  do  not  have  the 
space  to  insert  here  some  of  them,  but  I  must  confine  myself  to  my 
address,  which,  although  the  humbler  of  the  speeches  then  made,  is 
relevant  for  the  purpose  that  I  now  have  in  view.  Fortunately  they 
were  all  published  in  a  very  neat  pamphlet  which  Mr.  Logan  gave  to 
light  under  the  title  of  A  Mexican  Night.  My  address  in  answer  to  a 
toast,  "  The  Future  of  Mexico  and  its  Relations  with  the  United 
States,"  was  the  following  : 

Mr.  Logan — Gentlemen  : — I  thank  you  very  sincerely  for  this  handsome  and 
significant  demonstration,  in  which  the  friends  of  Mexico  have  been  so  kindly  treated. 
It  has  been  the  aim  of  my  life  to  establish  and  cement  the  most  cordial  and  friendly 
relations  between  the  two  great  republics  of  the  Western  Hemisphere,  and  any 
demonstration  like  the  present,  calculated  to  produce  such  desirable  results,  is  always 
very  pleasing  to  me.  In  this  case,  specially,  I  feel  particularly  complimented,  because 
I  have  been  allowed  the  opportunity  to  meet  so  many  of  the  most  distinguished  citizens 
of  this  city,  the  metropolis  of  the  greatest  republic  of  the  world,  which  is  destined  to 
have  a  controlling  influence  in  the  welfare  of  mankind.     (Applause.) 

Although  my  participation  in  this  banquet,  as  one  of  the  friends  of  Mexico,  is  not 
a  personal  compliment  to  me,  but  due  to  the  official  position  I  now  hold,  as  the  diplo- 
matic representative  of  my  country  near  the  government  of  the  United  States,  I  never- 
theless keenly  feel  the  whole  kind  meaning  of  this  feast,  and  extend  my  heartfelt 
thanks  to  its  originator,  our  amiable  host,  and  to  all  the  gentlemen  who  have  honored 
us  with  their  presence. 

I  hope  I  will  be  allowed,  at  a  Mexican  feast,  to  say  a  few  words  concerning  the 
future  of  my  country,  in  connection  with  the  United  States.  You  all  know,  gentle- 
men, that  the  wealth  of  Mexico  is  really  astonishing.  She  has  all  the  climates  of  the 
earth,  from  the  frozen  regions  of  the  pole,  in  her  snow-clad  mountains,  to  the  equato- 
rial heat  of  her  ticrras  calientes,  and  can  produce,  therefore,  all  the  fruits  which  grow 
out  of  the  earth  ;  and  she  alone  can  supply  all  the  coffee,  sugar,  vanilla,  india-rubber 
and  other  tropical  products  needed  to  provide  the  large  market  of  the  United  States. 
Her  mineral  wealth  is  equally  unbounded.  Mexico  has  already  yielded  about  two 
thirds  of  the  whole  silver  which  forms  the  stock  of  the  white  metal  in  the  world,  and 
her  mines  are,  so  far,  merely  scratched.  Her  mountains  contain  not  only  silver,  but 
gold,  iron,  copper,  lead,  tin,  cinnabar,  and  every  other  kind  of  metal.  We  have  also 
large  veins  of  coal,  which  are  now  being  discovered,  and  only  one  has  commenced  to 
be  developed.  The  configuration  of  the  country,  traversed  by  rugged  and  steep 
sierras,  which  come  almost  to  the  sea,  while  it  prevents  us  from  having  large  navigable 


394  Ibistorical  IRotcs  on  /iDejico. 

streams  of  any  length,  furnishes  tliousands  of  torrents,  which,  in  their  precipitous 
course  from  the  mountains  to  the  sea,  afford  the  largest  amount  of  water-power  I  can 
conceive  of,  and  will  make  of  Mexico,  in  the  course  of  time,  one  of  the  leading  manu- 
facturing countries  of  the  world.  We  are  bountifully  blessed  by  Providence,  as  far  as 
natiual  wealth  is  concerned,  and  we  have  all  the  elements  to  make  us  a  self-supporting 
nation.  All  we  need  is  peace  and  a  just  and  patriotic  government,  willing  to  facilitate 
the  development  of  the  country  ;  and  I  think  we  have  established  the  former  perma- 
nently, and  enjoy  the  latter  fully.     (Applause.) 

Nature  has  made  us  neighbors,  placing  our  respective  countries  in  contiguity  one 
to  the  other,  for  a  distance  of  nearly  two  thousand  miles.  Our  roads  intermingle  and 
make  of  both  practically  a  single  country  for  travelling  and  commercial  purposes. 
We  have  no  natural  barriers  to  trade,  all  those  existing  being  entirely  artificial. 
Although  the  possibilities  of  Mexico  are  immense,  we  are  not  yet  a  manufacturing 
country,  in  the  whole  extent  of  this  word,  because  our  resources  are  still  undeveloped. 

We  produce  tropical  fruits,  specially  raw  materials,  which  you  require  as  food  for 
your  large  manufacturing  interests,  and  we  need  a  great  many  of  the  articles  that  you 
manufacture  in  this  country.  There  is  no  reason,  therefore,  why  we  should  not  trade 
largely  and  to  our  mutual  advantage.  So  far,  and  notwithstanding  the  artificial 
barriers  existing  on  the  frontier,  over  eighty  per  cent,  of  our  exports  come  to  the 
United  States,  and  we  take  from  this  country  nearly  sixty  per  cent,  of  our  imports; 
and  I  have  no  doubt  that  with  proper  stimulus,  and  with  a  partial  severance  of  the 
present  barriers,  traffic  will  double  or  treble  before  the  lapse  of  many  years.  The 
development  of  trade  will  bring  about  not  only  the  increase  of  business,  but  also  of 
social  relations  between  our  respective  countries.  The  capital,  energy,  and  sagacity 
of  the  business  men  of  this  country  will  find  a  very  large  and  profitable  virgin  field  in 
Mexican  enterprises. 

Great  doubts  have  been  entertained  about  the  stability  of  the  government  in 
Mexico,  on  account  of  our  former  political  troubles.  But  it  is  quite  plain,  in  my 
judgment,  that  as  there  was  a  reason  for  such  troubles,  and  that  said  reason  having 
now  disappeared,  there  is  no  longer  any  danger  that  they  will  spring  again,  Mexico, 
while  a  colony  of  Spain  three  hundred  years,  was  ruled  by  the  Church  then  allied  to 
the  throne,  which  had  a  paramount  influence,  both  moral  and  material.  When  Mexi- 
can independence  was  proclaimed  in  iSio,  the  leader  being  a  member  of  the  low 
clergy,  Hidalgo,  it  was  opposed  by  the  Church,  the  aristocracy,  and  the  Spaniards, 
and  against  such  odds  it  could  not  make  any  headway.  When  in  182 1  the  .Spanish 
Cortes  adopted  some  liberal  measures,  which  alarmed  the  conservative  elements  in 
Mexico,  the  Church  thought  that  its  interests  would  be  better  protected,  having  a 
home  government  that  it  could  control,  rather  than  one  depending  from  the  Court  of 
Madrid,  and  its  ruling  spirits,  joined  the  few  scattered  patriots  which  remained  in  the 
country,  and  independence  was  thus  achieved,  without  bloodshed  :  this  fact  showing 
conclusively  how  great  was  the  power  of  the  Church  in  Mexico.  As  success  was  du^' 
to  the  adhesion  of  the  Church  party  to  the  cause  of  independence,  it  was  natural  that 
they  should  form  the  new  government,  and  the  transitory  Empire  of  Iturbide,  tiicir 
leader,  was  the  outcome  of  their  success.  But  the  struggle  then  began  between  Hie 
liberal  and  progressive  elements  on  one  side,  and  the  conservative  party  on  the  other, 
which  culminated  with  the  French  intervention,  supported  by  the  Church  party,  and 
coinciding  with  the  Civil  War  in  the  United  States.  The  defeat  of  the  intervention 
put  an  end  to  the  armed  struggle  of  the  Church  for  political  supremacy  in  Mexico.  It 
is  no  wonder  that  such  a  struggle  should  last  nearly  fifty  years,  when  it  is  taken  into 
consideration  that  Mexico  passed  during  that  period  through  complete  social  and 
political  evolution,  while,  in  the  old  countries  of  Europe,  similar  clianges  have  required 
the  lapse  of  centuries  and  the  shedtling  of  torrents  of  human  blood.     The  United 


Causes  of  tbe  ^ejican  IRevolutlons.  395 

States,  though  a  model  country,  as  they  began  their  national  life  under  the  best 
auspices,  and  have  continued  it  with  wonderful  success,  had  the  seeds  of  future  trouble 
in  slavery,  and  notwithstanding  that  slavery  affected  only  the  material  interests  of  its 
supporters,  they  could  not  settle  that  difficulty  but  by  the  bloodiest  civil  war  that  the 
world  ever  beheld,  and  which  lasted  several  years. 

But,  as  the  power  of  the  Church  has  been  completely  broken  down,  thus  bringing 
about  the  successful  evolution  of  liberal  and  progressive  ideas,  there  is  no  longer  any 
danger  of  further  political  troubles,  any  more  than  there  is  in  this  country,  or  in  any  of 
the  older  nations  of  Europe,  where  stability  is  reasonably  considered  as  an  accom- 
plished fact.  Besides,  the  rapid  means  of  communication  afforded  by  telegraphic 
lines  and  railways,  and  the  established  credit  of  the  country  afford  the  Government 
effective  means  to  promptly  crush  any  outbreak,  of  which  it  was  deprived  before. 

The  business  men  of  the  older  European  nations  seem  to  have  taken  this  view  of 
the  situation,  as  they  have  invested  largely  in  Mexican  enterprises  for  the  last  fifteen 
years,  and  so  far  with  benefit  to  themselves  and  profit  to  my  country,  which  needs 
capital  for  the  development  of  her  immense  sources  of  wealth.  Citizens  from  this 
country  have  also  invested  largely,  as  it  is  attested  by  tlie  three  trunk  railways  now  in 
operation  in  Mexico,  connecting  the  country  with  the  large  railroad  systems  of  the 
United  States,  and  making  them  practically  extensions  of  the  same,  and  a  large  num- 
ber of  mining  companies  which  have  recently  sprung  up,  taking  hold  principally  of  the 
old  abandoned  mines.  Sometimes  it  has  seemed  to  me  that  tlie  European  investors 
prefer  to  have  their  Mexican  ventures  in  the  name  of  citizens  of  this  country,  perhaps 
because  they  believe  that  their  interests  are  better  secured  in  that  way.  Every  investor 
of  any  nationality  is,  in  my  opinion,  perfectly  guaranteed  in  Mexico.  The  lines 
already  mentioned,  and  various  others  which  are  either  finished  or  in  process  of  con- 
struction, have  relied  on  foreign  capital,  and  specially  on  English  money.  Capital 
being  so  abundant  in  England,  it  is  easier  to  find  it  there  than  anywhere  else,  for  any 
enterprise  requiring  a  large  outlay,  and  even  some  of  the  railways  in  this  country  have 
been  constructed  with  English  capital. 

When  the  settlement  of  the  last  territory  of  the  United  States  shall  make  it  diffi- 
cult to  find  a  new  field  for  profitable  enterprise,  and  before  long  it  will  be  as  difficult 
to  find  it  here  as  it  is  now  in  Europe,  the  capital  which  this  country  is  now  so  rapidly 
accumulating,  and  its  enterprising  activity,  will  have  to  look  for  new  ventures.  It  will 
be  an  act  of  foresight  to  enter  at  once  into  the  large  and  rich  field  offered  by  Mexico, 
at  the  very  doors  of  the  United  States.  I  sincerely  hope  that  you  will  avail  yourselves 
of  this  bountiful  opportunity,  and  that  the  result  of  our  common  efTorts  will  lie 
equally  advantageous  to  both  countries,  as  no  one-sided  bargain  can  ever  be,  in  my 
opinion,  satisfactory  or  lasting,  and  that  the  ultimate  result  of  our  combined  efforts 
will  be  to  create  new  bonds  of  cordiality,  good  will,  and  mutual  profit  between  the 
citizens  of  these  two  great  republics,  making  them  lasting  and  true  friends,  and 
strengthening  thus  their  respective  positions  among  the  family  of  nations,  each 
preserving,  of  course,  its  own  nationality.  The  height  of  my  ambition  would  be  satis- 
fied if  I  could  be  allowed  to  see  such  a  consummation.     (Prolonged  applause.) 

Banquet  at  Boston  on  jf^anuary  7,  iSg2. — On  January  7,  1892,  a  ban- 
quet was  given  at  the  Hotel  Vendome,  in  Boston,  by  the  Merchants' 
Association  of  that  city,  to  celebrate  the  eleventh  anniversary  of  their 
organization,  to  which  several  of  the  diplomatic  representatives  of  the 
Latin-American  nations  in  Washington  were  invited. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  members  of  that  association  and  the 
guests  who  attended  the  said  banquet  : 


396 


Ibistorical  IRotes  o\\  ^ejico. 


Beverly  K.  Moore, 
H.  G.  Parker. 
Wfston  Lewis, 
H.  Staples  Potter, 
John  J.  Henry, 
Geo.  O.  Carpenter, 
S.  C.  La\vkence, 
J.  H.  Benton,  Jr., 
John  C.  Paige, 
Charles  W.  Parker, 
J  as.  L.  VVeson, 
Cyrus  A.  Page, 
John  C.  Lane, 
Gardner  W.  Bullard, 
Geo.  W.  Morse, 
M. W.  Richardson, 
Geo.  S.  Burton, 
Alfred  Pierce, 
a.  l.  joslin, 
W.  W.  Sias, 
Joseph  H.  Wiley, 
Frank  L.  Gross, 

D.  L.  Bowers, 
Ed.  B.  Wilson, 
L.  G.  Burnham, 
Stephen  B.  Simons, 
Frank  Jones, 

S.  N.  D.  North, 
Dwight  Proutv, 
Henkv  C.  Jackson, 
John  W.  Chatham, 
O.  n.  Alford, 
C.  H.  Bacon, 
M.  Larrabee, 
Jacob  P.  Bates, 
Henry  D.  Yerxa, 
J.  Nelson  Parker, 

F.  L.  Walker, 
W.  E.  Worcester, 
Ed.  p.  Wilbur, 
John  Moir, 
Caleb  Chase, 
Charles  D.  Sias, 
Thomas  Cunningham, 
Col.  Charles  Weil, 
Jacob  Dreyfus, 

C.  A.  Coffin, 
Thomas  P.  Beal, 
Wallace  L.  Pierce, 
W.  E.  Simmons, 
S.  E.  Shuman, 

E.  A.  Shuman, 
Thomas  Doliber, 
Charles  S.  Kelley, 
W.  H.  Doliber, 

C.  A.  Gilchrist, 
Thomas  Long, 
Norman  H.  Siencer, 
S.  J.  Kendall, 
G. M.  Preston, 

G.  K.  Stratton, 
Rufus  F.  Greeley, 
J.  E.  Whitman, 
Albert  C.  Manson, 


B.  W.  Currier, 
Geo.  B.  Carr, 
Giio.  McNeek, 
W.  M.  Bunting, 

F.  A.  Webster, 
Edward  E.  Cole, 

C.  D.  B.  Fisk, 

A.  L.  Richardson, 
Dexter  H.  Follett, 
.Asa  H.  Caton, 

L.  A.  Dodge, 

C.  A.  Browning, 
Wm.  H.  Lord, 
A\'.  Howard, 
Wm.  Lewis, 

H.  Whittington, 
William  B.  Rice, 

E.  W.  Anthony, 
Geo.  N.  Talbot, 
Joseph  W.  Hall, 
H.  L.  Rice, 

B.  T.  Thayer, 

Hon.  a.  E.  Pillsbury, 
O.  H.  Sampson, 
A.  W.  Finlavson, 
Samuel  Little, 
Arthur  W.  Tufts, 
S.  W.  Reynolds, 
Hon.  Alden  Speare, 
Willia.m  H.  Horton, 
J.  V.  Spalding, 
Jonathan  Bigelow, 
John  Hopewell,  Jr., 
O.  F.  Kendall, 
Samuel  P.  Mandell, 
Rodney  P.  Woodman, 
William  B.  Lawrence, 

D.  W.  Lawrence, 

G.  A.  Leonard, 
James  Delano. 
Theodore  P.  Spitz, 
Ed.  Bicknell, 

J.  Brodie, 

F.  R.  Spalding, 
Henry  A.  Pevear, 
Eugene  Griffin, 
William  E.  Briant, 
Parker  B.  Field, 
H.  W.  Patterson, 
M.  N.  Smith, 

C.  L.  Watson, 

H.  A.  Pemberton, 
A. Shuman, 
J.  H.  White, 
Gen.  J.  P.  Martin, 
N.  W.  Rice, 
C.  S.  Roberts, 
J.  H.  Holmes, 
Alexander  Steinert, 
James  B.  Forsyth, 

E.  C.  Wheeler, 
E.  F.  Dunham, 

Col.  Albert  H.  Pope, 
John  L.  Whiting, 


Hon.  John  Simkins, 
Charles  O.  Dyer, 
Jerome  Jones, 
R.  H.  Gardiner, 
Hon.  Albert  Clarkb, 
Herbert  Underwood, 
Edwin  S.  Barret, 
John  Wales, 
Geo.  R.  Wales, 
John  C.  Wright, 

A.  O.  Davidson, 
James  Phillips,  Jr., 
John  Bremer, 

M.  p.  Clough, 
John  S.  Bartlett, 

E.  L.  Sanborn, 
C.  W.  Whitten, 
Henry  S.  Pratt, 

F.  Seavey, 

Geo.  a.  Brigham, 
Henry  S.  Howe, 
W.  H.  Chipman, 
W.  A.  Paine, 
J.  B.  Leamy, 
J.  G.  Ramsdell, 
Frank  W.  Daniels, 
W.  B.  Saul, 
J.  Alba  Davis, 
Rev.  M.  J.  Savage, 
N.  B.  Goodnow, 
Cornelius  P.  Hatch, 
John  Sheppard,  Jr., 
Frank  M.  Ames, 
Frank  F.  Hodges, 

G.  H.  B.  Winship, 
Senas  Seares, 
Charles  S.  Bartlett, 
Alexis  Torrev,  L.  G.  B.j 
j.  c.  hollins, 

Sol.  p.  Stratton, 
Geo.  S.  Spaulding, 
Geo.  L.  Sevens, 
Byron  S.  Card, 
Albert  Irvings  Croll, 
Alfred  M.  Goodale, 
C.  P.  F.  Kellog, 
W.  A.  Copeland, 

E.  T.  Wendall, 
Jas.  M.  Childs, 
Lawrence  C.  Fenno, 
C.  W.  Leonard, 

J.  S.  HOLDEN, 

H.  R.  Turner, 
Charles  E.  Adams, 
Arthur  W.  Pope, 
Joseph  Li.\C(  ln, 
Frederick  H.  Viaux, 
Charles  H.  Clark, 

F.  W.  Cheney, 
F.  H.  Odiorne, 

B.  F.  Larrabee, 

C.  Granville  Way, 
John  F.  Albree,  Jr., 
W.  H.  Atwater, 


Causes  of  tbe  /IDejican  TRevolutions.  397 

Harrison  E.  Woodward,  John  M.  Graham,  C.  D.  Smith, 

Rev.  J.  H.  Whitmore,  John  J.  Eaton,  Gus  Atwater, 

A.  E.  WiNSHip,  Frederick  Estabrook,  W.  W.  Waugh, 

W.  L.  Terhune,  Joel  Goldthwait,  R.  J.  McCartney, 

Gov.  H.  A.  Tuttle,  T.  W.  Deland,  E.  A.  Burnham, 

John  Shepard,  Hon.  J.  C.  Bennett,  James  F.  Mullen, 

Cakes  A.  Ames,  Edwin  W.  Ingalls,  Matias  Romei^o, 

William  E.  Curtis,  Nicanor  Bolet  Peraza,  Theodore  Nikerson, 

M.  Hewitt,  Henry  D.  Hyde,  Lewis  R.  Speare. 

At  that  banquet  I  delivered  the  following  address  in  answer  to  the 
toast  assigned  to  me  : 

Mr.  Chairman — Gentlemen  : — I  feel  quite  diffident  in  speaking  before  such  a 
select  audience,  in  this  enlightened  city,  the  Athens  of  America  ;  but  I  could  not  re- 
frain from  answering  the  sentiment  which  has  been  assigned  to  me,  touching  a  subject 
in  which  I  feel  a  most  lively  interest,  and  with  which  I  consider  myself  fully  identified. 

Over  one  hundred  years  ago,  after  this  continent  had  remained  for  nearly  three 
centuries  a  dependency  of  the  Western  nations  of  Europe,  the  thirteen  English  colonies 
of  North  America,  having  arrived  at  their  maturity,  proclaimed  and  established  their 
independence  from  the  mother  country.  The  Latin,  or  remaining  portion  of  the  con- 
tinent, followed  your  example  about  thirty  years  later,  a  comparatively  short  period, 
taking  into  consideration  the  difficulties  of  communication  at  the  time,  and  the  mo- 
mentous character  of  the  undertaking,  and  from  iSio  to  1824  we,  too,  proclaimed  and 
established  our  independence.  You  realized  in  this  privileged  land  the  dream  of  the 
lovers  of  humanity  in  organizing  a  republican  form  of  government,  managed  by  the 
people,  and  intended  for  the  good  of  the  people,  following  the  principles,  and  in  many 
cases  improving  them  materially,  of  the  English  unwritten  constitution,  which  has 
assured  them  the  best  governments  in  the  world.  We  also  followed  in  this  case  your 
example  and  adopted  a  republican  form  of  government,  based  substantially  on  the 
Constitution  of  the  United  States  of  America.  It  is  true  that  Mexico  had  an  ephem- 
eral empire,  which  lasted  not  quite  two  years,  and  that  Brazil  had,  until  recently,  a 
peaceful  and  progressive  one  ;  but  Mexico  adopted,  since  1823,  a  republican  federal 
constitution,  modelled  on  yours,  and  Brazil  has  just  done  the  same,  without  the  shed- 
ding of  blood,  and  in  fact  without  any  opposition.  If  it  is  a  source  of  great  satisfac- 
tion to  you  that  the  eighteen  nations  into  which  this  continent  is  divided,  not  incluilini; 
the  United  States,  have  followed  your  footsteps,  not  only  in  accomplishing  indepen- 
dence, but  also  in  adopting  a  republican  government,  there  is  imposed  upon  you,  at 
the  same  time,  the  grave  responsibility  of  setting  a  good  example,  which  will  contrib- 
ute to  the  consolidation  of  popular  government  on  this  hemisphere. 

We  are  following,  besides,  other  equally  meritorious  examples  which  you  have  set 
for  us.  I  speak  of  your  love  for  peace  and  your  untiring  energy  in  developing  your 
country,  by  which  you  have  succeeded  in  making  it  one  of  the  richest  in  the  world 
Your  railroads,  which  surpass  in  extent  those  of  Europe,  notwithstanding  that  conti- 
nent has  three  times  your  population,  have  been,  in  my  opinion,  the  main  element  of 
your  progress.  The  Latin  portion  of  this  continent  has  also  been  making  strenuous 
efforts  to  build  railroads.  We  have  in  Mexico  one  of  the  largest  systems  of  the  Latin- 
American  countries,  and  it  gives  me  pleasure  to  acknowledge  on  this  occasion  that  in 
building  it  we  have  been  greatly  assisted  by  Boston  capital,  Boston  enterprise,  and 
Boston  energy. 

The  first,  and  for  several  years  the  only  railroad  built  in  Mexico,  from  Veracruz 
to  the  City  of  Mexico,  with  a  small  branch  to  Puebla,  was  made  wholly  by  English 
capital.     It  took  the  company  over  sixteen  years  to  build  29a  miles.     That  line  did 


398  1F5i5torical  Botes  on  /iDejico. 

not  prove  of  special  advantage  to  the  country,  mainly  because  the  company  would 
make  no  branches  to  connect  commercial  centres,  and  because  its  tariffs  were  exceed- 
ingly high,  the  average  of  the  import  freights  being  twenty-two  cents  per  mile  per  ton. 
For  the  same  reasons  the  road  was  not,  in  the  beginning,  a  financial  success,  and  its 
stock  was  sold  in  London,  in  1879,  ^t  six  pounds  sterling  per  share  of  one  hundred 
pounds  ;  but  in  1883,  when  the  line  transported  a  great  deal  of  railroad  material  for 
the  roads  then  under  construction,  which  caused  a  dividend  of  7  per  cent,  to  be  paid 
on  the  stock,  its  price  went  up  to  150,  and  this  fact  illustrates  the  possibilities  of 
Mexican  roads. 

In  the  face  of  such  discouraging  facts  and  prospects,  Boston  pluck  undertook  to 
build  a  system  of  railways  in  Mexico,  which  then  seemed  a  gigantic  undertaking,  but 
Boston  proved  equal  to  the  task.  The  enterprising  men  of  Boston  who  built  the 
Santa  Fe  system  were  the  pioneers  of  the  Mexican  railways.  They  built  from  May  i, 
1880,  to  October  i,  1882,  the  262  miles  of  the  Sonora  road,  from  Guaymas  to  Nogales, 
where  there  is  a  branch  to  Benson,  Arizona,  connecting  it  with  their  main  system. 
Although,  for  reasons  unknown  to  me,  that  road  has  not  been  a  financial  success,  I 
feel  sure  it  will  be,  before  long,  a  very  valuable  property. 

About  the  same  time  several  men  of  the  Santa  Fe  system,  and  many  other  busi- 
ness men  of  Boston,  organized  in  1S80  the  Mexican  Central  Railway  Company,  and 
after  obtaining  a  liberal  grant  from  the  Mexican  Government,  built  in  less  than  four 
years,  from  the  15th  of  September,  1880,  to  the  8th  of  March,  1884,  a  road  from  El 
Paso  del  Norte  to  the  City  of  Mexico,  1224  miles — a  task  which  seemed  then  as  ven- 
turesome as  the  building  of  the  Pacific  road  in  this  country  during  the  Civil  War — 
to  which  new  lines — they  can  hardly  be  called  branches — have  since  been  added,  con- 
necting their  system  with  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  at  Tampico,  which,  on  account  of  the 
deep  water  improvements  now  being  carried  out,  will  be  one  of  the  principal  ports  of 
Mexico  on  the  gulf,  allowing  the  largest  steamers  to  come  into  a  bar  which,  before 
the  v.-ork  commenced,  only  drew  eight  feet  of  water,  and  they  have  under  construction 
their  line  to  the  Pacific,  as  well  as  other  important  branches,  which,  when  finished, 
will  make  a  completed  system  of  2100  miles. 

One  little  incident  will  show  the  difficulties  these  pushing  men  had  to  contend 
with.  The  late  Samuel  J.  Tilden  of  New  York  was  invited  by  his  friends  to  invest  in 
this  road.  Not  knowing  much  of  Mexico,  he  decided,  as  a  prudent  man,  before 
making  the  investment  to  post  himself  about  the  condition  of  the  country,  and  as  he 
could  not  go  himself  to  Mexico,  he  requested  his  personal  friend,  the  Hon.  John 
Bigelow,  a  most  competent  and  worthy  man,  to  take  that  trip  and  convey  to  him  his 
impressions.  Unfortunately,  Mr.  Bigelow,  notv/ithstanding  his  very  high  abilities 
and  qualifications,  was  unfavorably  impressed  with  tlie  country,  either  because  he  (hd 
not  remain  there  long  enough,  or  because  it  is,  in  any  case,  very  difficult  for  a 
foreigner  to  understand  a  country  with  which  he  is  not  familiar  ;  and  his  report  was 
adverse  to  the  investment.  Mr.  Bigelow  published  in  Harper  s  Magazine,  of  New 
York,  for  October,  1882,  the  result  of  his  investigations,  and  thinking  that  he  had  mis- 
understood my  country,  and  that  his  conclusions  might  be  prejudicial  to  its  develop- 
ment if  I  allowed  it  to  go  unchallenged,  I  answered  his  article.  He  then  very 
properly  said,  and  1  of  course  acquiesced  in  it,  that  between  two  conflicting  opinions 
about  a  future  fact,  whether  investments  in  Mexican  railroads  would  or  would  not  be 
profitable,  time  alone  had  to  decide.  I  venture  to  say  that  sufficient  time  has  now 
elapsed  to  settle  that  question,  and  that  although  the  Mexican  Central  Railway 
securities  have  had,  like  those  of  any  other  large  enterprise,  their  ups  and  downs,  I 
think  their  holders  have  every  reason  to  be  satisfied  with  their  investment.  I  sincerely 
think  they  own  a  very  valuable  property,  whose  price  would  be  enhanced  with  the 
lapse  of  lime,  and  keep  pace  with  the  prosperity  of  Mexico. 


Causes  ot  tbe  /IDejicaix  IRcvolutions.  399 

The  National  Railway,  another  system  almost  as  large  as  the  Central,  has  also 
finished  its  main  line,  is  already  connected  with  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  at  Tampico,  and  is 
building  a  branch  to  the  Pacific,  and  I  consider  this  line  also  as  a  very  valuable  one. 
The  originator  of  the  Southern  Pacific  Railway  system  has  also  built,  and  without 
subsidy,  a  trunk  line  to  Mexico,  the  International,  which  is  now  being  extended 
towards  the  Pacific,  and  which  will  also  prove,  I  have  no  doubt,  a  very  valuable  property. 

These  four  roads  are  really  extensions  into  Mexico,  and  therefore  Mexican 
feeders,  of  your  large  railway  system,  and  they  actually  make  of  our  two  countries, 
for  commercial  purposes,  a  single  territory.  But  owing  to  existing  barriers  to  trade, 
the  international  traffic  of  the  Mexican  roads  has  only  been  about  co  per  cent,  of 
their  total  business. 

Mexico  subsidized  for  sometime  her  railways,  and  it  was  thought  at  first  that  the 
subsidies  would  be  merely  nominal,  as  the  condition  of  her  finances  was  sucli  that  few 
imagined  that  their  payment  could  be  effected.  But  the  resources  of  the  country  are  so 
great,  that  the  subsidy  was  not  only  paid  in  yearly  instalments  as  agreed  upon,  but  last 
year  the  whole  of  it  was  advanced  in  cash  to  all  roads  willing  to  receive  it  in  that  way. 

Let  us  see  now  how  the  building  of  roads  has  affected  the  prosperity  of  Mexico. 
The  imports  for  the  fiscal  year  ending  the  30th  of  June,  1873,  were  $20,166,012  ;  the 
exports  for  the  same  year,  $31,594,005,  most  of  them  precious  metals  ;  and  the  federal 
revenue  was  only  $15,739,239.  In  about  fifteen  years,  of  which  only  six  embrace  the 
railroad  era,  the  foreign  trade  and  revenue  of  Mexico  have  increased  over  one  hundred 
per  centum,  as  the  imports  of  the  fiscal  year  ending  on  the  30th  of  June,  1889,  the  last 
one  of  which  official  statistics  have  been  published  in  Mexico,  amounted  to  $40,624,- 
894,  the  exports  for  the  same  year,  two  thirds  being  precious  metals,  to  $60,158,423, 
and  the  federal  revenue  amounted  to  $32,745,981.  The  trade  of  Mexico  with  the 
United  States  has  increased  in  still  larger  proportions.  In  the  year  ending  June  30, 
1873,  we  imported  from  the  United  States  $5,231,254,  and  exported  to  this  country 
$11,367,859,  principally  precious  metals;  while  in  the  last  fiscal  year  of  which  the 
Mexican  government  has  published  statistics,  our  imports  from  this  country  amounted 
to  $22,669,420,  and  we  exported  to  the  United  States  $43,022,440.  We  now  buy 
from  you  nearly  sixty  per  cent,  of  our  imports,  and  we  sell  you  over  eighty  per  cent, 
of  our  exports,  and  this  is  merely  the  beginning  of  a  large  development  of  trade 
between  the  two  countries,  which  will  assume  proportions  that  can  hardly  be 
anticipated. 

But  the  liuilding  of  roads  in  a  country  is  only  the  beginning  of  its  development. 
Mexico  has  entered  into  that  path,  and  its  results  are  already  perceptible.  Fortunately 
we  have  passed,  I  hope  forever,  the  turbulent  period  of  our  revolutions.  The  causes 
which  brought  them  about,  namely,  the  influence  of  the  Church  in  the  destinies  of  the 
country,  always  exercised  against  its  progress,  having  now  disappeared,  their  effect 
will  not  be  felt  any  longer,  and  with  the  assurance  of  peace  and  protection  to  life  and 
property,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  large  money  investments  will  be  made  in 
Mexico.  Since  capital  from  this  country,  and  especially  from  Boston,  has  assisted  her 
in  building  her  roads,  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  such  assistance  will  not  stop  there,  but 
continue  its  wholesome  work  and  build  manufactories,  operate  mines,  and  take  up 
many  other  new  enterprises  mutually  profitable.  The  means  of  communication  already 
being  established,  I  hope  that  commercial  development  will  follow.  Two  neighboring 
republics  occupying  the  main  portion,  if  not  the  whole,  of  the  North  American  conti- 
nent, which  are  contiguous  for  nearly  two  thousand  miles,  divided  only  by  an  imaginary 
line,  producing  each  what  the  other  needs,  and  connected  by  several  systems  of  rail- 
ways, must  before  long  agree  to  lessen  the  present  barriers  to  traffic,  and  when  that  is 
done  the  trade  between  the  two  will  surprise  the  world.  It  is  my  wish  that  such  a 
consummation  shall  not  be  delayed  much  longer. 


THE  ANGLO-SAXON  AND  ROMAN 

SYSTEMS  OF 

CRIMINAL  JURISPRUDENCE. 


401 


THE  ANGLO-SAXON  AND  ROMAN 

SYSTEMS  OF 

CRIMINAL  JURISPRUDENCE. 

The  statements  which  preface  the  preceding  chapter,  under  the  head 
of  "Historical  Notes  on  Mexico,"  are  also  applicable  to  the  present 
paper,  as  it  is  the  second  of  the  articles  based  on  my  remarks  deliv- 
ered at  Saratoga  on  the  5th  of  September,  1895. 

The  subject  to  which  this  paper  refers  I  consider  of  special  import- 
ance, because  my  experience  has  shown  me  that  a  want  of  knowledge 
of  the  criminal  jurisprudence  of  Mexico  has  often  been  the  cause  of 
irritation  and  misunderstanding  in  this  country,  as  American  citizens, 
when  arrested  in  Mexico  for  any  crime  committed  there,  have  fre- 
quently complained  bitterly  of  Mexican  criminal  legislation,  consider- 
ing it  unfair,  unjust,  and  even  inquisitorial,  and  alleging  that  the  rights 
granted  the  accused  by  all  civilized  countries  were  denied  them  in 
Mexico.  I  believed  it  would  further  a  good  understanding  between 
the  United  States  and  its  Southern  neighbors  to  show  how  mistaken 
these  conclusions  were,  and  I  have  no  doubt  that  a  clear  statement  of 
the  case  would  prevent  in  the  future  the  misunderstandings  and 
dangers  arising  from  such  mistakes.  This  result  will  also  affect 
most  of  the  Latin-American  States,  as  they  all  have  similar  crim- 
inal jurisprudence,  derived  from  the  Roman  law.  I,  therefore, 
revised  my  remarks  on  the  subject  and  put  them  in  the  shape  of  an 
article,  which  was  published  in  the  North  A?nerican  Review,  for  July, 
1896,  and  later  on  in  the  Green  Bag,  of  Boston,  for  October  of  the 
same  year. 

Before  publishing  this  article  I  submitted  it  to  various  distinguished 
lawyers  of  this  country,  some  of  whom  had  occupied  high  official  posi- 
tions, because  I  feared  that  I  might  have  fallen  into  some  error  in 
treating  of  a  subject  with  which  I  was  not  entirely  familiar,  and  I  was, 
of  course,  very  anxious  to  avoid  any  inaccuracy.  I  received  different 
opinions — most  of  them  highly  favorable  to  the  jury  system;  but  the 
one  that  differs  most  from  mine  and  contains  the  strongest  reasons  against 
my  views,  as  expressed  in  my  paper,  comes  from  a  very  able  gentleman 
from  New  York,  the  editor  of  one  of  the  leading  newspapers  of  that 
city,  and  as  my  purpose  is  to  present  both  sides  of  the  question,  I 
have  concluded  to  insert  that  letter,  for  whose  publication  I  have  been 
authorized  by  the  author. 

403 


THE   ANGLO-SAXON   AND   ROMAN    SYSTEMS    OF 
CRIMINAL  JURISPRUDENCE/ 

I  have  often  heard,  during  my  official  residence  in  Washington, 
comparisons  made  between  the  Anglo-Saxon  and  Roman  systems  of 
criminal  jurisprudence,  generally  very  disparaging  to  the  latter  system, 
and  this  leads  me  to  believe  that  our  own,  which  is  based  on  the 
Roman,  is  not  quite  well  understood  in  this  country.  This,  and  not  a 
desire  to  indulge  in  odious  comparisons  between  the  two  systems,  is 
my  apology  for  writing  a  brief  paper  intended  to  show  that  our  system 
is  not  so  defective  as  some  believe.  I  think  that  in  doing  this  I  render 
a  service  to  the  good  understanding  between  the  United  States  and  its 
Southern  neighbors. 

This  subject  has  always  had  a  great  interest  for  me.  Having  been 
educated  at  home  as  a  lawyer,  I  have  desired  to  study  and  practically 
to  compare  the  various  systems  of  jurisprudence  of  different  countries, 
as  one  of  the  best  ways  to  understand  the  philosophy  of  that  science. 
I  regret,  however,  that  the  public  duties  which  have  devolved  upon 
me  during  my  whole  life,  and  my  long  absence  from  home,  depriv- 
ing me  of  the  opportunity  of  practicing  law  in  Mexico,  have  pre- 
vented my  becoming  better  acquainted  with  all  its  provisions  and  my 
making  a  specialty  of  the  study  of  jurisprudence.  The  same  cause 
has  prevented  my  studying  fully  the  practical  workings  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  system  of  jurisprudence,  as  existing  in  the  United  States.  It  is 
therefore  with  great  reluctance  that  I  approach  such  a  difficult  subject, 
believing,  as  I  do,  that  I  am  not  fully  competent  to  treat  it  as 
thoroughly  as  I  should  like. 

While  I  would  not  attempt  to  depreciate  the  Anglo-Saxon  system  of 
jurisprudence,  I  think  the  Roman  system  is  also  entitled  to  some  re- 
gard. The  most  remarkable  of  the  Roman  institutions,  and  the  one 
which  we  might  say  survived  the  downfall  of  the  Roman  Empire,  and 
the  incursions  of  the  barbarians  with  their  feudal  system,  was  the  civil 

'  This  article  was  originally  published  by  the  North  American  Revieiv  of  New 
York  City  for  July,  1896,  and  with  some  additions  in  the  Green  Bag,  of  Boston,  for 
October  of  the  same  year.  The  present  edition  has  been  revised  and  somewhat 
enlarged. 

404 


Criminal  jurisprudence.  405 

law;  it  contains  all  that  was  best  of  former  ages  and  peoples.  The 
advancement  of  old  Etruria,  the  wisdom  of  Solon  and  Lycurgus, 
the  principles  of  the  legislation  of  Minos,  and  all  that  was  of  permanent 
value  to  Egypt,  Phoenicia,  Chaldea,  and  the  foremost  nations  of  the 
ancient  times,  were  incorporated  into  the  laws  of  the  ten  tables,  which 
were  engraved  four  hundred  and  fifty  years  before  Christ;  and  there- 
from was  developed  the  wonderful  legal  system  which  culminated  in 
the  Institutes  of  Justinian  in  the  year  534  of  our  era,  a  system  which 
did  more  than  anything  else  to  assimilate  to  the  Roman  Republic  the 
many  dissimilar  nations  which  became  its  provinces,  and  which  were 
held  together  by  the  wonderful  Roman  civil  law.  The  Roman  law  was 
really  the  result  of  freedom  and  free  intellectual  development,  carried 
on  during  several  centuries  under  the  benign  influence  of  republican 
institutions.  On  the  other  hand,  the  common  law  was  the  natural 
result  of  the  feudal  or  military  system  of  the  Northern  barbarians.  The 
foundation,  therefore,  of  the  one  is  justice;  the  basis  of  the  other  is 
force. 

The  J^ury  System. — It  is  generally  considered  that  the  corner-stone 
of  the  Anglo-Saxon  criminal  jurisprudence  is  the  system  of  trial  by 
jury;  and  yet  it  appears  from  recent  researches  that  the  jury  system 
was  not  indigenous  to  the  common  law  of  England,  but  was  borrowed 
from  the  Franks.'  In  fact,  the  original  idea  of  the  jury  system  appears 
to  have  been  borrowed  from  the  Roman  law. 

The  advantages  of  this  system  have  been  much  enlarged  upon  by 
various  writers,  both  in  England  and  America,  as  well  as  upon  the 
continent  of  Europe.  I  do  not  care  to  criticise  it,  even  though  it  seems 
to  me,  at  least  under  existing  conditions,  to  be  open  to  grave  objec- 
tions. I  will  only  remark  that  when,  eight  hundred  years  ago,  Eng- 
land was  oppressed  by  a  tyrannical  king,  the  successful  efforts  of  the 
English  barons  to  wrest  from  him  the  Magna  Charta,  which  gave  to 
England  no  more  than  was  already  the  common  right  of  all  the  other 
nations  of  Central  and  Western  Europe,  were  commendable,  yet  the 
concession  was  such  that  it  was  justly  regarded  as  a  most  important 
step  in  securing  human  liberty.  Even  so,  we  know  that  the  charter 
then  granted  was  repeatedly  violated  by  each  and  all  the  subsequent 
kings  of  England  down  to  the  accession  of  the  Stuarts.  The  Magna 
Charta  was  procured  from  King  John  by  the  barons  mainly  for  them- 
selves, but  it  inured  to  the  benefit  of  the  Commons,  since  it  secured  to 
them  the  right  to  be  tried  by  their  peers.  Now,  however,  that  the 
power  of  the  Commons  has  so  greatly  overshadowed  that  of  the  barons 
that  the  two  classes  are  rapidly  merging  into  one,  the  changed  condi- 
tions do  not  warrant  any  undue  laudation  of  the  Great  Charter.     Cer- 

'  History  of  English  Law  before  the  Time  of  Edward  I.,  by  Sir  Frederick  Pollock 
an<^  Frederick  William  Maitland,  Camhri(U;e,  1895,  vol.  i.,  p.  117. 


4o6  (Trtmtnal  3uri5pru^ence. 

tainly,  in  the  United  States,  where  all  differences  of  class  have 
disappeared  since  slavery  was  abolished,  there  is  no  reason  to  fear 
oppression  of  the  people  by  those  in  authority,  since  the  people  them- 
selves by  their  representatives  are  in  power;  as  a  consequence,  trial  by 
jury  of  one's  peers  has  no  longer  the  significance  which  it  might 
have  had  under  Magna  Charta.  The  arbitrary  power  of  arrest  and 
detention  residing  in  the  sovereign,  and  against  which  it  was  the  pur- 
pose of  Magna  Charta  to  guard,  has  never  existed  in  the  United  States, 
where  the  power  of  the  President  to  order  the  arrest  of  a  civilian  exists 
only  when  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus  is  suspended  in  cases  of  rebellion, 
invasion,  and  other  great  public  danger,  and  in  extradition  cases,  as 
provided  in  the  respective  treaties. 

While  I  should  not  like  to  express  any  decided  convictions  on  this 
subject,  I  may  safely  say  that  the  conditions  under  which  the  jury 
system  was  established  or  adopted,  do  not  prevail  at  the  present  time, 
even  in  the  country  of  its  supposed  origin ;  it  cannot,  therefore,  have 
the  importance  it  once  had. 

The  jury  system,  as  applied  to  criminal  cases,  is  undoubtedly  more 
favorable  to  the  accused  than  to  society.' 

Up  to  this  century  the  English  people  may  be  said  to  have  regarded 
those  of  its  members  who  were  criminally  prosecuted  as  in  danger  of 
becoming  the  victims  of  despotic  power.  It  is  proper  to  consider 
whether  the  changed  relations  of  the  people  to  the  government  have 
been  accompanied  with  proper  modifications  of  the  common-law  pro- 
cedure. The  criminal  law  of  England  is  not  less  severe  than  that  of 
the  United  States,  but  capital  crimes  and  executions  are  far  less  fre- 
quent there  than  here.  Yet  in  England  there  have  been  hardly  any 
criminal  appeals.  Conviction  before  the  trial  court  has  been  final, 
while  in  the  United  States  there  are  appeals  upon  appeals,  with  a  final 
resort  to  a  writ  of  habeas  corpus  to  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United 
States.  In  the  State  of  New  Jersey  the  Court  of  Errors  and  Appeals 
may  be  compelled  to  examine  all  the  proceedings  in  a  capital  case,  in- 
cluding the  evidence,  even  •  if  no  exception  has  been  taken,  and 
although  it  does  not  have  the  prisoner  before  it  or  hear  the  witnesses 
or  hear  them  testify,  it  must  try  the  case  to  discover  manifest  errors 
like  a  court  of  equity  balancing  affidavits. 

'  From  data  contained  in  a  report  from  the  Committee  on  the  Judiciary  of  the 
House  of  Representatives  (No.  loS,  54th  Congress,  ist  Session),  presented  by  Mr. 
Thomas  Updegraff  of  Iowa,  on  January  22,  i8g6,  which  contains  several  tables,  com- 
piled by  the  Department  of  Justice,  of  homicides  perpetrated  in  the  United  States  of 
which  cognizance  was  taken  by  the  Federal  judicial  authorities,  stating  the  number 
of  indictments,  convictions,  and  acquittals,  appears  (Table  No.  2)  that  in  the  year 
1892,  from  twenty-nine  judicial  Federal  districts,  the  Federal  judicial  authorities  took 
cognizance  of  112  homicides,  of  which  96  were  indicted,  24  of  the  accused  being  con- 
victed, 37  acquitted,  and  only  one  execution  having  taken  place. 


Criminal  Jurisprudence.  407 

On  psychological  grounds  it  is  well  established  that  punishment,  to 
be  efficacious  as  a  deterrent,  must  be  prompt.'  Some  legislatures  of 
the  United  States  have  gone  so  far  as  to  provide  that  no  one  shall  be 
hanged  for  a  year  after  his  conviction.  In  almost  all  of  theaii  a  mur- 
derer may  be  sure  of  a  year,  perhaps  several  years,  of  life,  after  his 
arrest.     He  knows,   the  friends  and  family  of   the  victim  know,   the 

'  Since  this  paper  was  written,  the  New  York  yournal oi  November  28,  1897,  pub- 
lished the  opinion  of  the  Hon.  Frederick  R.  Coudert,  one  of  the  most  eminent  lawyers 
of  the  city  of  New  York,  giving  his  views  on  the  imperfections  of  criminal  trials  in  the 
United  States  and  England  under  the  common-law  system,  as  compared  with  the  sys- 
tem prevailing  in  Continental  Europe  under  the  Roman  system,  from  which  I  insert 
the  following  extract : 

"  I  regard  the  present  methods  of  our  criminal  law  about  as  Jerry  Bentham,  the 
eminent  English  jurist,  regarded  the  English  criminal  law,  which,  by  the  way,  is  much 
like  the  criminal  law  of  this  country.  Bentham  said  :  'The  English  law  of  evidence 
is  admirably  adapted  to  the  exclusion  of  truth.' 

"  There  is  nodoubt  tomy  mindthat  the  methods  used  by  criminal  justices  in  getting 
jurors  it  deficient  in  many  respects.  One  of  the  greatest  deficiencies  is  that  it  excludes 
men  from  juries  who  read  newspapers  and  have  any  knowledge  of  the  case.  Then, 
under  the  present  system  lawyers  are  allowed  to  wrangle  and  bring  out  all  sorts  of  un- 
important evidence.  This  only  causes  delays,  and  these  delays  are  unfair  to  the  per- 
son on  trial,  often  keeping  an  innocent  man  in  prison  for  months,  and  even  years, 
before  he  gets  a  fair  trial.  In  foreign  countries,  with  the  exception  of  England,  the 
court  will  not  listen  to  any  evidence  not  important  to  the  case.  Lawyers  are  made  to 
question  the  person  on  trial  not  hurriedly,  but  sufficiently  fast  to  keep  the  case  from 
dragging.  If  any  question  comes  up  which  causes  a  wrangle,  the  justice  before  whom 
the  case  is  being  tried  takes  the  witness  in  hand  and  questions  him  impartially,  and  to 
the  point.  By  this  practice  the  Continental  methods  reach  rapid  results,  the  guilty 
are  punished  more  quickly,  and  the  innocent  do  not  suffer  as  they  do  under  the  system 
in  vogue  in  America  and  England.  When  trials  are  delayed  for  months,  and  even 
years,  it  is  a  very  costly  thing  to  the  State.  Whenever  there  is  a  great  criminal  trial 
it  takes  weeks  to  get  the  jurors,  and  even  after  the  jury  box  is  filled  the  trial  drags  on, 
while  lawyers  are  allowed  to  fight  between  themselves. 


"One  of  the  greatest  hindrances  to  rapid  trials  in  criminal  cases  is  the //a3<-aj- 
corpus  proceedings,  which  are  allowed  in  the  majority  of  instances.  The  habeas  corpus 
was  the  outgrowth  of  the  clash  between  the  classes  in  England,  and  was  intended  to 
protect  the  persons  not  high  in  favor  with  the  crown.  In  those  days  the  crown  prac- 
tically owned  every  judge  and  jurist,  and  a  person  who  had  caused  offence  to  the  king 
could  be  imprisoned  and  held  as  long  as  he  lived,  without  any  recourse.  Crowns  do 
not  own  judges  and  jurists  in  these  civilized  days,  and  every  man  can  feel  certain  that 
he  will  get  a  fair  and  impartial  trial  as  soon  as  he  is  arrested.  Under  the  present  sys- 
tem every  judge  in  the  State  can  be  gone  to  for  habeas  corpus  proceedings,  and  when 
they  are  granted  they  only  serve  to  delay  trial  and  hasty  conviction  or  acquittal. 
Habeas  corpus  proceedings  give  an  impetus  to  crime,  and  should  be  done  away  with. 
The  Supreme  Court,  in  its  last  three  or  four  decisions  regarding  habeas  corpus  proceed- 
ings, has  decided  that  the  writs  were  not  an  appeal  from  the  judge's  decision,  and 
were  only  to  be  allowed  in  rare  cases. 

"  Do  away  with  habeas  corpus  writs  entirely  and  criminals  will  be  brought  much 
more  quickly  to  trial." 


4o8  Criminal  3uri5pru&ence. 

people  at  large  know,  that  before  that  time  has  passed  many  chances 
of  escape  may  j)resent  themselves.  The  prisoner  may  break  jail. 
Material  witnesses  may  die  or  disappear.  Resentment  may  be  softened 
by  the  lapse  of  time;  sympathy  for  the  victim  who  has  passed  out  of 
this  world  gives  place  to  sympathy  for  the  prisoner  who  is  struggling  to 
save  his  life.  The  longer  punishment  can  be  postponed,  the  greater 
the  possibility  that  it  may  be  evaded  altogether;  the  greater  the  cer- 
tainty, we  may  say,  that  it  will  be  mitigated  and  eventually  remitted. 
Such  delays  are  dangerous,  for  in  cases  of  atrocious  crimes,  particu- 
larly when  violence  is  done  to  women,  popular  passions  are  always 
difficult  to  restrain,  and  if  the  penalty  provided  by  law  is  uncertain  or 
insufficient,  the  conservative  element  in  the  community  finds  itself 
deprived  of  its  best  argument  for  letting  the  law  take  its  course. 

That  the  jury  system,  as  applied  to  criminal  cases,  has  faults  is 
evident  from  the  fact  that  some  of  the  States  of  this  Union,  like  Mary- 
land, for  instance,  have  enacted  statutes  allowing  the  accused  to  select 
whether  he  shall  be  tried  by  jury  or  by  a  judge,  and  this  notwithstand- 
ing the  constitutional  provision  on  the  subject.  I  regard  the  Maryland 
statute  as  the  first  step  to  undermine  the  jury  system.' 

'  The  Bar  Association  of  Texas  held  an  annual  convention  at  Galveston  in  1896, 
and  both  the  speeches  delivered  and  the  resolutions  adopted  show  very  clearly  the 
inefficiency  of  the  criminal  system  of  jurisprudence  in  that  State  ;  and  the  remarks 
then  made  apply  also  to  the  criminal  jurisprudence  under  the  common  law. 

Mr.  F.  W.  Ball  of  Fort  Worth  read  a  paper  before  the  association  which  was 
most  emphatic  in  its  arraignment  of  the  existing  system.  "What  can  I  say,"  he 
asked,  "when  I  speak  of  our  criminal  law  and  procedure?  Can  I  do  aught  but  voice 
the  general  sentiment  of  the  people,  and  say  that  it  is  a  stench  in  the  nostrils  of  every 
honest  and  law-abiding  man  in  Texas?"  He  complained  that  "  the  solicitude  of  the 
courts  for  the  Constitution  and  the  bill  of  rights  is  such  that  they  adjudge  them  to  be 
invaded  every  time  a  red-handed  murderer  or  a  highway  robber  is  convicted  without 
observing  all  the  formalities  and  niceties  requisite  under  our  beautifully  complicated 
system  of  criminal  procedure  "  ;  and  he  declared  that  the  decisions  of  the  criminal 
appellate  tribunal  in  hundreds  of  cases,  by  which  known  and  notoriously  guilty  persons 
have  escaped  punishment,  "  fully  and  completely  demonstrate  one  or  the  other  of  these 
two  propositions,  namely,  that  our  criminal  law  is  entirely  insufficient  for  the  purpose 
of  preventing  and  punishing  crime,  or  that  the  courts  who  have  delivered  the  opinions 
in  these  cases  are  utterly  imbecile  and  ignorant." 

In  speaking  of  practice  and  procedure  in  civil  cases  Mr.  Ball  declared  that  proper 
words  of  denunciation  failed  him,  for  the  reason  that  "  every  kind  of  proceeding  that 
is  obsolete,  every  kind  of  method  that  is  expensive,  every  kind  of  device  that  is  dila- 
tory or  open  to  trickery,  every  kind  of  pleading  and  writ  that  is  confusing  and  incom- 
prehensible, is  here  foregathered  for  the  benefit  of  the  shyster  lawyer,  the  greedy 
official,  and  the  dilatory  judge,  and  to  the  complete  destruction  of  the  miserable  liti- 
gant." Judge  Simpkins  showed  that  a  large  proportion  of  these  evils  would  have  been 
avoided,  if  the  Legislature  had  done  its  duty  when  the  present  appellate  system  was 
established  by  that  body. 

A  striking  address  was  delivered  by  Judge  E.  J.  Simpkins  of  Corsicana.  He 
enunciated  the  central  truth,  so  often  overlooked,  that  "  the  great  aim  of  all  Judicial 


Criminal  jurisprudence,  409 

I  was  told  by  a  very  prominent  United  States  judge,  that  one  of 
the  leading  advantages  of  the  jury  system  is  of  an  educational  charac- 
ter, as  in  small  towns,  where  people  have  few  opportunities  for  educa- 
tion, the  fact  that  ignorant  men  are  impanelled  in  a  jury,  allows  them 
the  opportunity  of  hearing  able  arguments  of  the  counsel,  and  consider- 
ing difficult  questions  of  law  and  fact,  thus  diffusing  learning  and  educa- 
tion. While  I  agree  in  so  far  as  that  advantageous  result  of  the  jury 
system  is  concerned,  I  do  not  see  that  its  educational  advantages 
should  be  enough,  by  themselves,  to  establish  or  maintain  that  system. 

Lynch  Law. — The  insufficiency  of  the  common-law  system  of  crimi- 
nal jurisprudence  to  punish  criminals  is  made  evident,  I  think,  by 
its  practical  results,  which  have,  unfortunately,  brought  about  what  is 
commonly  called  lynch  law,  and  by  the  fact  that  these  in  their  turn 
have  given  rise  to  a  practice  which  is  based  upon  a  defect  in  the  exist- 
ing law,  and  which,  therefore,  comes  to  be,  in  fact,  the  complement  of 
criminal  proceedings  under  the  Anglo-Saxon  system.  It  is  hardly 
necessary  to  add  that  lynch  law  is  highly  demoralizing,  that  it  is  open 
to  great  abuses,  and  that,  when  the  victim  is  an  innocent  person,  it 
amounts  to  a  grave  crime. 

When  a  community  is  satisfied  that  a  crime  has  been  committed, 
that  a  particular  person  is  the  author  of  that  crime,  and  that  he 
cannot  be  punished  under  the  regular  proceedings  of  a  common-law 
trial,  they  often  take  the  law  into  their  own  hands,  and  they  administer 
swift  justice  in  a  manner  that  is  often  barbarous,  but  is  the  only  way 
available.  Where,  as  it  sometimes  happens,  the  victim  is  not  the  real 
perpetrator  of  the  crime,  the  practice  is  indeed  atrocious.'     In   any 

procedure  is  to  administer  substantial  justice,"  and  he  declared  that,  "when  this 
result  is  accomplished,  though  errors  are  committed  not  injuriously  affecting  the  real 
merits  of  the  cause,  the  judgment  ought  to  be  affirmed." 

judge  Simpkins  held  that  it  is  of  still  greater  importance  in  criminal  than  in  civil 
cases  that  the  controlling  question  should  be  the  guilt  or  innocence  of  the  defendant 
of  the  charge  preferred,  since  criminal  judgments  more  immediately  affect  the  people, 
and  therefore  excite  more  comment  than  civil,  and  consequently  whatever  reasons 
exist  for  sustaining  judgments  in  civil  cases  apply  with  tenfold  force  in  criminal  cases. 

'  As  an  instance  of  this,  I  will  mention  the  case  of  Luis  Moreno,  who  served  in 
the  Mexican  army,  was  honorably  discharged  and  came  to  California,  where  he  worked 
in  the  Coggins  Mill,  near  Sisson.  On  the  night  of  the  5th  of  August,  1S95,  George 
Sears,  the  owner  of  a  saloon  at  Bailley  Hill,  was  mortally  wounded  in  an  affray,  and 
Caspar  Mierhaus,  a  miner  who  was  in  the  adjoining  room  to  the  saloon,  came  out  to 
help  Sears,  there  being  no  witness  to  that  incident.  Moreno  and  Stemler  were  sus- 
pected of  having  committed  the  crime  and  were  consequently  arrested.  Mierhaus  died 
of  his  wounds  some  days  afterwards,  and  there  was  contradictory  information  as  to 
whether  he  identified  Moreno  or  not,  as  some  said  that  he  had,  and  others  that  he  had 
said  the  assassin  had  a  beard,  Moreno  having  none.  Before  the  preliminary  examina- 
tion took  place,  which  had  been  fixed  for  the  26th  of  August,  a  mob  attacked  the  jail, 
took  out  four  prisoners,  including  Moreno,  and  lynched  them  all.      When  this  lynch- 


4IO  Criminal  3urisptu^ence. 

case  the  demoralizing  effects  of  lynch  law  are  so  great,  and  I  might 
say  so  shocking,  that  any  system  which  seems  to  make  such  a  law  nec- 
essary as  a  consequence  of  its  own  defects  ought  to  be  revised,  so  as  to 
put  an  end  to  that  terrible  practice.'  Perhaps  lynching  is  not  only 
due  to  the  imperfections  of  the  jury  system,  but  also  to  the  imperfect 
system  of  procedure,  that  causes  delays  in  bringing  about  a  trial,  and 
often  to  the  chicane  and  deficient  preparation  of  the  prosecuting  officer. 
Up  to  recent  date  lynching  in  this  country  was  only  practised  in 
the  Southern  States,  and  almost  invariably  on  negroes  guilty  of  the  re- 
volting crime  of  using  violence  against  white  women,  but  some  have 
occurred  recently  in  Central  States,  like  Ohio  and  Maryland,  and  even 
in  Connecticut,  one  of  the  New  England  States,  which  shows  that  the 
practice,  far  from  being  checked,  is  on  the  increase." 

ing  was  reported  in  the  papers,  a  man  who  would  not  give  his  name  for  fear  of  being 
prosecuted,  addressed  a  letter  to  the  San  Francisco  Examiner,  signing  it  John  Doe, 
published  by  that  paper  in  its  issue  of  November  2g,  1895,  in  which  he  confessed 
that  he  w^as  the  only  author  of  the  deed,  and  that  he  had  killed  Sears  in  self-defence, 
Moreno  being  thus  exonerated  from  all  participation  in  the  crime. 

'  The  extent  lynching  has  reached  in  the  United  States  is  truly  appalling. 

The  report  above  quoted  of  the  Committee  of  the  Judiciary  of  the  House  of  Rep- 
resentatives, containing  several  tables  compiled  by  the  Department  of  Justice  of  homi- 
cides perpetrated  in  the  United  States,  shows  (Table  No.  3)  that  during  1895  there 
were  132  legal  executions  and  lyr  lynchings  out  of  10,500  homicides. 

I  find  in  a  newspaper  the  following  statistics  about  the  number  of  judicial  hang- 
ings and  lynchings  in  the  United  States  during  five  years.  I  am  sorry  that  the  years 
are  not  stated  nor  the  source  from  which  said  statistics  were  taken,  so  as  to  verify 
them  ;  but  I  quote  them  on  the  supposition  that  they  are  correct : 

"According  to  statistics,  which  are  probably  reliable,  there  have  been  only  723 
judicial  hangings  in  that  country  in  five  years,  and  11 18  lynchings  in  the  same  period. 
During  this  same  five  years  there  were  43,902  homicides.  The  number  of  illegal 
executions  are  not  hard  to  account  for.  When  there  are  but  723  executions  by  law 
out  of  nearly  44,000  murders,  it  cannot  be  wondered  that  the  people  should  so  fre- 
quently take  matters  in  their  own  hands.  The  reason  for  this  phenomenal  miscarriage 
of  justice  will  be  imputed  by  some  to  the  extraordinary  smartness  of  the  lawyers,  and 
by  others  to  the  morbid  sentimentality  which  exists  towards  murderers  and  cut-throats 
of  the  worst  class." 

*  In  support  of  these  views,  I  quote  the  following  extracts  from  an  editorial  from 
the  Washington  Post,  one  of  the  leading  papers  of  this  capital,  on  the  recent  Urbana, 
Ohio,  lynching,  which  took  place  late  in  June,  1897  : 

"  .  .  .  And  when  that  crime  is  committed  in  localities  where  the  law  does 
not  provide  what  public  opinion  regards  as  adequate  punishment,  or  where  the  people 
have  learned  by  experience  that  the  machinery  of  justice  is  sluggish  and  uncertain, 
human  nature  asserts  itself  as  certainly  and  as  terribly  as  it  did  Friday  in  Ohio.    .    .    . 

"  Preach  of  this  thing  of  lynching  as  we  may,  the  custom  will  survive  all  denuncia- 
tion under  existing  circumstances.  Until  legislatures  provide  penalties  which  public 
opinion  accepts  as  adequate,  and  until  the  courts  convince  the  people  that  they  can  be 
relied  upon  to  dispense  speedy  and  unerring  justice,  communities  will  continue  to  pro- 
tect themselves  by  punishing,  with  their  own  hands,  the  one  crime  which  is  unspeak- 
able and  unendurable. 


Criminal  5uri5pru&ence.  411 


It  is  very  remarkable  that  the  jury  system  has  not  produced  in 
England  the  same  results  as  in  the  United  States  in  so  far  as  lynching 
is  concerned.  Perhaps  that  is  due  to  the  fact  that  trials  take  a  shorter 
time  in  England  than  they  do  here,  and  that  the  punishment  follows 
the  crime  without  much  delay. 

The  Mexican  J^ury  System. — The  force  of  example  and  the  great 
credit  which  Anglo-Saxon  institutions  have  attained  in  the  world,  on 
account  of  their  regard  for  individual  rights,  have  induced  some  of 
the  American  nations  of  Latin  origin  to  adopt  the  jury  system,  and  we 
have  done  so  in  Mexico.  Senor  Mariscal,  our  present  Secretary  of 
State,  who  lived  in  the  United  States  from  1863  to  1877,  as  Secretary 
of  the  Legation  up  to  1867,  and  afterwards  as  Minister  from  Mexico  at 
Washington — and  who  is  an  eminent  jurist,  a  thorough  student,  and  a 
careful  observer — made  a  special  study  of  the  jury  system  in  the  United 
States,  and  when  he  went  home  and  became  Secretary  of  Justice  under 
President  Juarez's  administration,  he  established,  in  1869,  a  jury 
system  in  the  Federal  District  of  Mexico  for  criminal  cases,  changing 
it  somewhat,  so  as  to  adapt  it  to  the  peculiar  conditions  of  the  Mexi- 
can character.  He  provided,  for  instance,  that  a  majority  of  the 
eleven  jurors  composing  our  jury  should  render  a  verdict,  while  under 
the  Anglo-Saxon  system  the  unanimous  vote  of  the  twelve  jurors  is 
required.  It  was  provided,  besides,  by  the  Code  of  Criminal  Proced- 
ure for  the  Federal  District  and  Territories  issued  in  1880,  with  a  view 
to  prevent  the  failure  of  justice,  that,  if,  in  the  opinion  of  the  presiding 
judge,  the  verdict  were  clearly  against  the  evidence,  he  should  so  re- 
port to  the  higher  court,  with  a  motion  to  set  that  verdict  aside,  and 
if  the  higher  court  should  sustain  his  opinion,  a  new  trial  should  be 
granted,  unless  eight  jurors  had  concurred  in  the  verdict,  in  which 
case  it  should  be  final  and  could  not  be  set  aside.  These  provisions 
were  somewhat  changed  by  the  Act  of  June  24,  1891,  which  was  in- 
corporated in  the  new  code  of  criminal  procedure  of  July  6,  1891, 
which  requires  that  the  jury  shall  be  composed  of  nine  jurors,  that  a 
majority  of  them  shall  render  a  verdict,  and  that  the  decision  of  the  jury 
shall  be  final  if  given  by  seven  votes.  Even  with  all  these  modifications 
in  the  system,  I  have  seen  cases  in  Mexico  where  criminals  have  gone 
unpunished,  because,  through  the  eloquence  of  their  attorneys,  the  jury 
has  been  influenced  in  their  favor. 

Under  the  system  of  jurisprudence  prevailing  in  the  Federal  Dis- 
trict of  Mexico  all  the  preliminary  proceedings  in  a  criminal  trial,  such 
as  the  examination  of  the  accused,  the  taking  of  testimony,  etc.,  takes 
place  before  the  judge  who  presides  over  such  proceedings  without  a 
jury;  when  this  has  been  completed  and  the  case  is  ready  to  be  sub- 
mitted, the  jury  is  empanelled  and  the  evidence  is  read  to  it,  as  set 
forth  in  the  record  already  formed;    the  prosecuting    attorney    then 


412  Criminal  3uri5pru^cnce. 

presents  the  charges,  the  defense  is  heard,  and  the  witnesses  of  both 
parties  are  examined  and  cross-examined;  thereupon  the  jury  renders 
its  verdict  adjudging  the  accused  either  innocent  or  guilty,  following 
substantially  the  practice  under  the  common  law  of  England  and  of  the 
United  States.  In  most  of  the  Mexican  States  the  old  Spanish  system 
of  criminal  jurisprudence  yet  prevails. 

There  are  in  Mexico  some  signs  of  reaction  in  regard  to  the  jury 
system.  Article  VII.  of  our  Constitution  provided  that  all  offences 
committed  through  the  press  should  be  tried  by  a  jury  which  should 
decide  as  to  the  facts,  and  if  the  accused  were  convicted,  another  jury 
should  apply  the  law  and  fix  the  penalty.  But  as  the  practical  result 
of  this  system  was  that  no  offence  of  that  kind  could  ever  be  punished, 
because  the  jury  always  acquitted  the  accused,  our  Constitution  was 
amended  on  May  15,  1883,  abrogating  the  jury  system  in  these  cases  and 
submitting  the  offenders  to  the  common  courts,  so  that  now  offences 
committed  through  the  press  are  tried  and  punished  like  crimes  of  any 
other  character. 

The  Old  Spanish  System  of  Criminal  yurisp  rude  nee. — I  often  hear  it 
asserted  in  this  country  that  the  proceedings  under  the  Roman  law  are 
secret,  and  that  the  accused  does  not  know  what  the  witnesses  have 
testified  against  him.  This  assertion  is  entirely  incorrect,  and  often 
leads  to  very  serious  misunderstandings.  One  of  the  difficulties  that  the 
Spanish- American  Republics  have  to  contend  with  in  this  country,  in 
cases  where  citizens  of  the  United  States  are  tried  by  the  local  judges 
in  any  of  those  Republics,  is  the  great  difference  between  their  criminal 
legislation  and  procedure  and  the  system  prevailing  in  this  country. 

According  to  the  Roman  system,  every  criminal  trial  is  divided  into 
two  stages;  during  the  summary  {^sumario).,  which  is  the  first,  and  the 
purpose  of  which  is  to  ascertain  the  facts  connected  with  the  case, 
the  testimony  of  the  accused  is  taken  down,  sometimes  without  his 
knowing  who  may  be  the  witnesses  testifying  against  him,  or  even  the 
crime  with  which  he  is  charged.  During  this  stage  the  accused  is 
kept  in  solitary  confinement,  and  not  allowed  to  place  himself  in  com- 
munication with  others  so  that  he  cannot  connive  any  scheme  which 
might  defeat  the  ends  of  justice,  and  while  in  such  confinement  we  call 
him  in  Spanish  "  Incomunicado."  During  the  plenary  {plenario),  or 
second  stage,  all  the  proceedings  of  the  summary  are  made  public; 
and  thereafter  all  the  proceedings  are  public,  the  accused  enjoying  the 
same  rights  which  are  guaranteed  to  him  by  the  common  law.  To  this 
latter  statement  there  may  be  some  slight  exceptions,  as,  for  instance, 
the  fact  that  bail  is  allowed  in  only  a  few  specified  cases,  determined 
by  law,  and  never  when  the  accused  may,  upon  conviction,  be  liable 
to  bodily  punishment.  It  would  take  more  space  than  is  allowed  in  a 
paper  of  this  character,  to  state  the  respective  advantages  of  the  two 


{ 


Criminal  Jurisprudence.  413 

systems,  and  I  shall,  therefore,  confine  myself  to  briefly  mentioning  the 
principal  differences  between  them. 

The  secret  proceedings  of  the  sumario  are  much  criticised  in  the 
United  States,  it  being  forgotten  that  the  English  common  law  likewise 
provides  a  secret  proceeding  very  similar  to  the  sumario.  Before  any 
one  is  indicted  in  this  country,  the  case  is  heard  secretly  by  a  grand 
jury,  a  body  composed  of  persons  who,  in  some  cases  at  least,  are 
secretly  designated.  The  grand  jury  listens  to  such  testimony  as  is 
offered,  or  as  it  may  deem  sufficient,  without  permitting  the  accused 
to  be  present  or  to  know  what  transpires;  and  if,  in  their  judgment, 
there  is  sufficient  ground,  an  indictment  is  found;  and  thereafter  the 
public  trial  begins  before  the  court.  It  is  very  difficult,  of  course,  to 
make  any  general  statement  which  will  be  accurately  true  with  respect 
to  all  of  the  forty-five  commonwealths  which  compose  this  Union, 
since,  as  is  well  known,  each  of  them  has  its  own  legislation.  In  some 
States,  as  in  New  York,  a  preliminary  hearing  may  take  place  before 
a  police  magistrate,  who  has  in  some  petty  cases  power  to  inflict  punish- 
ment, release  the  accused,  or  hold  him  for  action  of  the  grand  jury. 
Sometimes,  however,  no  arrest  is  made  until  an  indictment  has  been 
found  by  the  grand  jury,  or  in  cases  of  misdemeanor,  for  trial  by  a 
court  of  judges  if  the  defendant  waives  a  jury. 

So  far,  therefore,  as  a  proceeding  under  one  system  may  be  said  to 
correspond  to  a  proceeding  under  the  other,  it  may  be  said  that  the 
sumario,  in  countries  where  the  Roman  law  prevails,  corresponds  prac- 
tically to  a  grand  jury  indictment  in  Anglo-Saxon  nations. 

In  the  Latin  countries  testimony  is  taken  down  in  writing,  and, 
after  being  read  to  the  witness,  is  signed  by  him  and  by  the  judge,  in 
proof  of  the  fact  that  his  statements  have  been  correctly  recorded. 
That  gives  a  degree  of  certainty  to  the  correctness  of  the  testimony 
which  cannot  be  obtained  by  a  stenographic  report;  and  it  renders  it 
impossible  for  the  judge  or  opposing  counsel  to  put  into  the  mouth  of 
a  witness  language  different  from  that  which  he  has  actually  used. 
When  the  summary  is  ended,  all  the  testimony  is  presented  to  the 
accused  for  his  examination;  and  the  right  is  then  given  him  to  cross- 
examine  the  witnesses  who  have  appeared  against  him.  The  cross- 
examination  is  an  old  Spanish  proceeding  which  we  call  "  careo,"  and 
which  in  Spanish  means  that  the  accused  is  personally  confronted  with 
the  witnesses  in  presence  of  the  judge,  for  the  purpose  of  cross- 
examining  them.  It  is  therefore  quite  incorrect  to  assert  that,  because 
the  sumario,  or  first  stage  of  the  trial  under  the  Latin  system,  is  kept 
secret,  therefore  the  accused  does  not  know  anything  regarding  the 
evidence  against  him;  the  fact  being  that  during  the  second  or  plenary 
stage  of  the  proceeding  he  is  fully  informed  of  all  that  has  been  done, 
and  is  given  ample  opportunity  to  refute  it,  either  by  presenting  his 


414  Crimtual  jurisprudence. 

own  witnesses  or  by  cross-examining  such  as  have  been  presented  by 
the  other  side,  or  called  by  the  judge. 

It  should  not  be  difficult  to  see  which  system  of  criminal  juris- 
prudence is,  on  the  whole,  best  calculated  to  do  justice  by  ascertain- 
ing the  real  facts  of  the  case,  whether  by  a  judge  of  long  experience 
and  proficiency  in  his  profession,  with  no  personal  interest  in  the  cases 
tried  before  him,  or  by  a  jury  composed  of  men  who  have  no  experience 
in  criminal  jurisprudence.  If  the  judge  may  sometimes  be  derelict  in 
his  duties,  so  also  may  the  jury  occasionally  be  controlled  by  their 
emotions.  If  the  judge  fails  to  do  his  duty,  his  failure  will  be  corrected 
by  an  appellate  court,  as  all  cases  must  be  reviewed  upon  appeal.  For 
the  improper  verdict  of  a  jury  there  is  seldom  any  adequate  remedy. 

The  Anglo-Saxon  criminal  jurisprudence  is  founded  upon  the  prin- 
ciple that  it  is  better  to  let  one  hundred  criminals  go  unpunished  than 
to  inflict  punishment  upon  a  single  innocent  person.  While  the  Latin 
system  accepts  that  humanitarian  principle,  it  is  nevertheless  better 
calculated  to  prevent  the  escape  of  a  criminal  unpunished. 

Some  American  citizens  who  are  tried  in  Spanish-American  coun- 
tries expect  that  the  proceedings  there  will  be  conducted  in  accordance 
with  the  legislation  of  their  own  country,  and,  when  they  find  it  other- 
wise, they  complain  bitterly,  considering  the  Latin  proceedings  as 
inquisitorial,  outrageous,  and  even  barbarous;  and  complaining  that 
they  are  not  tried  under  the  laws  in  force  in  this  country,  as  if  the 
legislation  of  the  United  States  should  extend  to  foreign  countries. 
My  experience  has  shown  me  that  this  is  sometimes  the  cause  of 
serious  difficulties  and  misunderstandings  between  the  United  States 
and  some  of  the  Spanish-American  republics.' 

Right  of  Appeal. — Another  right  guaranteed  to  the  accused  under 
the  Mexican  law,  and  which  in  its  broadest  sense  is  unknown  to  the 
common  law  as  such,  is  the  right  of  appeal;  that  is  to  say,  the  right  in 
every  case  to  have  both  the  law  and  the  facts  reviewed  by  a  higher 

'  As  an  instance  of  the  kind  of  charges  made  against  Mexico  through  the  press  by 
irresponsible  parties,  I  will  mention  a  case  which  recently  occurred.  A  telegram  dated 
at  Omaha,  Neb.,  on  November  23,  1895,  and  published  broadcast  by  the  papers  of  this 
country,  stated  that  Colonel  W.  A.  Paxton,  of  that  city,  had  received  a  letter  from 
MacStewart,  an  old  employee  of  his,  who  was  under  sentence  of  death  at  Parral, 
Chihuahua,  Mexico,  for  shooting  a  policeman  who  was  trying  to  kill  him  for  a  trivial 
offence,  and  stated  that  MacStewart  desired  to  be  placed  in  a  court  where  he  would  be 
allowed  to  plead  self-defence,  which  he  pretended  was  not  permitted  under  the  Mexi- 
can law.  What  has  already  been  said  about  the  Mexican  criminal  jurisprudence  is 
enough  to  show  how  entirely  unfounded  such  a  statement  was. 

Whenever  I  notice  in  the  newspapers  any  complaint  of  this  character,  it  is  my 
custom  to  communicate  the  same  to  the  Mexican  Government  and  to  request  an  official 
investigation  of  the  case,  so  that  I  may  rectify  the  statement  if  it  should  prove  to  be 
incorrect,  or  remedy  the  wrong  before  it  assumes  a  serious  aspect,  if  in  fact  there 


Criminal  Jurisprudence.  415 

court.  Under  the  Mexican  laws  this  right  is  very  broad.  Our  laws 
provide  that  no  decision  made  by  judge  or  jury  condemning  the  ac- 
cused can  be  executed  until  after  it  has  been  affirmed  by  a  higher  court. 
Not  only  is  the  accused  given  the  right  to  appeal  once,  and  sometimes 
twice,  from  any  decision  against  him,  but  it  is  also  made  the  duty  of 
the  lower  court  to  send  the  case  with  the  record  for  review  to  the 
higher  court  in  cases  where  the  convicted  person  does  not  appeal. 
Such  is  the  practice  under  the  Roman  and  Spanish  law;  but  in  the 
Federal  District  of  Mexico,  where  the  jury  system  has  been  adopted, 
the  case  goes  to  the  higher  court  only  on  appeal  of  the  aggrieved  party, 
and  said  appeal  only  affects  questions  of  law,  and  not  tlie  facts  as 
stated  by  the  jury,  which  cannot  be  controverted. 

It  is  true  that  under  the  common-law  system  of  criminal  jurispru- 
dence the  accused  or  his  lawyer  can  take  exceptions  to  points  decided 
by  the  judge  during  the  trial,  and  that  these  exceptions  may  be 
reviewed  by  a  higher  court,  but  this  can  hardly  be  said  to  be  an 
appeal,  in  the  sense  contemplated  by  the  Mexican  law,  because  the 
decision  of  the  appellate  court  is  only  limited  to  those  points  which 
may  be  covered  by  the  exceptions  taken  at  the  trial.  It  is  true  that  in 
some  States,  as,  for  instance.  New  York,  an  appeal  can  now  be  taken 
which  will  bring  before  the  court  for  review,  questions  of  fact  as  well 
as  questions  of  law;  but  in  so  far  as  this  procedure  has  been  adopted, 
it  is  a  departure  from  the  strict  rules  of  the  common  law  and  an  adop- 
tion of  the  principles  of  the  Roman  law,  since,  according  to  the  theory 
of  the  common  law,  a  jury  can  make  no  mistake,  and  its  findings  are 
therefore  final. 

IVn'/  of  Habeas  Corpus  and  Amparo. — We  have  copied  in  our  Con- 
stitution from  the  Anglo-Saxon  system  of  jurisprudence  the  writ  of 
habeas  corpus,  the  great  conquest  of  the  Anglo-Saxons,  which  guar- 
antees life  and  liberty  to  man,  and  which  places  under  the  control  of 
the  judiciary  the  otherwise  arbitrary  orders  of  those  in  authority;  but 
we  have  gone  considerably  farther  in  this  direction,    and  under  the 

should  be  any  real  cause  for  complaint.  In  due  course  I  generally  receive  an  official 
statement  which  is  almost  always  at  great  variance  with  tiio  conjplaint.  In  this  par- 
ticular case,  the  facts  turned  (^ut  to  be  that  MacStewart  abused  a  policeman  who  was 
unarmed,  and  following  him  to  the  posi-office  at  I'arral,  fired  upon  him  without  the 
slightest  cause,  killing  him  instantly  ;  that,  not  satisfied  with  this,  he  killed  the  police- 
man's horse,  and  then  fired  upon  the  chief  of  police  who  arrested  him.  It  further 
appeared  that  this  was  his  second  offence  of  this  charactt"  as  he  had  killed  before,  in 
Mexico,  a  United  States  citizen  named  Rogers.  In  the  c^..  ^,of  Rogers,  MacStewart 
was  acquitted,  and  upon  the  trial  for  the  murder  of  the  policeiuin  he  was  allowed  to 
plead  self-defence,  but  failed  utterly  to  establish  it,  as  all  the  witr^esses  examined,  in- 
cluding an  American  citizen  by  the  name  of  Davis,  a  friend  of  Ma«.Stewart's,  testified 
that  there  had  been  no  provocation  on  the  part  of  the  policeman,  an  I  that  the  accused 
had  committed  a  wilful  and  wanton  murder.  ' 


4i6  Criminal  ^urispiu^eucc. 

name  of  amparo  have  extended  this  guarantee  so  that  it  is  not  limited 
to  the  protection  of  personal  life  and  liberty,  but  embraces  all  rights 
under  the  Constitution — including  the  right  of  personal  property,  even 
when  such  rights  have  been  defined  by  judicial  decisions.  If,  for  in- 
stance, a  man  finds  that  his  property,  or  any  other  of  his  Constitutional 
rights,  are  interfered  with,  either  by  civil  or  military  authority,  or  even 
by  a  judicial  sentence  of  a  Federal  or  State  court,  he  may  apply  to  the 
respective  Federal  district  court  having  jurisdiction  thereof,  asking  it 
for  an  injunction  to  suspend  the  act  complained  of,  and  finally  to  de- 
cide the  case,  either  in  his  favor  or  against  him,  the  decision  always 
going  for  revision  to  our  Supreme  Court. 

Rights  Guaranteed  by  the  Mexican  Constitution. — Our  Constitution 
of  1857  is  so  careful  not  to  allow  anybody  to  be  kept  in  prison  for  any 
extraordinary  length  of  time,  that  Article  XIX.  specially  provides  that 
when  a  man  is  arrested  the  judge  shall  hold  a  preliminary  ex- 
amination, and  shall  within  three  days  from  the  time  of  his  arrest 
decide  whether  there  is  cause  to  try  him,  or  whether  he  shall  be  set  at 
liberty.  If  the  judge  shall  find  that  there  is  sufficient  ground  for  con- 
tinuing the  investigation,  the  prisoner  shall  be  remanded;  otherwise 
he  shall  be  set  at  liberty.  In  the  first  instance  the  judge  has  to  sign 
what  is  called  in  Spanish  auto  de  prisio7i  formal,  meaning  an  order  of 
formal  commitment.  In  the  second  place  the  prisoner  is  set  at  liberty. 
This  proceeding  corresponds  in  a  measure  to  the  grand  jury  investiga- 
tion under  the  common  law.  As  I  have  already  stated,  in  some  States, 
like  New  York,  a  committing  magistrate  is  authorized  to  examine  the 
case  as  a  preliminary  step  to  the  investigation  of  the  grand  jury. 
Where  such  a  practice  prevails,  two  examinations  take  place  before  the 
criminal  charge  upon  which  the  accused  is  to  be  finally  tried  is  defi- 
nitely formulated,  while  under  our  system  only  one  investigation  is 
made,  and  even  that  must  be  completed  within  three  days  of  the  arrest. 

The  assertion,  often  heard,  that  American  citizens  tried  in  Mexico 
are  not  notified  of  the  cause  of  their  arrest;  that  they  are  not  con- 
fronted with  their  accusers;  and  that  they  are  not  allowed  to  appear  in 
self-defence,  is  in  open  contradiction  to  the  express  provisions  of  our 
statutes.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  Article  XX.  of  our  Constitution  of  1857 
grants  the  following  guarantees  to  the  accused,  m  criminal  cases: 

1.  That  the  cause  of  the  proceeding  and  the  name  of  the  accuser 
be  made  known  to  the  accused. 

2.  That  the  preliminary  examination  of  the  accused  must  be  held 
within  forty-eight  hours  from  the  time  he  is  placed  at  the  disposal  of 
the  judge. 

3.  That  he  niay  cross-examine  the  witnesses  who  testify  against  him. 

4.  That  suf.h  information  as  the  accused  may  need  for  the  purpose 
of  answering  the  indictment  must  be  given  him,  if  it  be  in  the  record. 


Criminal  Jurisprudence.  417 

5.  That  he  must  be  heard  in  his  own  defence,  either  in  person  or 
by  some  attorney  of  his  own  selection,  or  by  both,  as  he  may  choose; 
and  if  he  should  have  nobody  to  appear  for  him,  he  will  be  furnished 
with  a  list  of  lawyers  appointed  for  such  cases  and  given  the  right 
to  select  as  his  attorney  any  one  whom  he  may  prefer. 

Length  of  Trials  under  both  Systems. — I  often  hear  the  complaint, 
too,  that  under  the  Roman  system  the  trial  proceeds  very  slowly,  and 
it  is  asserted  that  criminal  trials  in  the  United  States  terminate  more 
speedily.  I  am  not  prepared  to  say  under  which  of  the  two  systems 
of  criminal  procedure  the  trial  is  sooner  brought  to  an  end.  When  the 
trial  actually  begins,  it  may  take  a  shorter  time  in  the  United  States, 
because  once  begun,  it  cannot  be  interrupted.  It  often  happens, 
however,  that  a  long  time  elapses  before  a  case  is  brought  to  trial;  and 
this  time  is  longer  when  a  new  trial  is  granted.  It  should  be  borne  in 
mind  tliat  most  of  the  courts  in  this  country  hold  sessions  but  for  a 
few  weeks  or  months  at  a  time,  and  that  only  during  these  sessions  do 
they  hear  cases.  In  Latin-American  countries,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
courts  are  open  and  working  all  the  year  round.  Moreover,  under 
the  common-law  system,  the  whole  of  the  trial  takes  place  before  the 
jury,  so  that  the  exclusive  attention  of  the  court  is  necessarily  devoted 
to  that  case.  Only  one  case,  therefore,  can  be  tried  at  a  time.  In 
Latin- American  countries  a  judge  may  try  several  cases  concurrently, 
because,  even  where  the  jury  system  has  been  adopted,  as  it  has  in 
Mexico,  a  great  portion  of  the  proceedings  takes  place  before  the 
judge  without  the  jury.  As  a  consequence  of  this,  trials  in  this 
country,  by  reason  of  the  crowded  condition  of  the  dockets,  are  often 
delayed  for  months  at  a  time,  while  in  the  Latin  countries  trials  begin 
as  soon  as  the  prisoners  are  arrested. 

Summary  Proceedings  under  the  Mexican  Constitution. — There  is  a 
provision  in  our  Constitution  which  is  often  misunderstood,  and  which 
has  given  rise  to  the  idea  that  we  sometimes  administer  justice  in  too 
speedy  a  manner  and  with  a  complete  disregard  of  the  forms  of  law 
established  for  the  protection  of  human  life.  Our  Constitution  com- 
mences with  a  declaration  of  the  rights  of  man,  taken  in  a  great  meas- 
ure from  the  declaration  of  the  French  National  Assembly  during  the 
Revolution,  which  in  its  turn  was  in  a  great  measure  taken  from  the 
Declaration  of  Independence  of  the  United  States.  These  rights 
secure  the  most  ample  liberty  and  immunity  both  to  the  person  and 
property  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  country. 

While  our  Constitution  was  being  framed,  however,  it  was  contended 
that,  on  extraordinary  occasions,  as  in  case  of  war  or  other  serious 
danger  to  society,  the  rights  guaranteed  by  the  Constitution  might 
stand  very  much  in  the  way  of  inflicting  needed  and  speedy  punish- 
ment.    To  obviate  this,  the  Constitution  provides,  in  Article  XXIX., 


I 


41 8  Cninmal  3^^i5p^u^cnce. 

that  the  rights  of  man,  as  guaranteed  by  that  instrument,  excepting 
such  as  secure  his  life,  may  be  suspended  for  a  short  time  in  certain 
emergencies,  provided  that  suspension  be  upon  the  President's  initia- 
tive, and  with  the  consent  of  Congress;  and  provided,  further,  that 
the  suspension  shall  be  applicable  to  a  class;  that  it  shall  not  apply  to 
an  individual;  and  that  it  shall  last  for  a  brief  period.  If  it  should  be 
found,  for  instance,  that  the  crime  of  derailing  railway  cars,  either  for 
the  purpose  of  robbing  them  or  for  any  other  unlawful  end,  should 
become  frequent,  and  if  it  should  be  found  that  the  emergency  called 
for  extraordinary  measures,  the  President  would  ask  Congress  for  the 
suspension  of  the  personal  guarantees  of  this  class  of  criminals  for  a. 
limited  period,  say  six  months;  and  if  Congress  should  sanction  this 
suspension,  a  summary  criminal  proceeding  would  be  established,  for 
the  purpose  of  inflicting  punishment  without  delay,  thereby  deterring 
others  who  might  be  disposed  to  commit  the  same  crime.  At  the  end 
of  the  period  fixed  public  confidence  would  have  been  restored,  and 
there  being  no  further  need  for  the  unusual  measures  adopted,  the 
suspension  of  Constitutional  guarantees  would  come  to  an  end.  It  will 
be  seen  that  our  Constitution  provides  a  speedy  way  of  punishing 
criminals  in  extraordinary  cases,  without  the  unfortunate  need  which 
the  condition  of  things  has  sometimes  made  necessary  in  this  country 
— as  in  California  in  former  years — of  establishing  a  committee 
of  public  safety  to  preserve  order,  a  proceeding  which  meant  that  the 
people  took  the  law  into  their  own  hands,  acting  without  regard  to  the 
usual  legal  forms,  and  oftentimes  in  a  manner  closely  resembling  lynch 
law. 

Mexican  Prisons. — Great  complaints  are  often  made  in  this  country 
against  the  Mexican  prisons,  which  are  said  to  be  uncomfortable, 
and  sometimes  considered  filthy.  It  is  a  fact  that  some  prisons  in 
Mexico  are  in  a  very  poor  condition;  but  that  is  due  to  the  limited 
resources  of  the  country.  A  poor  country  cannot  afford  to  build 
magnificent  prisons;  yet  notwithstanding  that  we  have  to  contend  with 
small  means,  the  States  of  Jalisco  and  Puebla  have  built  spacious  and 
comfortable  penitentiaries  at  Guadalajara  and  Puebla,  their  respective 
capitals,  and  the  State  of  Guanajuato  at  the  City  of  Salamanca.  Other 
States,  as  San  Luis  Potosi,  and  Nuevo  Leon  '  are  constructing  new 

'  Mr.  E.  G.  Coffin,  Warden  of  the  Columbus,  Ohio.  Penitentiary,  who  recently 
visited  Mexico  with  the  members  of  the  Prison  Congress  which  met  at  Austin,  Texas, 
wrote  a  pamphlet  entitled,  "The  Prison  Congress,  and  our  Trip  Through  Mexico 
and  Texas,"  in  which  he  says  of  the  penitentiary  in  the  State  of  Nuevo  Leon,  estab- 
lished in  the  City  of  Monterey,  as  follows : 

"  At  the  Monterey  Prison  we  were  shown  unusual  courtesies  by  the  governor  and 
Mayor  Jules  Randle.  There  are  400  inmates.  We  found  the  prison  scrupulously 
clean,  the  food  pure,  what  there  was  of  it,  but  no  work  for  the  inmates  except  trinket 
and  lace  making,  in  a  desultory  kind  of  a  way.  The  prison  seems  to  be  conducted  on 
a  system  of  a  continuous  school,  and  the  plan  of  confinement  is  a  solitarj*  one." 


Criminal  3urispru&ence.  419 

penitentiaries,  and  the  Federal  Government  is  concluding  the  erec- 
tion of  one  at  the  City  of  Mexico  which  will  compare  favorably  with 
any  in  this  country. 

Prisons  cannot  be  as  comfortable  as  palaces  or  hotels,  and  even  in 
this  country,  with  all  its  wealth,  advancement,  and  prosperity,  prisons 
are  sometimes  very  objectionable.'  If  we  had  two  sets  of  prisons  in 
Mexico,  one  for  Mexican  citizens  and  the  other  for  foreigners,  and  if 
the  former  were  more  comfortable  than  the  latter,  the  citizens  of  this 
country  would  have  reason  to  complain;  but  if  we  treat  them  on  an 
equal  footing  with  our  own  citizens,  and  if  we  give  the  best  we  can, — 
that  is,  if  we  keep  them  in  the  same  building,  provide  the  same  food, 
and  extend  to  them  the  same  conditions  that  we  do  our  own  citizens, 
I  fail  to  see  how  there  can  be  any  reasonable  ground  for  complaint. 

The  Common  Law  and  Roman  Civil  jf^urisprudencc. — When  we  pass 
from  criminal  to  civil  jurisprudence,  the  superiority  of  the  Roman  law 
is  incontrovertible,  and  a  few  remarks  on  that  subject  will  be  pertinent 
in  this  case." 

'  The  Ne'w  York  Herald  of  the  29th  of  October,  1895,  published  the  following 
statement,  made  to  the  Board  of  Estimate  by  Miss  Rosa  Butler  of  the  State  Charities 
Waif  Association,  about  the  deplorable  condition  of  Blackwell's  Island  Almshouse  : 

"  Among  these  evils  are  the  terrible  overcrowding  at  the  almshouse,  where,  even 
during  the  past  summer,  more  than  three  hundred  persons  slept  on  beds  made  on  the 
floor;  unsuitability  of  the  almshouse  building,  1500  occupying  buildings  which  have 
neither  hot  nor  cold  water,  no  bath-rooms,  no  lavatories  ;  the  wretchedly  inadequate 
nursing  at  the  almshouse  hospitals,  there  being  but  one  untrained  and  incompetent 
nurse  for  every  forty  patients ;  the  unskilled  and  inadequate  nursing  on  Randall's 
Island,  where  of  160  foundlings  cared  for  in  1S94,  119  died,  and  of  384  other  infants — 
not  foundlings — cared  for  without  their  mothers,  296  died  ;  the  dilapidated  condition 
of  the  City  Hospital,  to  which  no  repairs  have  been  made  for  several  years  ;  the  em- 
ployment of  workhouse  prisoners  in  hospital  kitchens  ;  placing  the  erysipelas  wards  in 
the  dock  house,  which  is  old,  noisy,  and  infested  with  vermin  ;  the  lack  of  projier 
facilities  of  dealing  with  casual  lodgers,  and  so  forth." 

If  prisons  that  are  in  the  heart  of  the  city  of  New  York,  the  largest  and  wealthiest 
of  this  country,  and  under  its  immediate  supervision,  are  in  that  state,  the  bad  con- 
dition of  some  of  the  Mexican  prisons  is  certainly  nothing  extraordinary. 

^  In  an  admirable  address  that  Judge  Martin  F.  Morris,  Associate  Justice  of  the 
Court  of  Appeals  of  the  District  of  Columbia  and  Professor  of  Constitutional  and  In- 
ternational Law,  Admiralty,  and  Comparative  Jurisprudence,  in  the  Law  School  of 
Georgetown  University,  District  of  Columbia,  delivered  before  the  graduating  class  in 
1891,  he  said,  referring  to  the  subject  of  the  common  law  and  the  Roman  law  (pp.  30 
and  31),  the  following  : 

"But,  however  it  be  in  criminal  cases,  I  have  no  hesitation  whatever,  after  a  long 
experience  of  it,  to  assert  that,  as  a  mode  of  determination  of  civil  causes  and  private 
controversies,  the  genius  of  man  has  never  yet  devised  anything  more  absurd  tlian  the 
organized  ignorance  and  besotted  prejudices  of  twelve  men  in  a  jury  box.  The  man 
who  has  a  good  case  is  always  desirous  to  have  it  taken  away  from  the  determination 
of  a  jury,  and  to  submit  it  to  the  arbitrament  of  a  court  alone — to  the  arbitrament,  in 
fact,  of  any  one  other  than  the  twelve  men  in  a  jury  box  ;  while  the  dishonest  litigant. 


420  Criminal  JurispruDence. 

The  English  common  law  is  simply  the  law  of  usage  and  custom. 
Whatever  is  sanctioned  by  general  usage  becomes  common  law. 
Hence  it  is  that  in  suits  at  common  law  the  rights  of  parties  are  often 
determined  by  proof  of  custom.  Upon  this  theory  is  based  the  idea 
of  what  is  called  a  common-law  marriage,  which  prevails  in  New  York, 
and  perhaps  some  other  States  of  the  Union,  that  cohabitation  as  hus- 
band and  wife  and  public  reputation  as  such,  are  swihcienX.  prima  facie 
proof  of  marriage.  While  this  system  has  the  great  advantage  that  its 
provisions  are  in  accordance  with  the  tendencies  and  habits  of  the 
people,  it  also  has  the  disadvantage  that  its  provisions  are  uncertain, 
as  habits  may  change  on  one  side,  and  on  tlie  other  they  may  not  be 
so  settled  as  to  have  the  sanction  of  a  rule  under  the  common  law. 
Under  the  civil  law  the  good  result  of  the  common  law  is  practically 
the  same,  but  under  a  more  systematic  method,  that  is,  the  rules  estab- 
lished by  habit  and  justice  combined,  are  collected  into  a  Code  of 
Laws,  after  they  have  been  established  by  long  years  of  practice,  and 
have  the  advantage  of  being  more  precise  on  one  side  and  more  just 
on  the  other. 

One  of  the  most  conclusive  proofs  that  the  Roman  civil  law  is  not 
inferior  to  the  English  common  law  is  that  England,  the  very  country 
where  it  had  its  birth,  was  obliged  to  establish  two  systems  of  civil 
jurisprudence,  one  the  common  law  proper,  which  was  administered 
through  the  older  and  ordinary  courts,  and  the  other  the  Roman  law, 
administered  through  the  chancery  or  equity  courts.  Law  is  supposed 
to  be  the  perfection  of  justice  and  the  best  expression  of  human  reason; 
it  should,  then,  embrace  not  only  equity,  but  the  very  essence  of  justice 
itself.  If,  therefore,  a  particular  law  or  system  of  laws  fails  to  include 
equity,  that  law  or  system  cannot  be  perfection.  The  very  idea  that 
equity  can  be  a  thing  outside  and  different  from  law  seems  contradic- 
tory and  absurd. 

Although  the  chancery  or  equity  courts  were  in  the  beginning  estab- 

the  unprincipled  lawyer,  and  the  speculating  knave,  are  ever  loud  in  their  demands  for 
trial  by  jury  ;  for  only  upon  the  prejudices,  the  passions,  the  ignorance,  or  the  corrup- 
tion of  juries  can  they  base  their  hopes  of  success.  This  is  the  experience  of  every 
man  who  has  had  to  do  with  courts  of  law,  and  it  speaks  volumes  to  the  discredit  of 
the  system.  Then  the  divided  responsibility  of  court  and  jury,  the  necessity  of  im- 
mediate decision  by  the  former  of  questions  of  law  upon  which  appellate  tribunals 
often  deliberate  for  weeks  and  months  without  coming  to  a  satisfactory  conclusion,  the 
consequent  necessity  of  repeated  trials  before  a  final  decision  is  reached — all  contribr'te 
to  render  the  system  exceedingly  unsatisfactory  in  its  methods,  no  less  than  its  results. 
"  We  think  we  are  fully  justified  in  the  assertion  that  there  is  no  one  feature  of 
our  jurisprudence  that  tends  more  in  practice  to  a  denial  of  justice  than  the  system  of 
trial  by  jury.  It  may,  perhaps,  have  done  well  enough  in  a  barbarous  age,  when 
judges  may  not  have  been  more  intelligent  than  juries,  and  may  have  been,  in  fact,  the 
tools  and  minions  of  despotic  power  ;  but  in  this  age  and  country  it  is  nothing  more 
than  a  relic  of  feudal  barbarism." 


Criminal  Jurisprudence.  421 

lished  in  England  for  the  purpose  of  trying  such  cases  as  could  not  be 
reached  by  the  common  law,  or  in  which  the  processes  of  the  common- 
.  law  courts  afforded  no  adequate  remedy,  the  Roman  law  came  finally 
to  be  in  reality  the  law  which  was  intended  to  fill  the  gaps  and  remedy 
the  defects  of  the  common  law.  The  common-law  courts  were  always 
very  jealous  of  the  equity  courts;  but  after  the  decision  of  King  James 
I.,  in  the  controversy  between  Sir  Edward  Coke,  on  the  one  side, 
representing  the  common-law  courts,  and  Lord  Ellesmere,  the  Lord 
Chancellor,  and  Lord  Bacon,  on  the  other,  representing  the  equity,  or 
Roman-law  courts,  it  was  established  that  a  man  might  have  recourse 
to  a  court  of  equity  in  many  cases  after  his  rights  had  been  adjudicated 
at  the  common-law  courts.  The  establishment  of  this  principle  was 
equivalent  in  fact,  though  not  in  form,  to  giving  an  appeal  from  the 
courts  of  common  law  to  the  courts  of  equity,  thus  recognizing  the 
superiority  of  the  Roman  over  the  common-law  system.  It  is  true  that 
the  equity  courts  could  not  reverse  the  decision  of  the  common-law 
courts,  but  if,  in  the  trial  of  the  same  case  an  equity  court  reached  an 
opposite  or  different  conclusion,  the  judgment  of  the  common-law  court 
could  not  be  executed,  and  became  therefore,  in  fact,  nullified. 

I  am  well  aware  that  a  common-law  lawyer  will  not  admit  that  the 
equity  courts  can  reverse  the  judgment  of  the  common-law  courts,  be- 
cause legally  and  technically  that  cannot  be  done;  but,  as  a  matter  of 
fact,  such  is  the  practical  consequence  of  the  system  as  it  now  exists. 
If  a  common-law  court,  for  instance,  decides  a  case  against  the  defend- 
ant, and  if  after  that  decision  the  defendant  finds  proofs  to  establish 
his  contentions,  he  may  still  go  to  the  equity  court,  present  his  proofs, 
and  ask  that  the  plaintiff  be  enjoined  from  executing  the  judgment 
against  him;  and  in  such  cases  the  equity  court  has  jurisidiction  to 
grant  such  an  application.  In  a  case  like  the  one  cited  the  equity 
court  does  not  pretend  technically  to  revise  or  reverse  the  judgment  of 
the  common-law  court;  but  by  granting  the  injunction  against  its  exe- 
cution it  practically  effects  its  reversal;  and  such  a  system  therefore 
actually  produces  the  same  result  as  though  the  equity  court  were 
a  court  of  appeals.' 

'  The  following  letters  explain  themselves  and  make  this  subject  more  clear: 

"  Chicago,  July  17,  1896. 
"SeSor  Don  Matias  Romero, 

"  Minister  of  the  Republic  of  Mexico,   Washington,  D.  C. 

"  Dear  Sn<, — I  have  read  with  deep  interest  your  valuable  article  in  the  current 
number  of  the  A'orth  American  Reviezv,  contrasting  the  systems  of  criminal  jurispru- 
dence in  force  in  your  own  country  and  in  this,  and  am  happy  to  say  that  I  have  gained 
from  it  much  information  which  I  had  not  before  possessed,  and  of  which  very,  very 
few  of  our  American  lawyers,  and  publicists  even,  have  any  adequate  knowledge,  and 
I  desire,  therefore,  to  sincerely  thank  you. 

"  May  I,  however,  take  the  liberty  of  correcting  a  misstatement  contained  in  the 


422  Criminal  3uri5pru^cnce. 

The  American  people,  with  their  practical  common  sense,  have 
remedied  a  great  many  of  the  defects  of  the  common -law  practice  in 
civil  cases,  changing  it  gradually  to  such  an  extent  that  now  it  can 
hardly  be  said  that  the  English  common-law  system,  as  expounded  by 
Blackstone,  is  in  force  in  the  United  States.  It  is  still  called  the 
common  law,  but  for  all  practical  purposes  it  is  almost  superseded  by 
the  Roman  law. 

Even  as  regards  the  jury  system,  and  notwithstanding  the  fact  that 
this  has  been  considered  the  corner-stone  of  common-law  criminal 
jurisprudence,   some  States  of  this  country    have,    as  I  understand, 

paragraph  commencing  at  the  bottom  of  page  88  ?  It  would  seem  that  you  regard  the 
power  of  a  court  of  equity  to  restrain  the  enforcement  of  a  common-law  judgment  as 
equivalent  to  the  power  of  a  court  of  appeal.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  it  is  not  so.  A 
court  of  equity  has  no  power  whatever,  under  our  system  of  jurisprudence,  to  interfere 
where  an  appeal  would  be  the  proper  remedy.  But  where  there  has  been  fraud,  or 
where  it  appears  that  judgment  has  been  entered,  when,  in  fact,  no  summons  has  been 
served  on  defendant,  although  the  record  recites  that  summons  has  been  served,  a  court 
of  equity  may  act,  provided  the  question  could  not  have  been  raised  in  the  common 
law-suit,  by  reason  of  want  of  knowledge  on  the  part  of  the  defendant,  until  after  the 
expiration  of  the  term  of  court,  or  some  similar  reason.  In  addition,  the  defendant 
who  seeks  the  aid  of  a  court  of  equity  in  such  case  must  show  that  the  plaintiff  had  no 
cause  of  action  ;  but,  if  an  appeal  can  be  taken,  an  appeal  must  be  taken,  or  defendant 
cannot  complain. 

"  The  error  into  which  you  have  inadvertently  fallen  is,  perhaps,  a  natural  one, 
and  does  not  detract  in  the  least  from  the  value  of  your  article,  for  which  I  again 
express  my  appreciation. 

"I  trust  you  will  not  consider  my  remarks  as  impertinent,  even  though  your 
attention  has  already  been  called  to  your  error. 

"  I  am,  respectfully,  your  obedient  servant, 

*'  Edwin  I.  Felsenthal,  Attorney-at-LaiL'." 


"Washington,  Aug.  7,  1896. 
'■  Mr.  Edwin  I.  Felsenthal,  Attomey-at-Law,  Chicago^  III. 

"  Dear  Sir, — In  answer  to  your  kind  and  appreciative  note  concerning  my 
article  in  the  A'orth  American  Review,  contrasting  the  criminal  systems  of  the  Roman 
and  the  English  law,  I  have  to  say  that  I  am  entirely  aware  that,  under  the  English 
or  Anglo-American  system  of  jurisprudence,  there  is  technically  no  appeal  from  the 
courts  of  common  law  to  the  courts  of  equity,  but  that  the  concurrent  jurisdiction  of 
courts  of  common  law  and  equity,  and  the  power  of  courts  of  equity  in  many  cases  to 
annul  or  restrain  the  judgments  of  courts  of  law,  had  the  practical  effect  of  an  appeal 
from  the  latter  to  the  former.  Probably  I  did  not  use  the  term  appeal  in  the  strict 
technical  sense  which  it  has  in  your  jurisprudence,  but  rather  in  the  common  sense. 
However,  your  great  commentator.  Sir  Edward  Coke,  in  his  famous  controversy  with 
I>ord  Bacon,  concerning  the  jurisdiction  of  equity  would  seem  to  have  regarded  the 
exercise  of  the  jurisdiction  assumed  by  equity  as  an  attempt  to  give  an  appeal  to  the 
courts  of  chancery  from  the  courts  of  common  law. 

"  Thanking  you  for  the  kind  expressions  concerning  my  article  contained  in  your 

letter,  I  am  very  truly  yours, 

"  M.  Romero." 


Criminal  jurisprudence.  423 

changed  the  foundation  of  that  system  by  not  requiring  a  unanimous 
verdict  for  the  conviction  of  the  accused. 

The  very  country  which  established  and  for  years  maintained  the 
common  law  has  practically  superseded  it  by  the  Roman  jurisprudence. 
In  one  of  the  acts  of  the  British  Parliament  passed  in  the  years  of 
1873,  1874,  and  1875  the  whole  system  of  English  Courts  of  Justice  was 
remodelled  after  the  systems  prevailing  in  countries  which  had  adopted 
the  Roman  law,  and  it  was  provided  that  when  the  rules  of  common 
law  and  those  of  equity  come  into  conflict,  the  latter  shall  prevail.  Such 
a  provision  is  almost  equivalent  to  repealing  the  common  law  itself. 

Literal  Application  of  the  Law. — The  literal  application  of  the  com- 
mon law  is,  I  think,  another  of  its  disadvantages.  A  common-law 
judge  is  bound  to  apply  the  law  in  its  literal  meaning,  even  in  cases 
when  doing  so  may  involve  a  denial  of  justice,  while  a  Roman-law 
judge  applies  the  letter  of  the  law  to  the  case  where  it  fits  exactly,  and 
has  some  discretion  to  be  guided  by  the  meaning  and  object  of  its 
statute,  rather  than  by  its  literal  words,  when  its  words  conflict  with 
justice  or  equity. 

A  result  of  the  literal  application  of  the  statute,  and  of  the  strict 
observance  of  the  formalities  established  by  the  statute,  is  the  reversal 
of  judgments  upon  the  ground  of  purely  technical  errors,  which  in 
some  States,  like  Texas,  is  carried  to  an  excess,  very  difficult  to  under- 
stand by  a  Roman-law  lawyer.' 

Precedents  and  the  Common  Law. — American  lawyers  in  arguing 
cases,  and  judges  in  deciding  them  according  to  the  practice  under 
the  common-law  system,  are  controlled  almost  entirely  by  precedents, 
and  while  considerations  of  justice  and  equity  are  sometimes  indulged 
in,  they  have  legally  but  little  weight.     Such  a  system  is  very  unsatis- 

'  During  the  last  meeting  of  the  Bar  Association  of  Texas,  from  which  I  have 
already  quoted,  it  was  mentioned  that  a  robbery  was  committed  in  Groveton,  the  only 
town  of  that  name  in  the  State  of  Texas,  and  the  county  seat  of  Trinity  County  in 
said  State.  The  robber  was  detected,  tried,  and  convicted.  There  was  no  question 
either  as  to  his  guilt  or  as  to  the  fairness  of  the  proceedings  against  him  in  the  court 
where  he  was  arraigned.  The  case  was  carried  up  on  exceptions  to  the  Court  of 
Appeals,  and  that  tribunal  set  aside  the  verdict  on  the  ground  that  the  indictment  only 
specified  the  crime  as  having  been  committed  in  the  town  of  Groveton,  State  of  Texas, 
instead  of  the  town  of  Groveton,  County  of  Trinity,  State  of  Texas.  It  seems  that 
the  Court  of  Appeals  is  required  by  the  Statutes  to  rule  in  that  way.  When  the  present 
appellate  system  was  established  by  the  Legislature  of  Texas,  as  originally  submitted, 
the  measure  contained  an  article  providing  that,  "  if  the  court  of  civil  appeals  shall  be 
of  the  opinion,  in  considering  all  the  facts  of  a  case,  that  the  trial  court  failed  to  do 
substantial  justice,  it  shall  reverse  the  judgment,  but  it  shall  aflirm  the  case  if  substan- 
tial justice  has  been  done,  though  there  be  errors  committed  not  affecting  the  merit  of 
the  case."  This  article  provoked  more  debate  in  the  Senate  than  any  other  in  the  bill, 
and  it  was  passed  by  a  large  majority,  but  in  the  House  it  was  stricken  out  without 
debate,  and  apparently  without  any  apprehension  of  its  importance. 


424  Criminal  jurisprudence. 

factory,  because  each  case  being  different  from  the  other,  the  decisions 
in  the  one  cannot  be  made  to  exactly  fit  the  other.  Moreover,  it 
entails  a  herculean  task  upon  the  lawyers  and  judges,  making  it  obliga- 
tory for  them  to  search  for  precedents  not  only  in  the  courts  of  their 
own  country,  but  even  in  those  of  England.  With  the  justices  of  the 
Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States,  this  work  is  still  more  arduous, 
since  they  must  examine  and  be  familiar  not  only  with  all  cases  decided 
by  the  various  Federal  courts,  but  by  all  the  courts  of  the  forty-five 
different  commonwealths  which  form  this  Union,  each  with  its  own 
distinct  legislation,  and  with  the  Roman  law  also,  adopted  by  the 
State  of  Louisiana;  entailing  besides  the  need  of  keeping  a  very 
large  library.  Doubtless,  no  public  functionaries  under  the  Federal 
Government  have  more  arduous  work  imposed  upon  them.  The  day  is 
not  long  enough  to  permit  its  completion,  and  I  have  personally  known 
more  than  one  who  has  broken  down  under  that  tremendous  strain. 

This  condition  of  things  shows  that  the  common  law  is  still  in  its 
rude  and  primary  state,  viz.  :  setting  precedents.  After  sufficient 
precedents  have  been  collected  to  form  a  code,  they  should  be  codified, 
if  the  United  States  shall  not  previously  have  accepted  in  its  entirety 
the  Roman  law.  The  Roman  law  had  to  pass  through  these  different 
stages,  and  it  had  passed  them  all,  when  it  assumed  the  shape  in  which 
it  is  at  present.  It  has  been  fully  digested,  and  its  principles  formu- 
lated into  simple  rules,  while  the  common  law  is  yet  in  process  of 
development,  still  passing  through  the  primary  stages. 

Conclusion. — I  hope  that  these  few  remarks,  which  have  been 
written  without  preparation,  will  assist  in  dispelling  the  misapprehen- 
sion which  exists  in  this  country  regarding  the  criminal  jurisprudence 
of  Spanish-American  nations,  and  in  that  way  contribute  to  the  better 
understanding  between  the  United  States  and  her  sister  Republics.  A 
careful  study  of  the  Roman  system  of  jurisprudence  by  Anglo-Saxon 
judges,  lawyers,  and  statesmen  has  resulted  in  the  adoption  of  many 
features  of  the  Roman  law,  and  a  careful  and  comparative  study  of 
both  systems  would  very  likely  lead  to  a  conclusion  in  favor  of  an 
eclectic  one  which  would  combine  the  best  features  of  each. 


Mr.  Godkin's  opmions  on  the  "jFury  System. — My  desire  to  state  facts 
correctly  in  this  article,  and  hear  opinions  from  different  sources  on 
the  subject  treated  in  the  same,  made  me  submit  my  paper  to  prom- 
inent gentlemen  of  this  country  in  different  stations,  and  hear  their 
views  and  their  criticisms.  One  of  them,  Mr.  E.  L.  Godkin,  a  very 
able  gentleman,  a  very  forcible  writer,  and  the  editor  of  one  of  the 
leading  New  York  papers,  expressed  views  which  entirely  differed  from 
mine,  and  as  my  object  is  to  present  the  question  in  an  impartial  way, 
so  that  it  can  be  well  understood  and  considered  on  its  merits,  I  take 
pleasure  in  inserting  his  letter  on  the  subject: 


Criminal  Jurisprudence.  425 

"  New  York,  March  22,  1896. 
"  Dear  SeNor  Romero: 

"  Although  I  read  your  article  on  the  Roman  and  Anglo-Saxon 
Systems  of  Criminal  Jurisprudence  several  days  ago,  I  have  retained 
it  until  I  could  find  time  to  say  a  word  or  two  about  it. 

"  I  think  it  will  be  useful  in  dissipating  some  popular  prejudices 
here  about  your  system  which  were  painfully  prevalent  and  influential 
at  the  time  of  our  last  dispute  with  Chili  apropos  of  the  attack  on  the 
American  sailors  in  the  streets  of  Valparaiso.  I  think  your  account  of 
the  real  differences  between  the  two  systems  will  be  most  enlightening 
for  the  American  public.  But  if  I  might  venture  to  criticise,  I  should 
say  that  you  do  not  do  full  justice  to  our  jury  system,  and  for  these 
reasons:  It  was  adopted  in  England  as  a  protection  against  judges 
controlled  or  influenced  by  the  Crown.  It  is  used  here  for  a  similar 
reason.  Judges  who  tried  criminals  in  serious  cases  would  have  to  be 
of  a  far  higher  character  if  their  decisions  were  to  command  public 
confidence,  than  those  which  are  given  us  by  the  elective  system.  If, 
for  instance,  I  were  tried  in  this  city  for  criminal  libel,  before  a  Tam- 
many judge  without  a  jury  I  would  stand  no  chance.  It  is  almost  of 
as  much  importance  that  the  judgments  of  a  court  should  command 
public  confidence,  as  that  they  should  be  fair.  People  in  this  country 
would  hardly  ever  acquiesce  fully  in  the  verdict  of  a  single  man.  He 
would  shrink  from  giving  it  on  every  side  that  seemed  unpopular  or 
seemed  likely  to  affect  his  re-election.  This  democracy,  which  we  have 
to  take  as  we  find  it.  Yours  with  all  their  faults  have  not  this  fault  in 
so  great  a  degree  at  least. 

"  In  the  next  place,  I  should  take  exception  to  your  ascribing  lynch 
law  to  the  imperfections  of  the  jury  system.  I  do  not  think  lynching 
is  due  nearly  as  often  to  the  faults  of  juries  or  to  the  faults  of  our 
system  of  procedure,  than  are  the  delays  in  the  trial,  or  the  failure  of 
justice,  caused  by  the  chicane,  corruption,  and  purposely  defective 
preparation  of  the  prosecuting  officer.  These  would  be  just  as  great  if 
not  greater  under  the  Roman  system  than  ours.  The  efficient  pursuit 
of  crime  depends  far  more  on  the  vigilance,  tenacity,  and  honesty  of 
the  District  Attorney  than  in  the  way  in  which  the  criminal  is  tried. 

"  I  should  question,  too,  whether  your  account  of  the  distinction 
between  common  law  and  equity  either  in  this  country  or  in  England 
was  correct.  In  this  country  certainly  the  two  systems  have  long  been 
merged,  and  I  should  doubt  whether  it  was  possible,  in  this  State  at 
least,'  in  either  to  arrest  the  execution  of  a  common-law  judgment  by 

'  The  code  of  procedure  of  the  State  of  New  York  made  a  complete  fusion  be- 
tween the  two  systems  of  common  law  and  equity,  and  codes  of  other  States  have  been 
modelled  upon  that  basis  ;  but  in  the  courts  of  the  United  States  the  two  systems  are 
separately  administered  on  separate  dockets  and  on  distinct  lines  of  procedure  ;  wliile  in 
some  of  the  States  separate  courts  of  chancery  (equity)  are  still  kept  up. 


4^6  Criminal  jurisprudence. 

an  equity  injunction,  for  the  reason  that  the  plaintiff  in  submitting  his 
suit  must  always  then  select  his  remedy  and  ask  for  it.  He  must  say, 
for  instance,  whether  he  seeks  damages  or  equitable  relief;  whether  the 
suit  is  one  in  equity  or  in  common  law  is  determined  by  the  form  of 
the  complaint.  Certainly  this  is  the  practice  in  this  State,  and  unless 
you  have  done  so  already,  I  would  suggest  further  inquiry  among  pro- 
fessional men  on  this  point. 

"  What  you  say  about  the  disadvantages  of  the  precedent  system 
as  a  body  of  law  will  be  approved,  I  think,  by  most  law^yers,  but  you 
will  find  much  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  value  as  w^ell  as  possibil- 
ity of  a  code.  But  on  this  point  I  think  you  would  find  much  to 
interest  you  in  one  or  two  pamphlets  written  by  Mr.  James  C.  Carter, 
the  leader  of  our  bar  here.  His  address  is  271  or  277  Lexington 
Avenue,  New  York. 

"  With  these  small  criticisms,  I  return  you  the  article  wdth  many 
thanks  for  having  given  me  the  opportunity  to  read  it,  and  with  entire 
confidence  in  its  usefulness. 

"  Yours  very  sincerely, 

"  Edwin  L.  Godkin." 


MISTAKES   OF    MR.   P.   M.   SMITH  ABOUT    JUDICIAL    PROCEEDINGS    IN 

MEXICO.' 

The  following  article  by  the  Hon.  Matias  Romero,  Minister  from 
Mexico  at  Washington  appeared  some  years  back  in  the  North  Ameri- 
can Review: 

It  is  truly  lamentable  to  see  the  mistakes  often  made  by  able  men 
of  this  country  visiting  Mexico  regarding  our  institutions.  I  recently 
noticed  a  serious  one  about  our  judicial  system,  which  appeared  in  the 
Lisbon,  Ohio,  Leader,  of  February  18,  1897,  in  a  speech  delivered  by 
tlie  Hon.  P.  M.  Smith,  in  answer  to  a  toast,  "  The  Lawyer  in  Mexico," 
at  a  banquet  of  the  Lisbon  Bar  and  county  officials,  which  took  place 
in  that  city  on  Wednesday,  February  2,  1897.  It  seems  that  Mr. 
Smith  had  visited  Mexico,  and  seen  the  holding  of  a  court,  very  likely 
in  a  very  small  Indian  town,  where  the  court  "  met  in  an  adobe  struc- 
ture, containing  a  table,  three  chairs  for  the  judge  and  lawyers,  and  a 
mud  bench  along  the  wall  covered  with  cement,  without  books  or  file 
cases."  He  noticed  that  no  oaths  were  administered  to  the  witnesses, 
and  without  understanding  the  reason  of  this  omission,  he  allowed  his 
imagination  and  humor  to  get  the  better  of  his  judgment,  and  offered 
the  following  explanation,  showing  not  only  his  ignorance  of  the  matter, 

'  This  paper  was  published  in  the  May,  1867,  number  of  the  North  American 
Rcviezv  of  New  York,  in  the  ' '  Notes  and  Comments  "  section. 


Criminal  Jurisprudence.  X2^ 

but  his  undaunted  courage  in  attempting  to  explain  the  meaning  of 
something  which  he  did  not  understand: 

"  Oaths  were  not  administered  on  the  theory,  I  assume,  that  an  oath 
would  add  nothing  to  the  natural  truthfulness  of  the  Mexican,  and,  if 
you  are  liable  to  be  defeated  by  false  testimony  of  two  witnesses,  for  a 
small  consideration  you  can  secure  three  to  contradict  the  two,  and 
thus  possibly  win  your  case,  and  aid  in  securing  justice  to  a  worthy 
litigant." 

If  Mr.  Smith  had  been  better  acquainted  with  the  judicial  system 
of  Mexico  he  would  have  found  that  prior  to  1873  we  did  administer 
oaths,  as  is  now  done  in  this  country,  in  all  judicial  proceedings,  and 
to  all  public  officials  on  being  qualified  for  their  respective  offices,  and 
that  in  that  year  the  oath  was  replaced  by  a  formal  promise  to  tell  the 
truth.  What  we  called  our  Laws  of  Reform,  which  had  been  enacted 
from  1855  to  1859,  and  which  established  full  liberty  of  conscience 
and  free  exercise  of  any  religious  belief,  and  a  complete  separation 
between  Church  and  State,  were  incorporated  in  our  Constitution  in 
1873  as  an  amendment  to  the  same,  which  made  it  necessary  to  sup- 
press the  oath,  as  the  oath  is  a  religious  act,  in  which  God  and  the 
Holy  Scriptures  are  invoked  in  witness  of  the  truth  of  a  statement 
made,  and  it  ought  not  to  be  required  in  judicial  and  other  official 
matters,  when  some  men  might  consider  themselves  forbidden  by  their 
creed  to  take  an  oath,  and  others  look  upon  it  as  meaningless.  When 
the  oath  was  replaced  by  a  formal  promise  to  tell  the  truth,  the  law 
provided  that  said  promise  should  have  the  same  effect  as  the  oath,  its 
breach  being  punishable  as  a  perjury.  That  promise  is  not  only  re- 
quired in  judicial  proceedings,  but  in  every  case  in  which  the  oath  was 
before  administered,  that  is,  in  the  qualification  for  public  offices,  and 
so  forth.  Had  Mr.  Smith  taken  the  pains  to  understand  the  subject, 
he  would  have  avoided  the  gross  mistake  alluded  to. 

Mr.  Smith  is  also  mistaken  when  he  asserts  "  that  whenever  the 
authorities  in  Mexico  want  to  get  rid  of  a  person  who  is  obnoxious  but 
does  not  violate  any  law  that  justifies  his  extermination,  he  is  sentenced 
to  the  penitentiary  for  some  criminal  act,  and  while  on  his  way  to  the 
prison  he  is  advised  by  his  guards  to  escape,  and  that  when  he  attempts 
to  do  so,  he  is  shot  and  reported  lost  on  the  road."  In  disturbed  and 
lawless  times,  assassinations  might  have  taken  place  in  that  manner,  as 
they  often  do  in  other  countries,  because,  unfortunately,  men  invested 
with  authority,  are  sometimes  apt  to  abuse  it;  but  Mr.  Smith  may  be 
sure  that  one  or  two  cases  that  may  have  occurred  in  peaceful  times 
could  not  justify  his  assertion,  and  that  any  person  violating  the  laws 
in  Mexico  is  always  liable  to  trial  and  to  suffer  the  proper  punishment 
for  his  offence. 

Another  of  Mr.  Smith's  errors,  although  one  of  less  consequence. 


I 


428  Criminal  jurisprudence. 

is  his  assertion  that  there  is  a  Constitutional  provision  in  Mexico  guar- 
anteeing a  jury  in  criminal  trials,  but  that  in  practice  it  is  unknown. 
Our  Constitution  has  no  such  provision,  and  it  is  only  in  the  Federal 
District,  by  an  Act  of  Congress,  that  we  have  established  the  jury 
system,  which  is  now  in  force,  notwithstanding  Mr.  Smith's  statements. 
It  is  a  fact  that  Article  VII.  of  our  Constitution  provided  that  all 
offences  committed  through  the  press  should  be  tried  by  a  jury,  who 
should  decide  as  to  the  facts,  and,  if  the  accused  was  convicted, 
another  jury  should  apply  the  law  and  fix  the  penalty;  but  the  practi- 
cal result  of  this  system  was  that  no  offence  of  that  kind  could  ever  be 
punished,  because  the  jury  always  acquitted  the  accused,  and  our  Con- 
stitution was  amended  on  May  15,  1883,  abrogating  the  jury  system 
and  submitting  the  offenders  to  the  common  courts,  so  that  now  offences 
committed  through  the  press  are  tried  and  punished  like  crimes  of  any 
other  character.  It  is  not  likely  that  Mr.  Smith  could  have  referred  to 
this  occurrence,  but  even  in  case  he  had,  his  information  was  incorrect. 


THE  MEXICAN  FREE  ZONE 


I 


4*9 


THE  MEXICAN  FREE  ZONE. 


There  is  in  the  northern  part  of  Mexico,  along  its  border  line  with 
the  United  States,  a  belt  of  territory  exempted  from  certain  duties,  and 
which  is  called  "  The  Free  Zone," 

Mexico  is  a  country  of  high  import  duties,  which,  added  to  the  pro- 
tection by  her  money  having  depreciated  ever  fifty  per  cent.,  surrounds 
her  people  with  an  almost  impassable  tariff  wall.  Against  this  back- 
ground the  operations  of  the  Free  Zone  are  thrown  into  strong  relief, 
and  as  the  people  of  the  United  States  are  more  concerned  with  this 
border  commerce  than  any  other  people  dealing  with  Mexico,  the  his- 
tory of  the  Zone,  its  influence  upon  trade,  and  the  question  of  its  per- 
manency become  here  questions  of  interest. 

Unfortunately,  the  idea  has  prevailed  in  the  United  States  that  the 
Mexican  Free  Zone  was  established  with  a  hostile  spirit  towards  the 
United  States,  and  for  the  main  purpose  of  favoring  smuggling  against 
the  interests  of  the  Treasury  and  the  bona  fide  merchants  of  this 
country. 

As  I  was  perfectly  sure  that  such  views  were  unsound  and  were 
based  on  grave  misapprehensions,  I  thought  it  would  be  well — with  a 
view  to  prevent  misunderstandings,  which  are  in  the  way  of  closer 
friendly  and  commercial  relations  between  the  two  countries — to  give 
a  brief  outline  of  the  establishment  of  the  Mexican  Free  Zone,  and  its 
practical  results,  and  with  that  purpose  I  wrote  an  official  letter  to  the 
Secretary  of  State  of  the  United  States,  on  February  lo,  1888,  supple- 
menting it  by  another  on  the  14th  of  the  same  month,  both  of  which 
were  published  with  the  President's  Message  of  March  16,  1888,  in 
answer  to  a  resolution  of  the  Senate  of  February  i6th  of  the  same  year, 
asking  for  information  on  that  subject.  I  insert  at  the  end  of  this 
paper  the  President's  Message  and  both  of  my  letters.  In  writing  the 
letters  referred  to  I  was  prompted  by  a  desire  to  promote  a  good  un- 
derstanding and  harmonious  relations  between  the  two  countries,  and 
I  believed  that  it  would  not  be  presumptuous  on  my  part  to  offer  some 
important  statements  on  that  subject.  When,  some  time  afterward, 
some  public  men,  among  others  Mr.  Grain,  a  Member  of  Congress  from 

431 


432  Ubc  /IDcjican  Jfree  Zone, 

Texas,  asked  me  for  some  information  about  the  Free  Zone,  I  referred 
him  to  my  official  letters  to  the  State  Department,  published  by  tlie 
Senate;  and  my  statements  seemed  to  him  so  satisfactory  that  when  he 
spoke  in  the  House  on  February  27,  1S95,  against  the  Cockrell  resolu- 
tion, on  the  subject  of  the  Free  Zone,  most  of  his  arguments  were 
taken  from  my  statements  made  to  the  State  Department. 

As  public  documents  do  not  always  attain  a  wide  circulation  among 
the  people  of  this  country,  and  as  I  desired  that  my  statements  in  re- 
gard to  the  Free  Zone  should  have  in  the  United  States  as  wide  a  cir- 
culation as  possible,  I  thought  it  would  be  expedient  to  embody  the 
views  contained  in  my  two  official  letters  to  the  State  Department,  in 
an  article  for  one  of  tlie  leading  magazines  of  this  country,  and  I  there- 
fore prepared  a  paper,  which  was  published  in  the  North  American  Re- 
vieWy  of  April  ,1892. 

I  give  below  that  paper,  which  has  been  carefully  revised  and 
considerably  enlarged,  with  a  view  to  embrace  a  complete  statement  of 
this  question  and  its  bearings  both  towards  Mexico  and  to  the  United 
States. 

My  opinions  about  the  Free  Zone  are  at  least  impartial,  as  the 
official  records  of  Mexico  show  that  far  from  being  a  friend  of  that  in- 
stitution, I  have  ever  been  its  most  earnest  opponent,  having  been  the 
leader  of  the  opposition  to  the  same  both  in  the  Mexican  Congress  and 
in  the  Mexican  Cabinet,  as  I  was  the  only  Secretary  of  the  Treasury 
who  had  so  far  officially  advised  its  abolishment.  I  will  not,  there- 
fore, belittle  its  advantages  nor  understate  its  disadvantages  as  I 
understand  them,  my  object  being  to  make  a  full  and  candid  statement 
of  the  question  in  all  its  bearings  for  the  aforesaid  purpose. 

The  following  is  the  revised  paper  referred  to: 


■1 


'■'  r 
THE  MEXICAN  FREE  ZONE. 

Mexico  has  had  for  some  years  on  its  frontier  with  the  United 
States  what  has  been  known  as  the  "  Zona  Libre,''  or  Free  Zone.  It 
is  a  strip  of  territory  along  the  northern  boundary  of  the  republic, 
tsventy  kilometres,  or  about  twelve  and  a  half  miles  in  width,  and  ex- 
tending from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to  the  Pacific  coast,  a  distance  of  1833 
miles.  Foreign  goods  entered  for  consumption  within  this  Zone  pay 
now  only  18^  per  cent,  of  the  regular  schedule  of  Mexican  import 
duties.  So,  Mexico  maintains  along  her  northern  boundary  two  custom 
lines.  Goods  passing  the  first  line  aie  assessed  18^  per  cent,  of  the 
import  duties,  and  when  they  pass  the  second,  twenty  kilometres  to 
the  south,  they  pay  the  remaining  81^  per  cent.  This  applies  ojilv:  to 
goods  pntPTpH^fnr  rnir;!! inption  within  the__Zonej_for  the  full  tariH  is 
collecTeSat  the  first  line  on  all  goods  intended  originajjy  <"^'-  gjiip'-n^^nt- 
into  tlTFtntenor,  thus  necessitating  only  one  collection.  >^^The  Zone  is 
therefore  of  small  account  to  the  Mexican  Government  as  a  revenue 
producer,  but  has  been  a  constant  source  of  trouble,  inasmuch  as  it 
presents  opportunities  for  smuggling,  and  it  has  been  greatly  misunder- 
stood here. 

It  is  a  misnomer  to  call  such  institution  a  Free  Zone,  because 
foreign  goods  imported  into  it  have  never  since  its  establishment 
been  entirely  free  of  duties.  When  the  Free  Zone  was  originally 
established  and  for  some  time  later,  foreign  goods  paid  a  duty  of 
2\  per  cent,  upon  the  import  duties,  destined  to  the  respective  muni- 
cipalities, and  since  1885  they  have  paid  a  portion  of  the  import 
duties,  which  was  in  tlie  beginning  10  per  cent.,  and  is  now  as  high 
as  i84  per  cent.  The  proper  name  for  it  might  be,  therefore,  a  zone 
,with  discriminating  or  reduced  duties,  and  not  a  free  zone.  This 
exemption  has  been  greatly  misunderstood  in  this  country,  where  the 
impression  has  prevailed  that  it  was  established  by  Mexico  as  an  act  of 
antagonism,  if  not  of  unfriendliness,  towards  the  United  States,  and 
that  its  main,  if  not  its  sole  purpose,  was  to  encourage  smuggling,  to 
the  prejudice  of  the  merchants  and  the  fiscal  interests  of  this  country. 


To  consider  this  matter  impartially  and  fairly,  it  is  proper  first  to 

433 


■^ 


434  ^bc  /iDcjicau  ifree  Zone, 

state  how  the  Free  Zone  originated  in  Mexico,  what  vicissitudes  it  has 
suffered,  what  action  the  United  States  Government  has  taken  in  the 
premises,  and  finally  how  it  affects  the  interests  of  both  countries. 

Establishment  of  the  Free  Zone. — When  in  pursuance  of  the  treaty 
of  February  2,  184S,  the  Rio  Grande  from  El  Paso  del  Norte  to  the 
point  where  it  flows  into  the  Gulf  of  Alexico  was  accepted  as  the 
boundary  line  between  Mexico  and  the  United  States,  new  settlements 
sprang  up  on  the  northern  bank  of  the  river,  and  things  began  to 
arrange  themselves  to  the  new  conditions.  The  two  nations,  which  so 
far  had  been  separated  by  territory,  very  sparsely  populated,  were  at 
once  brought  into  close  contact  with  each  other,  and  it  was  found  that 
the  economical  and  commercial  conditions  on  the  north  and  south  banks 
of  the  Rio  Grande  were  in  striking  contrast  to  eacli  other.  In.  the 
towris^  of  the  United  States  along  the  north  bank  no  taxes  were  levied 
and  no  restrictions  of  any  kind  were  imposed  upon  mternal  trade,  'ihe 
\1  JTnport  duties  on  foreign  goods  brought  into  the  U  nitedj^tates  wer^  at 

that  time  comparatively  low,  and  this  country  was  then  ^-^tf-^'"'"^  tjif" 
full  development  ot  its  une"xam{)led  career  of  material  progress  and 
prosperity (fypn^the_oj:ijiQ&'^'^  ^''^nTTjn^Mexico,  the  towns  were  burdened 
>  by  the  oppressive  system  of  taxation  Avhich  had  come  down  to  us  from 
(J^'  tiie  Spaniards]  The  heavy  taxes  which  were  If  vied  on  internal  trade 
under  thF^n.'intt  o^  alcabirlas  largely  increased  the  cost  of  foreign  and 
domestic  goods,  and  the  collection  of  these  taxes  made  a  system  of  in- 
terior custom-houses,  with  all  their  attendant  evils,  a  necessary  insti- 
tution.\  There  were  many  and  very  onerous  restrictions  both  upon 
f(5feign  and  domestic  trade,  and  the  import  duties  on  foreign  goods 
were  so  high  as  to  be,  in  many  cases,  practically  prohibitory.  Many 
commodities  were  actually  excluded  from  the  country  under  the  plea 
of  protection  to  our  national  industries,  and  among  these  were  articles 
of  prime  necessity,  such  as  grain  and  provisions.-^.  ^J'he  result  of  this 
condition  of  things  was  that  radically  different  prices  prevailed  in  the 
towns  on  the  two  sides  of  the  river.  At  Brownsville,  Texas,  for  in- 
stance, on  the  north,  bank  of  the  Rio  Grande,  commodities  and  the 
necessaries  of  life,  such  as  provisions  and  clothing,  were  bought  at  a 
low  price,  while  in  Matamoros  and  other  Mexican  towns,  on  the  south 
bank,  the  same  articles  of  domestic  production,  and  often  of  an  inf'  - 
rior  quality,  cost  twice  and  even  four  times  as  much  as  at  the  stores  just 
across  ihe  river  J  A  still  greater  disproportion  existed  in  the  prices  of 
foreign  goods  on  the  two  sides  of  the  river,  and  the  cheapest  commci- 
ities  were  always  sold  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rio  Grande.  i 

Tt^e  differ^ce  in  taxation,  and  consequently  in  £ricgS-QnJthe  fron-  \ 
tier,  necessarily  brought  about  one  of  two  results.    It  either  caused  the 
inhabitantsot  the  Mexican  towns  to  emigrate  to  the  settlements  on  the 
lOther  side  of  the  river,  in  order  to  enjoy  the  advantages  which  were  to 


\ 


Xlbe  /IDejican  jfree  Zone,  435 

/  he  had  in  this  country,  or  it  induced  them  to  purchase  in  the  United 
States  the  goods  which  they  needed,  and  to  .smuggle  them   across  the 
\Rio  (irande  to  their  homes  in  Mexic*./.  ^^"^ 

Besides,  the  physical  characteristics  of  Mexico  are  such  that  a  large 
portion  of  the  population  of  its  Northern  States  contained  in  the  Valley 
of  the  Rio  Grande  depended  for  their  supplies  on  the  American  side  of 
the  river,  notwithstanding  the  high  tariff  of  the  Mexican  Government. 

In  1849,  the  year  following  the  adoption  of  the  new  boundary  line 
by  the  tAvo  countries,  the  situation  on  the  Mexican  frontier  became  so 
intolerable  and  disquieting  that  our  Federal  Congress  was  obliged  to 
pass,  on  April  4th  of  that  year,  a  law  authorizing  for  three  years  the 
importation,  with  reduced  duties,  through  the  frontier  custom-houses  of 
the  State  of  Tamaulipaa — the  onl3rone,  exceptmg  Chihuahua,  which 
thenTTrnTfowns  ""«^^p  hnrdrr-rr'^'"  such  provisions  as  were  needed  for  the 
us(,'  of  the  people  of  the  frontier.  Such  goods  had  up  to  that  time  either 
been  prohibited  by  the  existing  tariff,  or  had  been  subject  to  almost  pro- 
hibitory duties.  This  law  did  not  meet  the  exigencies  of  the  situation, 
because  it  was  restricted  to  provisions,  and  these  are  not  the  only  things 
that  men  require  for  life  and  comfort. 

On  August  30,  1852,  the  United  States  Congress  passed  an  act  by 
which  the  contrast  between  the  conditions  of  the  two  sides  of  the  Rio 
Grande  was  made  still  greater,  and  the  condition  of  things  on  the  • 
Mexican  side  became  worse  than  ever.  By  that  act  foreign  goods 
could  be  sent  in  bond  to  Mexico  overceryain  routes  specified  in  t"he 
act  and  others  to  be  authorized  by  jJbe_S££retanj[^  of  the  Treasury. 
These  goods  could  be  helci  on  theh^nti^r  in  the;  United  States  until  a 
favorable  opportunity"sliuuld  present  itself  for  their  expoxtatioft  inta 
Mexico,  and  they  ^Vere  exemi^ted  from  all  duties  to  the  United  States 
when  exported  from  tliem.  jn/Fhere  was  no  similar  privilege  within  the 
territory  ot  Mexico,  as  all  foreign  goods,  of  whatever  kind  they  might 
be,  were  there  subject  to  the  payment  of  duty  upon  their  importation. 
The  result  was  that  the  inhabitants  of  the  Mexican  side  of  the  river 
were  placed  under  such  disadvantages  that  the  public  men  of  Tamauli- 
pas,  the  State  which  at  that  time  had  towns  on  the  border  facing  the 
border  villages  of  Texas,  came  to  the  belief  that  they  could  not  live 
there  unless  they  had  privileges  similar  to  those  existing  in  the  United 
States.  It  was  this  belief  that  originated  the  Free  Zone,  and,  in  the 
unsettled  condition  of  Mexico,  it  did  not  take  long  for  such  men  to  find 
an  opportunity  to  bring  about  what  they  desired. 

This  statement  of  facts  shows  that  the  Free  Zone  was  not  really  an 
invention  of  the  Mexican  authorities  of  the  State  of  Tamaulipas,  but  an 
imitation,  on  a  larger  scale,  of  a  similar  measure  enacted  more  than 
five  years  previously  by  the  United  States  Government  for  the  benefit 
of  that  portion  of  its  territorv  bordering  on  Mexico. 

a8 


436  vTbc  /Bicjicau  ifrcc  Zone, 

On  February  5,  1857,  we  adopted  our  present  Constitution,  which 
went  into  operation  on  the  i6th  of  the  following  September.  On  the 
1st  of  December  of  that  year,  General  Ignacio  Comonfort,  who  had 
just  been  elected  President  under  the  new  Constitution,  was  inaugu- 
rated. Two  weeks  later  he  unfortunately  issued  a  pronunciamiento 
against  the  very  Constitution  to  which  he  owed  his  election,  thus  un- 
dermining the  source  of  his  authority,  and  he  thereupon  dissolved  the 
Federal  Congress  then  in  session.  Almost  all  of  the  Mexican  States 
refused  to  consent  to  so  daring  a  violation  of  the  Constitution,  and 
many  of  them,  especially  those  far  distant  from  the  capital,  reassumed 
their  sovereignty,  and  their  legislatures  granted  extraordinary  powers 
to  the  governors,  in  order  to  enable  them  to  defend  their  institutions 
against  those  who  had  betrayed  their  trust  by  trying  to  overthrow  the 
Con-stitution,  acting  in  this  very  much  as  some  of  the  Brazilian  States 
recently  did  when  the  President  of  that  Republic,  Marshal  Diodoro  Da 
Fonseca,  attempted  to  assume  the  Dictatorship,  and  these  States  exer- 
cised, consequently,  all  the  powers  belonging  to  an  independent  state, 
as  they  were  actually  beyond  the  reach  of  the  Federal  Government. 

By  virtue  of  such  powers,  the  Governor  of  the  State  of  Tamaulipas 
issued,  on  March  17,  1858,  a  decree  designed  to  afford  a  remedy  for 
the  hardships  from  which  the  frontier  population  of  that  State  were 
then  suffering.  This  decree  established  what  has  since  that  time  been 
known  in  Mexico  as  the  Free  Zone.  It  exempted  all  foreign  goods 
intended  for  the  use  of  the  frontier  towns  of  that  State  or  the  ranches 
in  their  jurisdiction,  or  for  trade  between  those  towns,  from  all  Federal 
duties,  but  not  from  municipal  or  State  taxes.  Such  goods  could  re- 
main in  bond  in  the  same  towns,  either  at  the  house  of  the  importer  or 
at  the  public  warehouse.  The  Federal  Government  not  then  having 
warehouses  on  the  frontier,  all  packages  had  to  go,  of  course,  to  the 
house  of  the  importer.  Thus,  goods  imported  into  the  frontier  towns 
could  remain  stored  indefinitely  without  paying  any  storage  or  other 
charges  to  the  Federal  Treasury,  and  they  only  paid  import  duties 
when  they  were  taken  from  the  frontier  towns  to  the  interior  of 
Mexico. 

Nothing  could  give  a  better  idea  of  the  real  object  of  the  ordinance 
issued  by  the  Governor  of  Tamaulipas,  if  there  were  any  doubt  about 
it,  than  the  grounds  on  which  he  based  his  action,  which  he  stated  in 
the  preamble  of  his  decree  in  the  following  words: 

"  The  citizen  Ramon  Guerra,  Governor  ad  interim  of  the  State  of  Tamaulipas ; 
Whereas,  our  towns  on  the  northern  frontier  are  in  a  state  of  actual  decadence  for 
the  lack  of  laws  to  protect  their  commerce  ;  and,  whereas,  being  situated  in  close 
proximity  to  a  commercial  nation  which  enjoys  free  trade,  they  need  equal  advantages 
in  order  not  to  lose  their  population,  which  is  constantly  emigrating  to  the  neighbor- 
ing country  ;  now,  therefore,  desiring  to  put  an  end  to  so  serious  an  evil  by  means  of 


Ube  /IDejican  ffree  Zone.  437 

franchises  which  have  so  long  been  demanded  by  the  frontier  trade  ;  favorably  con- 
sidering the  petition  of  the  inhabitants  of  Matamoros,  and  using  the  extraordinary 
faculties  with  which  I  am  invested  by  the  decree  of  December  28th,  of  the  Honorable 
Legislature  of  the  State,  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  council,  I  have  seen  fit  to 
decree  as  follows,"  etc. 

The  following  articles  of  the  decree  contain  the  main  provisions  in 
regard  to  the  Free  Zone,  and  show  exactly  how  far  it  was  intended  to  go: 

"Articlk  I. — Foreign  goods  designed  for  the  consumption  of  the  city  of  Mata- 
moros and  of  the  other  towns  on  the  bank  of  the  Rio  Bravo,  Revnosa,  Camar"o,  Mier. 
Guerrero,  and  Monterey  Laredo,^  and  for  the  trade  which  these  tow  ns  carry  f)n  among 
themselves,  shall  be  free  from  all  duties,  with  the  exception  of  municipal  duties  and 
such  taxes  as  may  be  imposed,  to  the  end  that  the  burdens  of  the  State  may  be 
borne.  In  like  manner,  goods  deposited  in  government  warehouses,  or  in  ware- 
houses belonging  to  private  individuals,  in  the  said  towns,  shall  be  free  of  duties  so 
long  as  they  are  not  conveyed  inland  to  other  towns  of  the  State  or  of  the  Republic. 
The  terms  on  which  this  trade  is  to  be  conducted  are  laid  down  in  the  following 
articles  : 

"  Article  7. — Foreign  goods  leaving  the  privileged  towns  to  be  conveyed  into 
the  interior  of  the  Republic  shall,  at  the  time  of  so  doing,  become  subject  to  the  duties 
laid  upon  them  by  the  tariff,  and  they  shall  never  be  conveyed  into  the  interior 
without  having  paid,  at  the  custom-house  of  their  place  of  departure,  all  duties  which 
are  required  to  be  paid  in  the  port,  and  without  the  observance  of  all  the  requirements 
and  provisions  of  the  laws  in  force,  in  order  that  they  may  not  be  molested  or 
detained  on  their  way." 

The  Governor  of  Tamaulipas  foresaw  that  his  decree  would  natur- 
ally facilitate  smuggling,  to  the  loss  of  the  Federal  Treasury  of  Mexico; 
but  I  am  sure  he  little  imagined  that  the  Treasury  of  the  United  States 
would  suffer  in  consequence  thereof,  and  he  earnestly  recommended 
the  citizens  of  the  State  to  try  to  prevent  such  a  result  by  all  the  means 
in  their  power,  as  appears  from  the  following  article  of  his  decree: 

"Article  8. — As  the  privilege  granted  by  this  decree  ought  not  to  cause  any 
detriment  to  the  national  revenue,  it  is  the  duty  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  frontier  to 
prevent,  by  all  the  means  in  their  power,  this  privilege  from  being  converted  into  a 
shameful  smuggling  trafific  ;  it  is,  therefore,  the  duty  of  every  inhabitant  of  the  fron- 
tier voluntarily  to  become  a  sentinel,  constantly  on  the  watch  to  prevent  smuggling  ; 
otherwise,  the  government  will  be  under  the  painful  necessity  of  withdrawing  this 
privilege,  by  revoking  the  present  decree." 

The  Governor's  decree  ended  with  the  following  article: 

"Article  9. — This  decree  shall  be  subject  to  the  revision  and  approval  of  the 
legislature  of  the  State  at  its  next  meeting  in  ordinary  session  and  to  that  of  the  Fed- 
eral Congress  when  constitutional  order  shall  be  restored,  although  it  shall  go  into 
force  as  soon  as  [)ui)lished  in  the  privileged  towns. 

"Therefore,  I  order  it  to  be  printed,  published,  circulated,  and  duly  enforced. 

"  Done  at  Ciudad  Victoria,  March  17,  1858. 

"  Ramon  Guerra. 

"Jose  M.aria  Olvf.ra,  Chief  Official." 


IL 


438  XTbe  /Dertcau  Jfice  Zone, 

The  foregoing  decree  was  confirmed  and  amplified  on  the  plea  of 
establishing  regulations  for  its  execution  by  another  decree  of  the  Gov- 
ernor of  Tamaulipas,  bearing  date  of  October  29,  i860.  The  former 
decree  was  submitted,  in  compliance  with  the  provisions  of  its  last 
article,  to  the  legislature  of  the  State,  and  also  to  the  Federal  Congress 
for  their  approval,  and  was  sanctioned  by  the  latter  body  July  30, 
[861. 

""  New  conditions  are  reducing  very  materially  the  scope  and  work- 
ings of  the  Free  Zone.  In  former  years,  when  the  Free  Zone  duties 
were  only  2^  per  cent,  and  the  people  were  allowed  to  manufacture, 
the  Free  Zone  was  a  benefit,  and  a  very  large  number  of  articles  of 
foreign  manufacture  were  cheaper  in  the  Free  Zone  than  the  same 
articles  of  domestic  manufacture;  but  since  the  duties  have  been  raised 
to  18^  per  cent.,  and  exchange  increased  to  212,  very  few  foreign 
articles  can  be  consumed  in  the  Free  Zone  in  competition  with  Mexican 
domestic  goods.  Therefore,  the  rate  of  duties  of  18^  percent.,  the 
decline  in  silver,  and  the  progress  of  Mexico  in  manufacturing  have 
practically  nullified  all  advantages.  Such  articles  as  coffee,  sugar, 
straw  hats,  shoes,  vegetables,  flour,  beans,  milk,  fruits,  meat,  common 
clothing,  blankets,  etc.,  used  and  consumed  by  the  poorer  class  of 
people  are,  if  Mexican  products  or  manufactures,  cheaper  than  if 
imported  from  the  United  States;  and  as  for  the  other  articles  which 
are  generally  consumed  by  the  wealthier  classes,  the  latter  have  the 
means  to  buy  such  articles  and  pay  full  duties. 

.^  The  IMexican  frontier  labors  under  great  disadvantages  as  compared 
with  its  neighbor,  and  a  great  drawback  on  that  frontier  is  that  the  mer- 
chants have  to  pay  on  their  invoices  the  State  taxes  on  sales.  There- 
fore, nearly  all  houses  of  consequence  have  an  office  on  the  United 
States  side,  in  order  to  avoid  paying  this  tax,  which  is,  in  some  in- 
stances, out  of  proportion.  This  could  be  easily  changed  by  allowing 
to  the  municipalities  or  States,  instead  of  i^  per  cent,  which  the  present 
law  provides,  the  additional  2  per  cent,  known  as  port  duties,  of  which 
the  frontier  towns  get  no  benefit.  With  this  assistance  of  3-^  per  cent, 
to  the  municipalities  or  States,  by  the  Federal  Government,  this  tax  on 
sales  could  be  avoided,  and  the  condition  of  things  on  the  frontier 
would  be  considerably  improved. 

This  brief  statement  will,  I  think,  be  sufficient  to  show  that  the 
establishment  of  the  Free  Zone  was  a  step  taken  in  what  was  then 
thought  to  be  the  duty  of  self-preservation,  so  to  speak,  and  imitating 
similar  measures  adopted  by  the  Congress  of  the  United  States,  and 
that  it  was  by  no  means  a  measure  approved  in  a  spirit  of  unfriendli- 
ness, much  less  of  hostility,  towards  the  United  States,  as  has  been 
generally  believed  in  this  country. 

For  more  detailed  information  on  this  subject,  and  especially  for 


XTbe  /»erican  dfree  Zonc»  439 

the  English  translation  of  some  of  the  official  documents  bearing  on 
the  same,  I  refer  tlie  reader  to  a  Message  which  the  President  of  the 
United  States  sent  to  the  Senate  on  March  i6,  1888  {Senate  Exec.  Doc.., 
No.  130,  Fiftieth  Congress,  ist  Session),  and  to  the  report  and  accom- 
panying documents  of  the  Committee  on  Foreign  Affairs  of  the  House 
of  Representatives,  on  the  relations  of  the  United  States  with  Mexico, 
presented  by  Mr.  Schleicher  on  the  25th  of  April,  1878  {House  Report, 
No.  701,  House  of  Representatives,  Forty-fifth  Congress,  2d  Session). 
Discussion  of  the  Free  Zone  in  the  Mexican  Congress. — I  think  it 
^viil  not  be  amiss  to  say  a  few  words  about  the  different  phases  through 
which  the  Free  Zone  has  passed  in  Mexico,  since  the  restoration 
of  the  Republic  in  1S67.  The  Committee  on  Ways  and  Means  of 
the  Fiftli  Mexican  Congress  reported,  in  its  session  of  1870,  a  tariff 
bill  which  sanctioned  the  Free  Zone,  and  this  matter  was  fully  dis- 
cussed during  the  latter  part  of  C)ctober  and  the  beginning  of  Novem- 
ber of  that  year.  Members  of  the  Cabinet  have  in  Mexico  not  only 
the  privilege  of  the  floor  in  both  Houses,  as  in  the  United  States,  but 
the  right  to  participate  in  the  debates  and  to  express  the  views  of  the 
Executive.  As  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  of  Mexico,  I  made  a  thor- 
ough study  of  this  important  and  complicated  subject,  and  I  took  part 
in  the  debate  in  question  in  the  sessions  of  the  House  of  the  28th  and 
29th  of  October,  and  the  4th  and  5th  of  November,  1870,  making 
lengthy  remarks  against  the  Free  Zone,  which  were  published  in  Eng- 
lish in  Mr.  Schleicher's  report.  I  at  that  time  recommended  its 
abolition  to  Congress,  on  behalf  of  the  Executive.  The  reasons  that 
led  me  to  this  conclusion  were  mainly  of  a  constitutional  nature, 
namely,  that  the  Free  Zone  constituted  a  privilege  in  favor  of  a  State, 
which  is  prohibited  by  our  Constitution;  and  that  although  I  was 
aware  that  the  situation  of  the  frontier  towns  of  Mexico  required  the 
adoption  of  suitable  remedies,  I  thought  that  one  could  be  found  of 
such  a  nature  as  would  embrace  the  whole  country,  and  be  divested  of 
the  odious  character  of  a  privilege.  My  efforts  were  in  vain;  Congress 
voted  in  favor  of  the  maintenance  of  the  Free  Zone  and  its  extension 
to  answer  any  objections  of  its  unconstitutionality;  and  although  the 
tariff  then  under  discussion  never  became  a  law,'  nevertheless  the  vote 
of  Congress  in  favor  of  the  Free  Zone  exercised  great  influence  upon 
the  existing  and  succeeding  administrations,  as  it  showed  what  was 
the  opinion  of  the  representatives  of  the  people  on  that  question. 

'  In  the  papers  relating  to  Foreign  Relations  of  the  United  States  accompanying 
the  President's  Message  to  Congress  of  December  4,  1871  (pages  608-609),  there  is 
a  letter  from  Mr.  Thomas  H.  Nelson,  United  States  Minister  to  Mexico,  dated  De- 
cember 22,  1870,  addressed  to  Mr.  Fish,  and  annexed  one  addressed  to  me  of  Decem- 
ber 21,  1870,  and  my  answer  of  the  same  date,  which  states  exactly  the  condition  of 
things  so  far  as  the  Free  Zone  was  concerned  after  the  Mexican  Congress  had  voted 
in  favor  of  the  extension  of  the  same. 


44°  XT  be  /Hicjicau  Jfrcc  Zone, 

The  abolition  of  the  Free  Zone  was  agitated  in  Mexico  after  I  left 
the  Treasury  Department  in  November,  1872.  When,  four  years  later, 
in  1878,  I  was  again  at  the  head  of  that  department,  and  saw  that  it  was 
not  possible  then  to  abolish  the  Free  Zone,  because  the  frontier  influ- 
ences were  stronger  than  ever,  I  thought  that  we  ought  at  least  to  make 
proper  regulations  to  prevent,  as  far  as  was  possible,  any  abuses  of  its 
franchises,  and  the  regulations  of  June  17,  1878,  v/ere  then  issued  with 
that  object  in  view. 

Extension  of  the  Free  Zone. — In  the  meanwhile  there  had  been  a 
strong  reaction  in  favor  of  the  I'Vee  Zone,  as  the  State  of  Tamaulipas 
had  taken  a  leading  part  in  support  of  the  revolution  of  Tuxtepec,  which 
succeeded  in  1876,  and  brought  about  the  Administration  then  in  power, 
and  this  was  especially  so  during  the  Presidency  of  General  Gonzalez, 
,S-  citizen  of  that  State,  from  1880  to  1884. 

General  Diaz  succeeded  General  Gonzalez  on  December  i,  1884, 
and  in  a  new  tariff  act  issued  by  him,  January  24,  1885,  the  Free  Zone, 
which  had  been  up  to  that  time  restricted  to  the  State  of  Tamaulipas, 
was  extended  to  the  whole  frontier,  namely,  to  the  States  of  Coahuihi, 
Chihuahua,  and  Sonora,  and  to  the  Territory  of  Lower  California,  for 
a  distance  of  twenty  kilometers  from  the  boundary  line,  thereby  i)lac- 
ing  it  on  a  better  footing  than  it  had  been  before,  when  it  appeared  as 
a  privilege  confined  to  a  single  State  and  denied  to  others  which  were 
in  exactly  the  same  condition,  an  objection  which  I  was  the  first  to 
advance  against  the  Free  Zone.  But  the  same  tariff  act,  which  so 
extended  the  Free  Zone,  limited  considerably  its  franchises  by  the 
regulations  contained  in  its  Chapter  XII.    '^ 

The  frontier  towns  and  their  representatives  in  Congress,  however, 
exerted  such  pressure  in  the  Federal  Congress  that  by  an  act  dated 
June  19,  1885,  the  limitations  established  in  that  tariff  were  suspended, 
and  very  liberal  regulations  were  again  adopted  in  the  succeeding  tariff 
of  March  i,  1887,  which  remained  in  force  until  the  present  one  of 
June  12.  1 89 1,  was  issued.  This  act  marked  a  new  era,  in  so  far  as 
the  Free  Zone  is  concerned,  as  article  696  of  the  same  subjects  all  for- 
eign goods  coming  to  the  Free  Zone,  which  had  been  previously  free 
of  all  import  duties,  to  a  duty  of  ten  per  cent,  of  the  import  duties  levied 
by  the  same  tariff,  excepting  cattle  of  all  kinds,  which  had  to  pay 
full  duties.  That  rate  has  since  been  raised  to  18^  per  cent,  of  the 
import  duties  by  a  decree  promulgated  by  the  Treasury  Department  of 
Mexico,  on  May  12,  1896,  which  established  a  duty  on  foreign  merchan- 
dise arriving  in  the  country  after  the  ist  of  July  of  the  same  year,  of 
seven  per  cent,  upon  import  duties,  to  be  paid  in  internal  revenue 
stamps  in  substitution  of  the  duties  collected  by  the  interior  custom- 
houses, which  were  abolished  from  that  date.  Another  decree  of  the 
same  department,  dated  June  4,   1896,  established  a  municipal  duty  of 


I 


Ubc  /IDejicau  ifree  Zonc»  441 

i^  per  cent,  upon  import  duties.  I  consider  this  provision  as  the  be- 
ginning of  a  new  system  which  will  finally  result  in  doing  away  with 
the  institution. 

The  worst  blow  given  by  the  Mexican  Government  to  the  Free 
Zone  was  the  clause  of  Article  696  of  our  tariff  act  of  June  j2,  1891, 
to  the  effect  that  commodities  manufactured  in  the  Zone,  whether  of 
foreign  or  domestic  raw  materials  should  pay  import  duties  coming 
into  Mexico,  outside  of  the  Free  Zone.  This  provision  proved  so  det- 
rimental to  the  interests  of  the  people  living  in  the  Free  Zone  that 
after  a  time  they  would  have  to  give  up  their  privileges  for  the  sake  of 
enjoying  the  same  rights  as  other  Mexican  citizens,  so  far  as  their  prod- 
ucts and  manufactures  were  concerned.  But  recently,  on  October  31, 
1896,  regulations  were  established  by  the  Mexican  Treasury  which 
allowed,  with  many  restrictions,  the  introduction  into  Mexico  free  from 
import  duties,  of  commodities  manufactured  in  the  Free  Zone,  and, 
although  this  is  a  marked  advantage  to  the  inhabitants  of  that  zone, 
the  conditions  required  for  the  free  importation  of  their  manufac- 
tures are  very  burdensome,  and  they  are  by  no  means  put  on  the 
same  footing  as  those  manufactured  by  the  other  inhabitants  of  the 
country. 

Public  Opinion  in  Mexico  about  the  Free  Zone. — As  I  have  already 
observed,  the  opinion  of  Mexican  statesmen  on  the  Free-Zone  question 
has  been  divided,  some  entertaining  the  belief  that  it  should  be  abol- 
ished because  it  grants  to  one  section  of  the  country  privileges  which 
are  not  authorized  by  the  Constitution;  and  others,  and  by  far  the 
larger  number,  holding  that,  under  the  circumstances,  its  establishment 
was  an  imperative  necessity,  as  its  abolition  would  be  equivalent  to  the 
destruction  of  the  frontier.  The  friends  of  the  Free  Zone  represented 
that  the  frontier  towns  of  Mexico  owed  their  existence  to  that  institution, 
and  that  they  could  not  exist  without  it.  Through  a  concurrence  of 
events,  to  which  I  shall  refer  later,  many  Mexicans  were  led  to  attrib- 
ute to  the  Free  Zone  more  beneficial  results  than  it  has  really  produced, 
and  this  has  also  had  a  decided  influence  in  its  maintenance  and 
extension. 

The  situation  of  the  Mexican  frontier  up  to  the  beginning  of  the 
Civil  War  of  the  United  States  was,  as  I  have  already  observed,  one  of 
poverty  and  even  of  misery,  and  formed  a  striking  contrast  to  that  exist- 
ing on  the  other  side  of  the  Rio  Grande.  The  war  broke  out  almost 
simultaneously  with  the  establishment  of  the  Free  Zone,  and  the  situa- 
tion of  the  Mexican  frontier  changed  very  materially  as  a  consequence  of 
the  war,  during  its  continuance,  and  for  some  time  after  its  conclusion, 
prosperity  deserted  the  left  for  the  right  bank  of  the  Rio  Grande,  on 
account  of  the  general  prostration  then  prevailing  in  the  South,  while 
the  Mexican  border  towns,  and  specially  Matamoros,  had  something 


I 


442  Hbe  /IDejican  jfrce  Zone, 

like  a  boom.'  Superficial  observers  attributed  that  prosperity  not  to  its 
true  cause,  which,  in  my  opinion,  was  the  war,  but  to  the  Free  Zone;  and 
feeling  convinced  that  it  had  been  productive  of  extraordinarily  favor- 
able results,  they  naturally  considered  it  as  a  panacea  for  every  ill,  and 
its  extension  an  imperative  necessity  for  the  frontier.  The  latter  opin- 
ion finally  prevailed  in  the  councils  of  the  Mexican  Government,  which 
debated  the  question  froiii  1877  to  1885,  with  the  result,  already  stated, 
of  the  extension  of  the  Free  Zone  to  all  the  boundary  States. 

'"  The  opinion  of  Mexican  merchants  to  the  south,  at  Saltillo,  Mon- 
terrey, and  other  places,  is  decidedly  opposed  to  the  Free  Zone,  and 
they  protested  vigorously  against  the  gross  discrimination  against  their 
interests,  for,  as  they  contended,  they  cannot  compete  with  the 
Zone  merchants  in  selling  goods  to  purchasers  living  within  one  hun- 
dred miles  of  the  Zone,  owing  to  the  facility  with  which  such  goods  can 
be  bought  therein,  and  carried  out  by  the  purchasers,  or  bought  from 
rlie  smugglers  who  make  a  business  of  furnishing  the  interior  trade 

With  contraband  goods. 

The  merchants  and  the  newspapers  in  the  interior  have  always  con- 
tended tliat  the  existence  of  the  Free  Zone  on  the  frontier  was  contrary 
to  the  interests  of  the  nation;  even  the  people  on  the  frontier,  the 
property  owners,  and  practically  all  persons  having  the  welfare  of  the 
country  at  heart  and  who  have  given  the  subject  some  thought,  share 
this  opinion. 

Right  of  Mexico  to  Establish  the  Free  Zone. — There  can  be  no  doubt 
as  to  the  right  of  the  Government  of  Mexico  to  exempt  from  duties  or 
levy  them  on  the  foreign  trade  of  the  country,  even  though  they 
should  injure  the  mercantile  interests  of  other  nations,  and  I  therefore 
think  it  unnecessary  to  argue  the  right  of  Mexico  to  adopt  and  main- 

'  The  following  is  the  testimony  of  a  spectator  of  the  scenes  in  the  Free  Zone 
during  the  war : 

"  The  law  had  but  little  effect  upon  our  commerce  until  the  opening  of  the  civil 
war.  With  the  Southern  States  in  revolt,  a  free  and  neutral  port  on  the  border  became 
at  once  of  vast  importance.  Contrabands  of  war  and  supplies  of  all  kinds  could  be 
bought  in  New  York  or  Europe  and  sent  to  Matamoros,  a  neutral  port.  From  a  mere 
village  Matamoros  grew  within  three  years  to  the  third  port  of  the  world,  with  eighty 
vessels  at  a  time  anchored  off  the  dangerous  roads  at  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  Grande. 
Bagdad,  at  the  mouth,  grew  from  nothing  to  12,000  inhabitants,  while  Matamoros  had 
40,000.  including  representatives  from  every  commercial  nation  in  the  world.  The 
wickedness  of  the  towns  of  Scripture  fade  away  before  that  of  these  two  during  the 
years  from  1861  to  1865.  Men  made  or  lost  a  fortune  before  breakfast  buying  or  sell- 
ing supplies  or  cotton.  The  smallest  change  for  a  gentleman  was  a  $5  gold  piece ; 
for  a  laborer  a  Mexican  dollar.  Cotton  was  wagoned  from  east  of  the  Mississippi 
across  the  plains  of  Texas  to  seek  a  neutral  port  for  export.  When  the  Southern 
Confederacy  collapsed,  the  Zona  Libre  lost  all  national  importance  and  steadily  de- 
clined in  value.  Matamoros  still  has  the  Zova  Libre,  but  her  commerce  has  become 
insignificant  and  her  present  population  does  not  exceed  6,000." 


TTbe  /IDejican  fvcc  Zone.  443 

tain  the  Free  Zone,  especially  as  regards  the  United  States,  which,  in 
its  tariff  laws,  does  not  have  much  consideration  for  the  interests  of  the 
commerce  of  foreign  nations,  and  only  has  in  view  the  requirements 
of  its  own  citizens,  no  matter  how  prejudicial  they  may  be  to  foreign 
merchants,  manufacturers,  or  producers;  but  I  will  only  mention  some 
reasons  which  seem  to  me  rather  plain. 

The  rates  of  duties  established  by  the  tariff  laws  of  the  United 
States  have  always  been  lower  than  those  of  Mexico.  In  a  pamphlet, 
published  at  El  Paso,  Texas,  in  1895,  by  Mr.  C.  R.  Morehead,  Presi- 
dent of  the  State  National  Bank  of  El  Paso,  who  is  one  of  the  most 
determined  opponents  of  the  Free  Zone,  entitled  T/ie  Free  Zone  of 
Mexico,  Its  Baneful  Effects  on  the  Commercial  Interests  of  that  Republic 
and  those  of  the  United  States,  the  author  states  as  follows: 

"  In  the  year  1858  the  United  States  of  America  only  levied  for  the  expenses  of 
the  Government  an  average  import  duty  of  15  per  cent,  on  all  imported  articles,  while 
the  import  duties  of  Mexico  were  from  20  to  25  per  cent.,  thus  giving  the  American 
border  an  advantage  over  their  Mexican  neighbors  of  5  to  10  per  cent,  in  their  com- 
mercial relations.  Again,  the  Mexican  border  could  only  be  reached  by  traversing  a 
mountainous  country  for  long  distances,  and  the  mode  of  transportation  being  the 
most  primitive  (burro  trains),  their  goods  could  only  be  transported  at  great  expense, 
as  no  such  conveniences  as  a  railroad  existed  in  the  Republic  at  that  time.  This 
apparent  difference  in  the  duties  imposed  upon  the  two  banks  of  the  river,  and  the 
resulting  superiority  of  the  one  bank  over  the  other  in  commercial  intercourse,  was  the 
cause  of  the  establishment  of  the  Free  Zone  by  the  Government  of  Mexico." 

This  disproportion  in  the  tariffs  of  the  two  countries,  as  Mr.  More- 
head  acknowledged,  made  the  commercial  condition  of  the  United 
States  towns  on  the  Mexican  border  a  great  deal  more  favorable  than  the 
condition  of  the  Mexican  towns.  How  would  the  Government  of  the 
United  States  have  acted  if  Mexico  had  based  on  these  great  differ- 
ences a  remonstrance  against  the  tariff  in  force  in  this  country,  and 
required  that  it  should  abolish  it  and  establish  one  with  the  same  or 
higher  rates  of  duty  than  the  Mexican  tariff  ?  And  how  would  it 
have  felt  if  remonstrances  had  been  made  against  the  building  of  rail- 
roads in  this  country,  tapping  the  frontier,  because  thereby  the  condi- 
tion of  the  inhabitants  of  the  northern  border  of  the  Rio  Grande  \vt)uld 
be  bettered  ?  What  would  the  people  of  this  country  think  if  we  should 
ask  them  to  repeal  the  Act  of  August  20,  1852,  because  it  encouraged 
smuggling  in  Mexico  ?  The  Mexican  people  feel  exactly  as  the  people 
of  the  United  States  would  feel,  if  the  circumstances  were  reversed. 

It  would  be  absurd  to  consider  as  an  act  hostile  to  this  country  the 
establishment  by  Mexico  of  absolute  free  trade,  that  is,  the  abolition  of 
its  custom-houses  and  import  duties ;  in  other  words,  the  extension  of  the 
Free  Zone  throughout  the  whole  country,  because  the  United  States, 
as  a  neighboring  nation,  would  be  the  nation  likely  to  profit  most  by 


444  ^be  /IDejican  jfree  Zone, 

such  freedom  of  trade;  and  if  such  extension  could  not  be  justly  a  mo- 
tive of  complaint,  how  can  it  be  so  when  the  free  trade  is  reduced  to 
a  very  limited  zone  ? 

JIow  Far  the  Free  Zone  Favors  Smuggling  into  t/ie  United  States. — 
Having  explained  in  what  manner  the  Free  Zone  was  established  and 
what  were  its  real  purpose  and  scope,  and  before  I  consider  the  action 
of  the  United  States  Government  on  that  subject,  it  will  be  proper  to 
examine  the  main  objections  against  it. 

The  second  impression  prevailing  in  the  United  States  about  the 
Free  Zone,  namely,  that  it  was  established  to  injure  the  United  States, 
and  that  it  causes  a  very  large  smuggling  of  foreign  goods  into  this 
country  is  equally  incorrect,  as  I  will  try  to  show. 

It  does  not  seem  to  me  reasonable  to  suppose  that  the  Free  Zone 
was  established  for  the  purpose  of  encouraging  smuggling,  to  the  det- 
riment of  the  United  States  Treasury,  when  in  fact  it  harms  Mexico 
to  a  much  greater  extent  than  it  does  this  country,  as,  in  order  to 
injure  the  United  States,  Mexico  would  hardly  be  willing  to  injure  itself 
ten  times  as  much;  and  if  the  contraband  trade  carried  on  under  the 
shadow  of  the  Free  Zone  was  a  sufficient  reason  for  its  suppression,  the 
interest  of  Mexico  in  this  matter  would  long  since  have  settled  the 
question. 

Any  human  institution  can  be  abused  by  men.  The  goods  stored 
in  the  frontier  towns  of  the  United  States,  in  accordance  with  the  Act 
of  August  30,  1882,  were  easily  smuggled  into  Mexico;  and  yet  when 
the  United  States  Congress  passed  that  law,  it  did  not  intend,  assur- 
edly, to  encourage  smuggling  to  the  detriment  of  Mexico,  although 
such  was  practically  its  result.  In  the  same  manner  the  Governor  of 
Tamaulipas  at  first,  and  the  Mexican  Congress  afterwards,  did  not 
intend  in  establishing  the  Free  Zone  to  encourage  smuggling  to  the 
detriment  of  the  United  States. 

Unfortunately,  the  mistaken  impression  that  the  Free  Zone  injures 
the  United  States  has  made  a  great  headway  among  some  of  the  Amer- 
ican statesmen,  no  doubt  because  they  have  not  carefully  studied  thi? 
subject.  The  annual  loss  caused  to  the  United  States  Treasury,  by  the 
Free  Zone,  has  been  estimated  to  be  as  high  as  ^6,000,000,  as  will 
presently  appear.  Secretary  Fairchild,  in  a  report  to  the  Senate,  to 
which  I  shall  presently  refer,  expressed  that  opinion  which  was  then 
the  general  impression  of  several  other  officials  of  the  Treasury  De- 
partment, and  even  of  Committees  in  both  Houses  of  Congress. 

The  only  way  to  estimate  the  loss  to  the  United  States  Treasury  by 
smuggling  through  the  Mexican  frontier  would  be  to  examine  what 
has  been  the  amount  of  the  importations  of  foreign  goods  from  the 
United  States  into  the  Mexican  Free  Zone.  But  the  United  States 
custom-houses  do  not  keep  an  account  of  foreign  goods  exported  for 


Ube  /IDejican  3free  Zone.  445 

consumption  in  the  same,  and  as  most  of  them  go  in  transit  to  the  in- 
terior, the  amount  of  such  goods  as  appears  in  the  reports  of  the  Bureau 
of  Statistics  of  the  United  States  Treasury  Department  only  represents 
a  small  portion  of  the  goods  exported  to  the  zone  which  might  be 
smuggled  back  into  the  United  States.  With  a  view  to  ascertain  the 
exact  amount  of  such  trade.  Senator  Morgan,  who  has  always  taken 
great  interest  in  everything  relating  to  Mexico,  thought  it  proper  to 
inquire  how  much  that  contraband  trade  amounted  to,  and  on  Febru- 
ary 16,  1888,  he  introduced  in  the  Senate  '  a  resolution  asking  of  the 
Treasury  Department  whether  the  Mexican  Free  Zone  encouraged 
smuggling  across  that  border  into  either  country,  and  for  the  estimated 
loss  to  the  United  States;  and  in  answer  to  that  resolution  the  Secretary 
of-the  Treasury  transmitted  on  the  first  of  the  following  March  a  state- 
ment '  from  which  it  appears  that  the  total  value  of  the  foreign  mer- 

'  Congressional  Record,\o\.  xix.,  part  II.,  p.  1720.  In  the  Senate  of  the  United 
States,  February  16,  1888. 

THE   MEXICAN   FREE   ZONE. 

Mr.  Morgan  submitted  the  following  resolution : 

''Resolved,  That  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  is  directed  to  inform  the  Senate 
whether  and  to  what  extent  the  customs  laws  and  regulations  of  Mexico,  in  the  belt 
of  country  known  as  the  Free  Zone  of  Mexico,  extending  along  our  border,  have 
encouraged  smuggling  across  that  border  into  either  country  ;  the  estimated  loss  of 
revenue  to  the  United  States  from  that  cause  ;  the  means  employed,  or  that  are  neces- 
sary to  prevent  such  smuggling  ;  and  the  additional  cost  to  the  United  States  of  the 
necessary  agencies  to  prevent  the  violation  of  its  laws  in  consequence  of  the  existence 
of  that  Free  Zone." 

The  resolution  was  considered  by  unanimous  consent,  and  agreed  to. 

-  Fiftieth  Congress,  ist  Session  (Senate  Executive  Document  No.  108),  letter  from 
the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  in  response  to  Senate  resolution  of  February  16,  1888, 
relative  to  smuggling  in  the  Free  Zone  of  Mexico.  March  5,  1888,  ordered  to  be 
printed  and  referred  to  the  Committee  on  Foreign  Relations  : 

"  Treasury  Department,  Office  of  the  Secretary, 
"  Washington,  D.  C.  March  /,  1S8S. 

"Sir, — I  have  the  honor  to  acknowledge  the  receipt  of  Senate  resolution,  dated 
the  l6th  ultimo,  directing  me — 

"  '  To  inform  the  Senate  whether  and  to  what  extent  the  customs  laws  and  regu- 
lations of  Mexico,  in  the  belt  of  country  known  as  the  Free  Zone  of  Mexico,  extend- 
ing along  our  border,  have  encouraged  smuggling  across  that  border  into  either  country  ; 
the  estimated  loss  of  revenue  to  the  United  States  from  that  cause  ;  the  means  em- 
ployed, or  that  were  necessary,  to  prevent  such  smuggling ;  and  the  additional  cost  to 
the  United  States  of  the  necessary  agencies  to  prevent  the  violation  of  its  laws  in  con- 
sequence of  the  existence  of  that  Free  Zone.' 

"  In  reply  I  have  to  state  that  the  only  information  in  possession  of  this  Depart- 
ment relative  to  the  subject-matter  of  the  resolution  is  of  a  general  character.  There 
is  no  doubt  that  the  existence  of  the  Free  Zone  of  Mexico  furnishes  an  opportunity  for 
smuggling  into  the  United  States. 

"Under  the  provisions  of  Section  3005,  Revised  Statutes,  merchandise  arriving 
in  the  United  States  and  destined  for  places  in  the  Republic  of  Mexico  in  transit  may 


446  XTbe  /IDerican  JFree  Zone. 

chandise  which  had  passed  through  the  United  States  into  Mexico  during 
the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1887,  was  $497,654;  and  adding  to  that 
amount  merchandise  to  the  value  of  $194,774,  which  was  withdrawn 
from  warehouse  and  exported  to  Mexico,  making  a  total  of  $692,428, 
of  which  only  $211,589  was  dutiable,  tlie  balance  of  $480,839  was  free 
under  the  tariff  act  of  March  3d,  1883,  then  in  force.  So  that,  sup- 
posing that  the  whole  of  that  amount  had  been  smuggled  back  into 
Mexico,  which  could  not  possibly  be  the  case,  l)ecause  some  of  those 
goods  were  needed  in  the  Free  Zone  and  near-by  in  Mexico,  others 
legally  imported  and  others  smuggled  into  Mexico,  the  loss  suffered  by 
the  Treasury  of  the  United  States  would  have  been  in  reality  insig- 
nificant. 

The  average  amount  of  duties  under  the  tariff  act  of  March  3d,  18S3, 
on  the  whole  of  the  dutiable  articles  was  47. 10  per  cent.,  and  the  actual 
loss  of  revenue  to  the  United  States,  supposing  that  all  foreign  goods 
imported  into  Mexico  by  the  Free  Zone  should  have  been  smuggled 
back  into  the  United  States,  would  only  amount  to  $99,658,  which  is 
by  no  means  as  large  as  the  amount  estimated  by  the  opponents  of  the 
Free  Zone  and  not  so  much  considering  the  facilities  for  smuggling 
which  the  frontier  affords. 

Secretary  Fairchild  in  his  answer  expressed  the  views  prevailing 
among  the  Treasury  officials  that  there  was  no  doubt  that  the  existence 
of  the  Free  Zone  in  Mexico  furnished  opportunities  for  smuggling  into 
the  United  States;  but  the  figures  he  gave  showed  that  if  any  smug- 
gling had  been  carried  on,  its  amount  was  really  insignificant. 

From  an  official  statement,  published  by  the  Bureau  of  Statistics  of 
the  United  States  Treasury  Department,  of  imports  and  exports  of 
merchandise  from  the  United  States  during  the  year  ending  June  30, 

be  conveyed  through  the  territory  of  the  United  States  without  payment  of  duties, 
under  such  regulations  as  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  may  prescribe.  The  total 
value  of  foreign  merchandise  which  thus  passed  through  the  United  States  to  Mexico 
during  the  last  fiscal  year  was  $497,654.  In  addition  to  that  amount,  merchandise  of 
the  value  of  $194,774  was  withdrawn  from  warehouse  and  exported  to  Mexico,  making 
a  total  of  $692,428,  of  which  $211,589  was  dutiable  and  $480,839  free  under  our  tariff. 
"  It  has  been  alleged  that  a  large  proportion  of  the  dutiable  merchandise  thus  sent 
into  Mexico  is  smuggled  back  into  the  United  States.  This  Department  has  no  means 
of  ascertaining  to  what  extent  this  is  true. 

"  The  principal  articles,  products  of  Mexico,  which  have  been  subjects  of  seizure 
by  the  customs  officers  on  the  Mexican  border,  are  horses  and  cattle.  So  long  as  our 
present  tariff  on  imports  is  continued,  customs  officers  will  be  needed  to  collect  duties 
and  prevent  smuggling,  and  I  am  not  advised  that  the  number  and  cost  of  such  officials 
could  be  diminished  if  the  Free  Zone  of  Mexico  were  abolished. 

"  Respectfully  yours, 

"  C.  S.  Faiuchild,  Secretary 
'  Hon.  John  J.  Ingalls 

"  President /rtf  tempore  United  States  Senate. 


Ube  /IDejican  jfree  Zone,  447 

1895,  the  first  year  after  the  Act  of  August  28,  1894,  went  into  effect, 
it  appears  that  the  value  of  the  foreign  merchandise  which  passed  by 
the  frontier  into  Mexico  was  as  follows:  Through  Brazos  de  Santiago 
$36,510;  Corpus  Christi,  $26,738;  Paso  del  Norte,  $35,810;  and  Sa- 
luria,  $32,868,  making  a  total  of  $131,926.  So  that  the  total  amount 
of  foreign  merchandise  imported  into  the  Free  Zone  from  the  United 
States  in  the  first  year  after  the  Act  of  August  28,  1894,  went  into  effect 
was  $131,926,  and  supposing  that  the  whole  of  it  should  have  been 
smuggled  back  into  the  United  States,  the  import  duties  on  the  same. 
at  the  rate  of  41.75  per  cent,  under  the  tariff  then  in  force,  would 
'amount  to  $55,080,  which  is  a  mere  trifle,  considering  the  conditions 
of  the  frontier. 

For  more  details  showing  how  insignificant  is  the  smuggling  from 
the  Mexican  Free  Zone  into  the  United  States,  and  how  great  the  ad- 
vantages that  this  country  derives  from  the  Free  Zone,  I  refer  the 
reader  to  a  letter  that  Mr.  Frank  B.  Earnest,  Collector  of  Customs  at 
Laredo,  Texas,  addressed  on  February  23,  1895,  to  the  Hon.  \V.  H. 
Grain,  Member  of  Congress  from  Texas,  to  an  editorial  from  the  Loiver 
Rio  Grande^  a  paper  published  in  Brownsville,  Texas,  and  to  a  letter 
from  prominent  citizens  of  Brownsville  addressed  also  to  Mr.  Crain,  all 
of  which  were  read  by  him  in  the  House  of  Representatives  on  February 
27,  1895. 

Even  Mr.  John  W.  Foster,  who  was,  when  United  States  Minister 
to  Mexico,  one  of  the  most  decided  opponents  to  the  Free  Zone,  and 
expressed  in  the  different  official  communications  addressed  to  the 
Department  of  State  the  opinion  that  the  Free  Zone  was  a  great  detri- 
ment to  the  United  States,  and  had  been  established  for  the  purpose 
of  encouraging  smuggling,  changed  his  views  when  he  went  himself  to 
the  frontier  for  the  purpose  of  making  a  personal  examination  of  the 
subject,  and  in  an  official  communication  (No.  1077),  addressed  to 
Mr.  Evarts,  Secretary  of  State  of  the  United  States,  dated  City  of 
Mexico,  December  26,  1879,  said  as  follows  : 

"  In  the  past  two  or  three  years  the  situation  has  materially  changed.  The  de- 
cline in  price  of  manufactured  goods  in  the  United  States,  and  our  increased  spirit  of 
commercial  enterprise,  enables  the  American  merchants  on  the  Texas  side  of  the  river 
to  compete  successfully  in  many  classes  of  goods  with  the  merchants  in  Mexico,  who 
import  from  Europe.  The  practical  result  is  that,  in  cotton  fabrics  and  many  other 
articles,  the  Mexican  frontier  is  supplied  almost  entirely  from  the  United  States,  and 
the  inducements  for  smuggling  into  Texas  have  greatly  diminished.  Our  customs  au- 
thorities along  the  Rio  Grande,  as  well  as  the  citizens  in  general,  informed  me  on  my 
recent  visit  to  that  region  that  the  smuggling  of  foreign  merchandise  from  the  Mexican 
Free  Zone  had  almost  entirely  ceased.  On  the  other  hand,  my  observation  led  me  to 
the  conclusion  that  this  Zone  was  made  the  base  of  operations  for  quite  an  extensive 
system  of  smuggling  of  American  (as  well  as  European)  goods  into  the  interior  of 
Mexico.  It  is  the  practice  of  the  Mexicans  to  cross  the  river  to  the  American  towns 
and  purchase  our  cotton  and  other  goods,  and  introduce  them  without  hindrance  into 


f 


'^4S  Ilbe  /iDejican  jfree  Zone, 

the  Zona  Libre,  whence  they  are  clandestinely  taken  into  the  adjoining  States  of  this 
Republic  ;  so  that  the  measure  which  was  originally  intended  to  be  a  protection  to 
Mexican  interests  and  an  obstruction  to  American  commerce  in  its  practical  workings 
is  just  now  proving  to  be  the  contrary.  While  I  cannot  regard  the  continuance  of  the 
Zona  Libre  as  a  friendly  act  toward  the  United  States,  my  recent  visit  satisfied  me 
that  it  was  a  much  greater  evil  to  Mexico  than  to  our  country.  The  existence  of  such 
a  discriminating  territory  must  always  be  a  source  of  annoyance,  and  ought  to  be 
abolished  if  we  are  ever  to  have  a  legitimate  and  cordial  commercial  intercourse  be- 
tween the  two  countries,  but  at  present  it  is  the  occasion  of  greater  damage  to  the 
government  and  people  who  created  it  than  to  its  neighbors." 

Considering  the  matter  from  a  disinterested  point  of  view,  it  would 
certainly  appear  that,  barring  a  possible  increase  in  the  temptation  and 
opportunity  to  land  and  smuggle  foreign  goods  into  the  United  States, 
the  Mexican  Free  Zone  has  been,  and  still  continues  to  be,  a  benefit  to 
American  trade,  and  that  any  attempt  to  commit  the  United  States 
Government  to  a  hostile  attitude  toward  that  institution  is  only  insti- 
gated by  local  interests. 

Smuggling  on  the  frontier  will  never  be  prevented,  as  it  has  re- 
cently happened  that  people  were  caught  smuggling  several  sacks  of 
potatoes,  which  pay  practically  no  duties.  Even  sewing-machines  and 
plows,  which  pay  almost  no  duty  at  all,  are  smuggled.  Perhaps  this  is 
due,  in  a  great  measure,  to  the  conflicting  and  vexatious  documentary 
requirements  for  the  importation  of  small  articles  at  the  frontier.  If 
the  Government  would  allow  bringing  into  Mexico  small  articles  up  to 
the  value  of,  say,  twenty  dollars,  without  requiring  any  papers,  then 
smuggling  might  be  considerably  reduced,  and  everybody  would  have 
the  opportunity  of  accompanying  the  goods  to  the  custom-house  and 
paying  the  duties  there,  as  is  done  on  this  side,  and  a  great  inducement 
to  smuggling  into  Mexico  would  disappear. 

Advantages  of  the  Free  Zone  to  the  United  States. — There  is  one 
aspect  of  this  question  which,  as  I  believe,  has  so  far  passed  entirely 
unnoticed.  The  Free  Zone  is  really  an  advantage  to  the  United  States, 
since,  as  I  have  already  stated,  the  Mexican  system  of  legislation  in 
the  matter  of  customs  and  excise  duties  has  generally  been  restrictive 
and  even  prohibitory,  both  by  reason  of  the  high  import  duties  levied 
on  foreign  goods  and  of  the  existence  of  interior  custom-houses,  which 
prevailed  up  to  the  30th  of  June,  1896,  and  also  of  State  and  municipal 
taxes,  requiring  vigilance  and  restrictions  that  must  necessarily  hamper 
business  transactions.  Any  relaxation  of  such  a  system  of  restriction 
could  not  but  be  favorable  to  foreign  nations  trading  with  Mexico,  and 
especially  to  a  neighboring  country  like  the  United  States,  whose  agri- 
cultural products  and  manufactures  are  mainly,  if  not  exclusively,  con- 
sumed on  the  Mexican  frontier. 

Under  the  Tariff  Act,  of  October  i,  1890,  and  July  24,  1897,  the 
Government  of  the  United  States  has  been  trying  very  earnestly  to 


TLbc  /IDejican  fvcc  %onc.  449 

obtain  from  foreign  countries,  and  especially  from  the  Spanish- Ameri- 
can Republics,  the  free  entry,  or  the  admission  at  a  reduced  rate  of 
duties,  of  some  of  its  products  and  manufactures,  and  they  naturally 
feel  pleased  when  a  new  agreement  is  made.  And  yet  the  liberal  terms 
provided  by  Mexico  in  favor  of  the  free  admission  of  all  the  products 
and  manufactures  of  this  country  into  our  Free  Zone  has  been  taken 
here  as  an  unfriendly  act  on  our  part  towards  tliis  country. 
y     It  is  a  fact,  which  has  already  been  commented  upon  by  officials  of  \ 

•  the  United  States  Government,'  that  the  merchants  on  the  north  side  \ 
of  the  Rio  Grande  River  who  clamored  most  loudly  against  the  Free 
Zone  were  the  European  merchants,  and  the  reason  is  very  plain.  The 
United  States  has,  on  account  of  its  contiguity  of  territory,  lines  of 
railways,  etc.,  almost  the  monopoly  of  the  goods  consumed  in  the  Free 
Zone,  while  the  European  countries  cannot  send  their  goods  there 
unless  by  long  ocean  routes  and  paying  expensive  railway  freight, 
which  add  considerably  to  their  cost  and  make  their  prices  quite  high. 
The  advantages  accruing  from  a  free  market  are  therefore  almost  ex- 
clusively enjoyed  by  merchants  and  citizens  of  the  United  States, 
and  it  would  seem  incredible  that  they  should  have  often  been  so  loud 
in  their  denunciations  of  that  institution,  which  has  really  been  a  boon  ^ 
\  for  many  of  them.  / 

,•  If  the  Free  Zone  has  inconveniences  for  this  country,  although 
much  less  serious  ones  than  those  which  it  has  for  Mexico,  it  possesses, 
in  my  judgment,  a  decided  advantage  which  has  remained  hitherto 
unnoticed.     It  practically  makes  a  portion  of  Mexico  a  free  market  ^  \ 

for  all  the  products  and  manufactures  of  the  United  States,  since  mer- 
chandise of  all  kinds  from  this  country  may  be  imported  into  and  con- 
sumed in  Mexican  territory  almost  duty  free,  and  be  warehoused  in 
the  region  of  the  Zone  for  an  unlimited  time.  No  greater  privilege 
can  be  asked  for  the  commerce  of  a  nation,  and  the  only  drawback  in 
this  respect  that  I  can  see  to  the  Free  Zone,  in  so  far  as  the  United 
States  is  concerned,  is  that  it  does  not  embrace  the  whole  of  Mexico.  '. 
Supposing  its  privileges  were  extended  to  the  whole  of  Mexico,  would 
the  United  States  consider  the  free  admission  of  their  products  into  that 
country  as  prejudicial  to  their  interests  ?  How  strange,  under  this 
view  of  the  question,  does  the  idea  prevailing  here  appear,  that  the 
Free  Zone  brings  only  injury  to  the  United  States  and  has  been  estab- 
lished to  the  advantage  of  European  goods  only,  when  nmety-five  per 
cent,  of  the  goods  imported  there  under  its  franchises  are  from  the 
United  States. 

Estimates  of  the  present  population  of  the  Zone  range  from  60,000 
to  80,000  souls.     Allowing  that  70,000  people  find  lodgment  therein,  it 

'  Mr.  Warner  P.  Sutton,  United  States  Consul  General  to  New  Laredo,  in  an 
official  despatch  dated  April  25,  1890,  addressed  to  the  Secretary  of  State. 


I 


450  Ubc  /iDejican  jfree  Zone. 

is  evident  the  question  is  of  importance  both  to  Mexico  and  to  the 
United  States,  on  account  of  the  peculiar  trade  conditions  produced  by 
this  ahiiost  free-trade  belt  separating  two  high-tariff  countries. 
^     During  the  fiscal  year  ending  on  June  30,  1894,  the  United  States 
exported  to  Mexico  $12,441,805  in  domestic  manufactured  goods  and 
breadstuffs;  of  these  exports,  $6,715,688  went  through  the  five  customs 
districts  on  the  northern  border,  Brazos  de  Santiago,  Corpus  Christi 
(Laredo),  Saluria  (Eagle  Pass),  El  Paso  del  Norte,  and  Nogales,  Ari- 
zona.    Of  the  imports  into  the  United  States  from  Mexico,  $8,228,892 
came  through  these  same  ports.    It  is  impossible  to  arrive  at  any  exact 
figures  as  to  the  amount  consumed  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  Zone,  but 
it  is  estimated  by  the  customs  officers  at  the  five  points  named  that 
about  twelve  per  cent.,  or  about  $813,890,  is  shipped  into  the  Zone, 
and  that  only  about  three  per  cent,  of  this  amount  is  re-entered  for 
import  to  Mexico  on  the  other  side  and  pays  the  other  eighty-two  and 
a  half  per  cent,  of  the  Mexican  tariffs.     This  would  give  as  a  result 
that  about  $800,000  in  American  goods  were  consumed  by  the  residents 
of  the  Zone.     These  figures  are  comparatively  valueless  in  arriving  at 
any  idea  of  the  purchasing  power  of  the  Zone  iti  the  line  of  American 
products,  for  the  reason  that  this  $800,000  constitutes  but  an  item  of 
the  real  consumption.    It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  the  residents  of  the 
/'one  buy  most  of  the  goods  they  consume  of  a  staple  character  from 
i  ihe  American  merchants  on  the  north  side  of  the  river.     Allowing 
70,000  people  as  the  population  of  the  Zone,  it  would  be  a  conservative 
i  estimate  to  place  the  yearly  trade  at  least  as  high  as  $3,200,000  in  gold, ' 
i  for  the  Free  Zone  resident  is  very  much  dependent  upon  the  American 
I   merchants.     Based  upon  these  estimates,  the  purchasing  value  of  the 
Zone  to  the  American  trade  is  at  least  $4,000,000  each  year,  and  by 
'■■   many  who  are  in  a   position  to  be  well  informed  in  the  premises,  it  is 

placed  at  a  much  higher  figure. 
' — ^  Disadvantages  of  the  Free  Zone  to  Mexico. — The  events  connected 
with  the  foreign  intervention  in  Mexico  did  not  permit  the  natural 
effects  of  the  Free  Zone  to  be  felt  in  the  country  until  the  Republic  re- 
turned to  its  normal  condition,  that  is,  until  after  the  termination  of 
the  French  intervention  and  the  downfall  of  the  so-called  Empire  of 
Maximilian,  events  which  took  place  during  the  year  1867.  In  Janu- 
ary of  1868,  I  was  called  to  the  Treasury  Department  by  President 
Juarez,  and  in  my  annual  report  to  Congress,  on  September  i6thof 
that  year,  I  stated  that  one  of  the  causes  of  the  then  depleted  condi- 
tion of  the  Mexican  Treasury  was  the  large  contraband  trade  that  was 
carried  on  through  the  Free  Zone  and  enjoyed  by  the  frontier  towns  of 
Tamaulipas;  further  remarking  that  the  custom-houses  of  those  towns 
were  hardly  able  to  meet  their  clerical  and  office  expenses,  and  that 
this  fact  showed  that  the  establishment  of  the  Free  Zone  had  not  made 


TLbc  /Il>ejican  jFree  Zone.  451 

that  region  prosper;  and  that,  in  my  opinion,  that  institution  was  not 
the  proper  remedy  for  the  evil  which  it  was  intended  to  cure. 

It  is  true  that  the  privilege  of  the  Free  Zone  granted  to  the  inhabit- 
ants of  the  northern  portion  of  Tamaulipas  to  import  and  consume 
foreign  goods  Avithout  paying  Federal  duties,  to  store  them  in  their  own 
houses,  and  to  keep  them  in  bond  for  an  unlimited  time,  was  a  power- 
ful incentive  to  smuggling  from  the  Free  Zone  either  to  Mexico  or  the 
United  States;  and  that  Mexico,  which  has  suffered  greatly  from  that 
result,  has  been  obliged,  with  a  view  to  the  repression  of  smuggling, 
to  establish  a  costly,  oppressive,  and  complicated  system  of  inspection; 
but  protection  to  smuggling  was  not  the  object  of  the  creators  of  the 
Free  Zone,  nor  is  it  possible  that  smuggling  should  have  been  carried 
on  to  the  prejudice  of  the  United  States,  to  the  same  extent  to  which 
it  has  been  done  to  the  disadvantage  of  Mexico. 

As  the  duties  levied  by  the  Mexican  tariff  are  much  higher  than 
those  imposed  in  the  United  States,  it  is  evident  that  the  most  lucra- 
tive contraband  trade,  and  the  easiest  one  to  conduct,  is  that  which  is 
carried  on  to  the  detriment  of  the  Mexican  Treasury.  Smuggling  is 
more  easily  carried  on  in  Mexico,  because  the  Mexican  frontier  is  very 
sparsely  populated,  and  therefore  the  difficulty  of  guarding  it  is  greatly 
increased,  while  the  frontier  of  the  United  States  is  more  thickly  set- 
tled and  thus  better  protected  against  illicit  traffic. 

To  prevent  smuggling  from  the  Free  Zone  as  far  as  this  was  possi- 
ble, the  Mexican  Government  has  been  obliged  to.  double  its  frontier 
custom-houses  of  inspection  of  goods  imported  from  the  United  States 
at  great  expense  and  considerable  inconvenience  to  bona-fide  merchants, 
as  it  has,  in  addition  to  the  custom-houses  directly  on  the  boundary  line, 
with  proper  inspection  between  each  of  them,  another  system  of  custom- 
houses and  inspection  some  distance  farther  south,  under  the  name  of 
fiscal  police,  to  prevent  smuggling  between  the  Free  Zone  and  the  rest 
of  the  country. 

The  Free  Zone  law  has  worked  such  a  hardship  on  the  property 
owners  and  manufacturers  on  the  Mexican  side  that  the  losses  they  have 
sustained  amount  up  into  the  millions,  while  the  Republic  has  lost  many 
thousands  of  inhabitants,  as  all  the  frontier  towns  have  greatly  decreased  / 
in  population  on  account  of  its  beinp*;  imT.ossi]^]p  f<'"-  tl-i^m  to  provide^ 
:.wQ^k  for  the  laboringclasses.  /  Matamoros,  once  a  flourishing  town  of 
abbut  40,000  inhabitants,  has  decreased  to  about  4000  inhabitants; 
Nuevo  Laredo  and  Piedras  Negras  have  about  held  their  own,  on  ac- 
count of  the  railroads,  but  Laredo  and  Eagle  Pass,  Texas,  have  increased 
much  more  in  proportion.  This  same  comparison  may  be  made  between 
Nogales,  Mexico,  and  Nogales,  Arizona  Territory.  However,  the  great- 
est anomaly  exists  in  El  Paso  del  Norte.  Before  the  Free  Zone  law  went 
into  effect,  El  Paso  del  Norte  had  a  population  of  15,000  people,  and 


452  XTbe  ^ejican  jfree  Zone, 

to-day  the  census  shows  only  8000.  In  1 881,  El  Paso,  Texas,  was  a 
~"  village  of  500  people;  to-day  it  has  a  population  of  over  15,000  souls. 
The  existence  of  the  Free  Zone  with  its  prohibitory  laws  as  to 
manufactured  articles  has  prevented  the  establishment  of  factories; 
without  that  law  it  is  certain  that  ere  this  there  would  have  been 
established  along  the  frontier  smelters,  soap  factories,  glass  factories, 
packing-houses,  machine-shops,  cracker  factories,  candle  factories, 
brick  factories,  furniture  factories,  whiskey  distilleries,  etc.  Vvf 

""^In  questions  of  this    character  there  are,  of  course,  a  good  many 
w  /onflicting  interests;  but  the  main  question  is  which  interest  the  Gov- 
'vj  '  '.'ernment  should  really  protect  and  which  interest  should  be  subordinate 
V*'    /  to  others.      The  people  who  have  been  fiercely  contending   for  the 
continuation  of  the  Free  Zone  and  bringing  about  the  old  rate  of  two 
.V  and  a  half  per  cent,  duties,  are  principally  owners  of  retail  stores  who 

J  import  foreign  goods,  especially  European  and  Asiatic  goods,  into  the 

^Y  Free  Zone  and  pretend  to  sell  them  to  both  United  States  and  Mexi- 

^  can    people.     It  is  well  known  that  retail  stores  never  employ  any 

great  number  of  clerks,  whereas  a  factory  of  any  kind  would  give 
employment  to  a  large  number  of  operatives  and  hands,  and  thus  be  of  ■ 
'^;     \  much  more  benefit  to  the  people  and  to  the  city  in  general  than  a  re 
Mail  store  employing  only  a  few  persons.  J- 

^  Action  of  tJie  United  States  Gover?wient  Adverse  to  the  Free  Zone. — 
It  was  for  some  time  a  matter  of  wonder  to  rtie  that  public  opinion  in 
this  country  could  have  been  so  grossly  misled  on  the  subject  of  the 
Free  Zone;  and  that  a  measure  which  allowed  a  free  market  for  all 
kinds  of  products  and  manufactures  of  this  country  into  a  large  section 
of  Mexican  territory  could  be  misunderstood  to  the  extent  of  consider- 
ing it  as  an  offence  to  the  United  States.  I  can  imagine,  however,  how 
it  was  that  public  opinion  came  to  be  so  grossly  misled  on  this  subject. 
The  Southern  States  of  the  United  States,  and  especially  those  close 
to  the  southeastern  border  of  Mexico,  enjoyed  great  prosperity  before 
the  War  of  the  Rebellion.  All  foreign  merchandise  was  allowed  to  go 
free  of  duties  to  the  border,  and  was  smuggled  into  Mexico,  and  such 
transactions  naturally  established  there  a  very  large  and  prosper- 
ous commerci2i._luisiliess.  I  The  ravages  of  the  war  destroyed  the 
Jwealth  and  commercial  prosperity  of  the  South,  and  when  the  war  was 
over,  towns  which  had  been  before  rich  and  flourishing  were  prostrated 
and  poor.  The  Free  Zone,  which  had  then  begun  to  be  in  operation, 
allowed  the  Mexican  towns  on  the  other  side  of  the  Rio  Grande  to 
have  some  commercial  activity,  especially  with  the  importation  of 
domestic  commodities  of  the  United  States,  and  that  naturally  hurt 
the  interests  of  some  of  the  merchants  established  on  the  American 
side,  especially  those  of  European  origin  or  connections.  It  is  not 
strange,  therefore,  that  they  should  attribute  entirely  to  the  existence 


v: 


Zbc  /IDejican  fvcc  Zone*  453 

of  the  Free  Zone  in  Mexico  what  was  really  the  consequence  of  the 
civil  war  in  the  United  States,  and  of  the  new  condition  of  things 
brought  about  by  the  restoration  of  peace,  and  that  they  should  ac- 
count for  their  depressed  condition  by  the  existence  of  the  Free  Zone, 
although  in  that  opinion  they  were  utterly  mistaken,  and  perhaps  some 
others  were  guided  by  a  feeling  of  jealousy  or  envy  for  the  passing  pros- 
perity that  the  Mexican  side  of  the  line  enjoyed  during  that  war.  Their 
complaints  and  murmurs  naturally  spread  to  the  Members  of  Congress 
from  the  respective  districts,  and  finally  reached  the  highest  officials  of 
the  United  States  Government.  As  Mexican  affairs  had  been  then  so 
little  understood  in  the  United  States,  and  this  question  had  not  been 
presented  in  its  true  light,  the  impression  finally  prevailed  that  the  es- 
tablishment of  the  Free  Zone  was  an  act  of  hostility  on  the  part  of 
Mexico  towards  the  United  States,  intended  to  destroy  its  commerce 
and  to  favor  smuggling  into  this  country  to  the  prejudice  of  its  Treas- 
ury and  bona-fide  merchants.  Of  course  the  existence  of  this  impres- 
sion afforded  a  good  opportunity  to  anybody  who  desired  to  attack  or 
abuse  Mexico  to  do  so,  as  was  the  case  with  Mr.  Schleicher,  a  Repre- 
sentative from  Texas,  of  whom  I  shall  presently  speak. 

It  was  in  this  way  that  almost  all  the  representatives  of  the  United 
States  in  Mexico  since  the  restoration  of  the  Republic  in  1867,  begin- 
ning with  Mr.  Edward  Lee  Plumb,  General  Rosecrans,  Mr.  Thomas 
H.  Nelson,  and  especially  Mr.John  W.  Foster,  and  some  of  their  suc- 
cessors, seemed  to  labor  under  the  impression — judging  from  the  cor- 
respondence which  they  sent  to  the  State  Department  on  the  subject, 
published  afterwards  by  Congress — that  the  Mexican  Free  Zone  was 
a  very  great  injury  to  the  United  States;  and  several  secretaries  of 
state,  including  such  distinguished  men  as  Mr.  Hamilton  Fish,  Mr. 
William  M.  Evarts,  and  others,  seem — very  likely  for  want  of  sufficient 
information — to  have  given  the  Free  Zone  more  importance  than  it 
really  deserved. 

This  impression  extended  even  to  President  Grant  who,  in  three 
of  his  annual  messages  to  Congress,  spoke  of  the  Mexican  Free  Zone, 
expressing  the  mistaken  opinion  about  that  institution  which  prevailed 
for  so  long.' 

'  Extract  fi-om  the  annual  message  of  President  Grant,  December  5,  1870 : 
"  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  our  representations  in  regard  to  the  injurious  effects, 
especially  upon  the  revenue  of  the  United  States,  of  the  policy  of  the  Mexican  Gov- 
ernment, in  exempting  from  impost  duties  a  large  tract  of  its  territory  on  our  borders, 
have  not  only  been  fruitless,  but  that  it  is  even  proposed  in  that  country  to  extend  the 
limits  within  which  the  privilege  adverted  to  has  hitherto  been  enjoyed. 

"  The  expediency  of  taking  into  your  serious  consideration  proper  measures  foi 
countervailing  the  policy  referred  to  will,  it  is  presumed,  engage  your  earnest  attention." 
Extract  from  the  annual  message  of  President  Grant,  December  4,  1871  : 
"  The  republic  of  Mexico  has  not  yet  repealed  the  very  objectionable  laws  estab- 


I 


454  Ube  /iDejican  jfree  Zone. 

Mr.  Samuel  A.  Belden,  a  citizen  of  the  United  States,  residing  at 
Brownsville,  Texas,  wrote  a  letter  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury, 
dated  in  Washington  on  September  21,  1868,'  in  which  he  said  that  the 
effect  of  the  Free  Zone  had  been  most  disastrous  to  the  commerce  of 

lishing  what  is  known  as  the  '  Free  Zone*  on  the  frontier  of  the  United  States.  It  is 
hoped  that  this  may  yet  be  done,  and  also  that  more  stringent  measures  may  be  taken 
by  that  republic  for  restraining  lawless  persons  on  its  frontiers.  I  hope  that  Mexico, 
by  its  own  action,  will  soon  relieve  this  government  of  the  difficulties  experienced 
from  these  causes." 

Extract  from  the  annual  message  of  President  Grant,  December  7,  1875  : 
"  The  Free  Zone,  so  called,  several  years  since  established  by  the  Mexican  Gov- 
ernment in  several  of  the  states  of  that  republic  adjacent  to  our  frontier,  remains  in 
full  operation.  It  has  always  been  materially  injurious  to  honest  traffic,  for  it  operates 
as  an  incentive  to  traders  in  Mexico  to  supply  without  customs-charges  the  wants  of 
the  inhabitants  on  this  side  the  line,  and  prevents  the  same  wants  from  being  supplied 
by  merchants  of  the  United  States,  thereby,  to  a  considerable  extent,  defrauding  our 
revenue  and  checking  honest  commercial  enterprise." 

'  "Washington,  D.  C.,  September  21,  1868. 

"  Some  time  in  the  year  1857  or  '58  the  governor  of  the  State  of  Tamaulipas, 
Mexico,  issued  a  decree  authorizing  the  merchants  and  citizens  inhabiting  the  strips  of 
territory  embraced  in  the  portion  of  the  State  extending  from  the  mouth  of  the  Rio 
Grande  to  its  farthest  boundary,  and  from  the  river  inland  for  two  leagues,  to  introduce 
free  of  duty,  merchandise  of  all  classes. 

"  This  is  known  as  the  Zona  Libre  ihte  belt),  and  the  decree  of  the  governor 
was  in  operation  for  three  years  before  it  was  ratified  by  the  general  government,  and 
is  in  full  force  at  this  time,  notwithstanding  the  protest  of  the  cities  of  Tampico  and 
Veracruz  against  it  as  partial  and  unjust.  The  government  was  not  in  a  condition  to 
refuse  any  demand  on  the  frontier,  because  of  the  heroic  defenses  which  the  inhabitants 
had  made  against  Carvajal  and  other  raiders.  The  merchandise  introduced  under  this 
decree  is  required  to  pay  duties  only  when  exported  from  the  Zona  Libre  to  the  interior 
of  Mexico,  or  to  the  United  States  side  of  the  Rio  Grande,  and  its  effect  has  been  most 
disastrous  to  the  commerce  of  the  city  of  Brownsville,  and  other  towns  on  our  side  of 
the  Rio  Grande,  as  well  as  to  the  revenue  of  the  United  States.  No  argument  is  re- 
quired to  prove  this,  nor  can  there  be  any  doubt  that  it  is  the  cause  of  the  immense 
amount  of  contraband  trade  upon  the  frontier,  the  inducements  to  which  are  irresistible 
to  such  as  are  willing  to  engage  in  it,  particularly  in  liquors  and  foreign  merchandise, 
which  can  be  purchased  at  Matamoros  at  a  very  small  advance  over  the  foreign  cost, 
and  their  introduction  into  the  United  States  at  some  point  in  an  extended  frontier  of 
upwards  of  nine  hundred  miles,  cannot  be  prevented. 

"  Prior  to  the  existence  of  this  decree  the  amount  of  merchandise  in  the  United 
States  bonded  warehouses  at  Brazos  de  Santiago  and  Brownsville  ranged  from  one  to 
three  millions  of  dollars,  but  since  that  period  the  trade  has  dwindled  to  such  a  point 
the  custom-house  there,  instead  of  being  a  means  of  revenue,  is  an  expense  to  the 
United  States. 

"  For  the  removal  of  this  incubus  upon  the  trade  of  the  citizens  of  our  frontier 
they  are  without  power,  but  think  that  the  relations  which  have  existed  between  the 
governments  of  Mexico  and  the  United  States,  since  the  passage  of  the  decree,  will 
justify  prompt  action  on  the  part  of  the  United  States  to  terminate  so  flagrant  an 
injustice.  "Very  respectfully, 

"Sam.  a.  Belden,  Brownville,  Tex." 


I 


TLbc  /IDejican  ifcee  Zone,  4S5 

the  city  of  Brownsville  and  other  towns  on  the  American  side  of  the 
Rio  Grande,  as  well  as  to  the  revenue  of  the  United  States,  and  that 
prior  to  the  existence  of  the  Free  Zone  the  amount  of  merchandise  in 
the  United  States  bonded  warehouses  at  Brazos  de  Santiago  and 
Brownsville  ranged  from  one  to  three  millions  of  dollars,  and  that 
since  that  period  the  trade  has  dwindled  to  such  a  point  that  the  cus- 
tom-house there,  instead  of  being  a  means  of  revenue,  was  an  expense 
to  the  United  States;  calling  the  Free  Zone  a  flagrant  injustice,  and 
concluded  by  asking  the  prompt  action  on  the  part  of  the  United 
States  to  terminate  the  Free  Zone.  Mr.  Belden's  personal  interests 
might  have  been  adversely  affected  by  the  Free  Zone,  or  he  might  have 
shared  in  good  faith  the  prejudices  of  his  neighbors,  due  to  the  want  of 
a  proper  understanding  of  the  case;  he  also  forgot  the  changed  con- 
dition of  things  in  the  South  caused  by  the  then  recent  civil  war,  but 
be  this  as  it  will,  such  slender  grounds  as  those  stated  in  his  letter  were 
made  the  subject  of  a  communication  addressed  by  the  Secretary  of 
the  Treasury,  Mr.  Hugh  McCulloch,  to  the  Department  of  State,  on 
September  26,  1868,'  endorsing  Mr.  Belden's  views,  and  asserting 
that  the  Free  Zone  seriously  affected  the  growth  and  prosperity  of  that 
portion  of  the  United  States  which  borders  on  the  Rio  Grande. 

This  statement  of  facts  shows  how  easy  it  is  to  mislead  public 
opinion,  not  only  in  complex,  but  even  in  simple  questions,  and  how 
difficult  it  is,  when  an  error  is  allowed  to  spread  and  to  prevail  un- 

•  MR.    MCCULLOCH   TO   MR.    SEWARD. 

"Treasury  Department,  September  26,  1868. 

"  Sir  : — I  have  the  honor  to  transmit  herewith  a  copy  of  a  communication,  dated 
the  2ist  instant,  from  Mr.  Samuel  A.  Belden,  of  Brownsville,  Tex.,  in  reference  to  the 
existence  on  the  Mexican  side  of  the  Rio  Grande  of  a  belt  of  country  which  is  free  to 
commerce. 

"  It  is  alleged  by  Mr.  Belden,  and  it  has  also  been  represented  to  the  department 
through  other  sources,  that  by  reason  of  the  existence  of  such  free  belt  of  country,  the 
loss  to  the  revenue  by  means  of  s^nuggling  is  immense  and  continually  increasing,  and 
that  it  seriously  affects  the  growth  and  prosperity  of  that  portion  of  the  United  States 
which  borders  on  the  Rio  Grande. 

"In  view  of  these  representations,  it  is  respectfully  suggested  whether  it  would 
not  be  advisable  to  bring  to  the  notice  of  the  Mexican  authorities  the  exemption  of 
that  section  of  the  country  lying  in  immediate  proximity  to  the  United  States,  from 
customs  duties,  and  exactions  which,  so  far  as  I  am  advised,  are  enforced  throughout 
the  residue  of  the  republic,  thus  inviting  importation  of  merchandise  with  a  view  to  its 
introduction  into  the  United  States  without  the  payment  of  duty,  and  imposing  a  heavy 
expense  on  the  United  States  Government  for  the  protection  of  the  revenue  on  that 
frontier,  without  any  corresponding  benefit  to  Mexico,  that  I  can  perceive,  which  would 
justify  a  measure  so  injurious  to  a  neighboring  and  friendly  power. 
"  I  am,  very  respectfully, 

"  H.  McCulloch,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury. 

"  Hon.  William  H.  Seward, 
"  Secretary  of  State." 


456  Ubc  /IDcjicau  ifrec  Zone, 

challenged,  to  bring  things  back  to  their  true  condition,  the  result  often 
being  not  only  unpleasant,  but  highly  dangerous. 

Adverse  Action  of  the  United  States  Congress  on  the  Free  Zone. — The 
mistaken  opinion  that  prevailed  regarding  the  Free  Zone  was  naturally 
reflected  in  Congress.  As  early  as  June  9,  1868,  Mr.  Blaine  introduced 
in  the  House  of  Representatives  a  resolution,'  which  passed  by  unan- 
imous consent,  instructing  the  Committee  on  Foreign  Affairs  to  inquire 
whether  the  action  of  the  Mexican  Government  in  establishing  the  free 
ports  at  Matamoros  and  other  points  on  the  Rio  Grande  was  not  in 
violation  of  treaty  stipulations  and  unfriendly  to  the  commercial  rights 
of  this  country. 

The  Committee  on  Foreign  Affairs  called  on  the  State  Department 
for  a  copy  of  the  papers  relating  to  the  subject  of  Mr.  Blaine's  resolu- 
tion, and  Mr.  Seward  sent  to  General  Banks,  chairman  of  that  commit- 
tee, such  letters  from  Mr.  Plumb  and  other  diplomatic  representatives 
of  the  United  States  in  the  City  of  Mexico,  as  were  in  possession  of  the 
State  Department,  with  his  letters  of  December  17,  1868,  and  January 
2,  1869.  With  his  clear  mind,  Mr.  Seward  understood  at  once,  even 
with  the  meagre  information  then  at  hand,  that  Mexico  had  violated 
no  right  of  the  United  States  in  establishing  the  Free  Zone,  and  in  his 
letter  accompanying  the  correspondence  in  answer  to  the  queries  of  the 
resolution  he  said  :  "  I  am  under  the  impression  that  the  establishment 
of  the  Free  Zone,  so-called,  is  not  at  variance  with  any  existing  treaty 
stipulation  between  the  United  States  and  the  Mexican  Republic." 

After  receiving  the  preceding  letter  the  committee  failed  to  make  any 
report  on  Mr.  Blaine's  resolution. 

On  December  6,  1869,  a  meeting  was  held  in  the  city  of  Browns- 
ville, Texas,  largely  attended  by  citizens  of  that  city  and  the  adjoining 
country,  and  the  meeting  appointed  Edward  Downey,  Mayor  of 
Brownsville,  a  delegate  to  come  to  Washington  to  ask  Congress  that 
measures  be  taken  to  procure  from  the  Mexican  Government  the  aboli- 
tion of  the  Free  Zone,  with  a  view  to  prevent  smuggling  into  the  United 
States,  and  for  the  protection  of  Aj-upxjca^n  interests  on  the  fmntjer. 

Mr.  Downey,  therefore,  came  to  Washington  and  addressed  a  long 
memorial  to  Congress  dated  January  10,  1870,*  in  which  he  repeated 
the  assertions  of  Mr.  Belden,  that  the  Free  Zone  had  been  established 

*  House  of  Representatives  Journal,  2d  Session,  Fortieth  Congress,  p.  827. 

^^  Resolved,  That  the  Committee  on  Foreign  Affairs  be  instructed  to  inquire 
whether  the  action  of  the  Mexican  Government  in  establishing  free  ports  at  Matamoros 
and  other  points  on  the  Rio  Grande  is  not  in  violation  of  treaty  stipulations  and  un- 
friendly to  the  commercial  rights  of  this  country." 

'■'  Mr.  Downey's  memorial  is  published  as  Senate  Miscellaneous  Document  No. 
19,  Forty-first  Congress,  2d  Session,  and  being  a  lengthy  paper  and  full  of  errors  and 
misrepresentations,  I  will  not  insert  it  here. 


Zbc  /IDesican  jfree  Zone.  457 

by  the  Mexican  Government  as  an  act  of  hostility  to  the  United  States, 
and  for  the  main  purpose  of  encouraging  the  smuggling  of  foreign 
goods  into  this  country,  adding  that  the  Free  Zone  was  the  out- 
come of  the  efforts  of  European  merchants  on  the  Mexican  side  of  the 
frontier  ;  that  during  the  War  of  Rebellion  the  Mexican  Government 
sympathized  with  the  Southern  Confederacy,  and  to  assist  it  Mexico 
had  reduced  to  one  fourth  the  duties  on  munitions  of  war  for  the  bene- 
}  fit  of  the  Confederates,  an  assertion  entirely  at  variance  with  the  facts. 
He  stated  that  the  loss  suffered  by  the  United  States  Treasury  in  con- 
sequence of  the  smuggling  carried  on  by  the  Free  Zone,  was  estimated 
from  one  to  six  millions  of  dollars  a  year,  and  asserted  that  the  Free 
Zone  had  been  extended  through  the  whole  Mexican  frontier  with  the 
United  States,  when  that  extension  did  not  take  place  until  1885. 
How  far  was  correct  the  assertion  regarding  the  supi)osed  sympathy  of 
the  Mexican  Government  with  the  Confederates  will  appear  from  what 
I  have  already  stated,  and  from  the  farts  that  I  will  mention  in  consid- 
ering Senator  Patterson's  report,  which  accepted  the  same  assertion. 
This  memorial  was  referred  to  the  joint  Select  Committee  on  Retrench- 
ment, which  did  not  take  any  action  on  the  same.  Fortunately  a 
remarkable  change  of  feeling  has  taken  place  in  Brownsville  in  so  far 
as  the  Free  Zone  is  concerned,  as  will  be  seen  farther  on. 

Public  men  in  the  United  States,  or  at  least  some  of  them,  had 
been  for  some  time  under  the  impression  that  the  way  to  abolish  the 
Free  Zone  was  to  repeal  the  acts  which  allowed  foreign  merchandise  to 
go  in  bond  to  frontier  custom-houses,  as  if  Mexico  was  very  anxious, 
which  was  by  no  means  the  case,  that  the  border  towns  of  the  United 
States  should  enjoy  that  privilege,  and  this  accounts  for  the  efforts 
made  to  repeal  such  acts,  which  were  always  unsuccessful  until  Mr. 
Cockrell  passed  his  bill,  to  which  I  will  presently  refer. 

In  accordance  with  this  view.  Senator  Patterson,  of  New  Hamp- 
shire, introduced  on  April  9,  1870,  in  the  second  session  of  the  Forty- 
first   Congress,    a   bill '    to    repeal   all   existing   laws   authorizing   the 

'  Forty-first  Congress,  2d  Session  (Senate,  783).  In  the  Senate  of  the  United 
States,  April  g,  1870,  Mr.  Patterson  asked,  and  by  unanimous  consent  obtained,  leave 
to  bring  in  the  following  bill,  which  was  read  twice,  referred  to  the  joint  Select  Com- 
mittee on  Retrenchment,  and  ordered  to  be  printed  : 

"A  Bill  to  repeal  all  existing  laws  authorizing  the  transportation  and  exportation 
of  goods,  wares,  and  merchandise  in  bond  to  Mexico,  overland  or  by  inland  waters, 
and  for  other  purposes. 

"  Be  it  enacted  by  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  of  the  United  States 
of  America  in  Congress  assembled,  Sec.  i.  That  all  existing  laws  authorizing  the  trans- 
portation and  exportation  of  goods,  wares,  and  merchandise  in  bond  to  Mexico,  over- 
land or  by  inland  waters,  be  and  the  same  are  hereby  repealed. 

"  Sec.  2.  And  be  it  further  enacted.  That  all  existing  provisions  of  law  authoriz- 
ing the  payment  of  drawback  upon  goods,  wares,  and  merchandise  exported  from  the 


458  XTbe  /iDeiican  jFree  Eonc, 

transportation  and  exportation  of  goods,  wares,  and  merchandise  in 
bond  to  Mexico  overland,  or  by  inland  waters,  and  for  other  purposes, 
which  was  referred  to  the  joint  Select  Committee  on  Retrenchment. 

That  committee  reported  favorably  to  the  Senate  Mr.  Patterson's 
bill  on  May  i6,  1870.  The  report  was  presented  by  Mr.  Patterson 
himself,  and  shows  a  complete  misunderstanding  of  the  case.  It 
repeats  the  charges  made  by  Mr.  Belden,  Mr.  Downey  and  others, 
giving  them,  on  account  of  Mr.  Patterson's  position,  a  great  deal  more 
importance  than  they  had  before.  It  assumes  that  the  establishment 
of  the  Free  Zone  in  Mexico  was  a  hostile  act  against  the  United  States, 
decreed  for  the  purpose  of  defrauding  her  revenues,  that  the  Mexican 
Government  had  sympathized  with  the  rebellion,  and  had,  for  the  ])ur- 
pose  of  assisting  it,  altered  her  revenue  laws,  with  a  view  to  allowing 
contraband  trade  through  Mexican  territory;  both  statements  being 
entirely  incorrect. 

The  idea  that  the  Mexican  Government  sympathized  with  the  so- 
called  Southern  Confederacy  and  assisted  it  materially  is  simply  pre- 
posterous, as  everybody  knows  that  Louis  Napoleon,  availing  himself 
of  the  civil  war  in  the  United  States,  tried  to  establish  an  European 
empire  in  Mexico,  with  the  ultimate  purpose  of  acquiring  a  foothold 
in  that  country,  and  the  Mexican  people  and  the  Mexican  Government 
were  therefore  as  anxious  as  the  most  patriotic  of  the  Union  men  in 
this  country  to  have  the  Union  restored,  if  for  no  other  reason  than 
to  obtain  the  restoration  of  the  republic  in  Mexico,  and  the  soundness 
of  these  views  was  fully  confirmed  by  the  subsequent  facts. 

I  have  reviewed  carefully  all  the  laws  and  regulations  issued  by  the 
Federal  Government  of  Mexico  from  1861  to  1865,  while  the  civil  war 
lasted  in  the  United  States,  and  the  only  act  that  I  find  concerning 
either  cotton  or  commerce  with  the  Southern  States,  is  one  issued  by 
President  Juarez,  under  extraordinary  powers  at  San  Luis  Potosi,  on 
July  28,  1863,  for  the  purpose  of  establishing  an  additional  duty  of  one 
cent  per  pound  on  national,  and  two  cents  per  pound  on  foreign 
raw  cotton,  to  be  paid  at  the  place  of  consumption;  and  that  duty,  far 
from  being  a  discrimination  in  favor  of  the  Confederates,  was,  in  the 
nature  of  things,  a  heavy  tax  on  their  principal  product. 

Under  the  regulations  of  the  Free  Zone,  all  goods  that  came  to  the 

United  States  to  ports  or  places  in  Mexico  north  of  parallel  twenty-three  degrees  thirty 
minutes  north  latitude,  or  the  cancellation  of  bonds  given  for  the  exportation  and  land- 
ing of  goods,  wares,  and  merchandise  at  such  ports  and  places  be,  and  the  same  are 
hereby  repealed  ;  and  all  authority  to  issue  certificates  in  respect  to  the  landing  and 
delivery  of  goods,  wares,  and  merchandise,  conferred  by  law  upon  merchants  and  con- 
suls of  the  United  States  resident  at  places  in  Mexico  north  of  said  parallel,  is  hereby 
revoked." 

Passed"  the  Senate  without  amendment,  June  i),  1870,  but  Jailed  in  the  House  of 
Representatives. 


Zbc  /IDejican  jfree  ^onc,  459 

same  were  free  of  import  duties,  and  only  paid  them  when  they  were 
taken  outside  of  the  Free  Zone  to  be  imported  into  Mexico.  Any  cotton 
imported  into  Mexico  from  the  United  States  or  from  any  other  country, 
therefore,  which  did  not  go  outside  of  the  limits  of  the  Free  Zone,  was 
not  liable  to  the  payment  of  duties,  and  could  be  freely  exported.  Gen- 
eral Vidaurri,  who  in  1861  was  the  Governor  and  Military  Commandant 
of  the  State  of  Nuevo  Leon,  with  authority  over  Coahuila  and  Tamau- 
lipas,  issued  an  order,  on  April  5,  1862,  levying  transit  duties  of  one 
cent  per  pound  upon  all  cotton  which  had  come  free  of  duty  to  the 
Free  Zone  and  was  re-exported  from  the  same.'  The  only  object  of 
General  Vidaurri  was,  of  course,  to  obtain  revenue  for  his  state  gov- 
ernment, and  not  to  assist  in  the  exportation  of  cotton  through  the 
Mexican  frontier.  If  anybody  had  any  right  to  complain  of  that  duty 
it  was  the  officials  and  the  people  of  the  so-called  Confederate  States, 
as  the  duty  was  a  charge  upon  their  main  product,  which  at  the  time 
had  a  very  high  price,  and  was  almost  their  only  export  abroad.  I  un- 
derstand that  even  that  duty  was  later  increased  to  i^  cents  per  pound, 
but  I  have  not  been  able  to  find  the  act  establishing  that  increase. 

Senator  Patterson  could  not  have  understood  fully  the  nature  of  the 
Free  Zone  and  the  conditions  of  the  case,  as  otherwise  I  do  not  think 
he  would  have  found  fault  with  the  Mexican  officials  for  not  forbidding 
the  export  of  foreign  cotton  through  Mexican  ports.  As  no  inter- 
national law  or  act  of  comity  could  prevent  the  transit  of  such  mer- 
chandise through  Mexico,  for  the  sole  reason  that  the  Southern  States 
of  this  country  had  rebelled  against  the  Federal  Government,  the 
Government  of  Mexico  could  not  close  its  ports  to  the  exportation  of 
goods  from  the  Southern  States;  and  to  do  so,  would  have  been 
equivalent  to  an  alliance  with  the  United  States  against  the  Southern 
States,  and  although  the  Federal  Government  of  Mexico  desired  at 
heart  the  success  of  the  Union,  especially  for  the  reason  that  its  success 

'  I  give  below  the  order  of  General  Vidaurri  which  created  a  tax  on  foreign  cotton 
exported  from  Matamoros  : 

"  Military  Department  of  Tamaulipas. 

"Taking  into  consideration  the  increased  expenses  that  have  to  be  incurred  by 
merchants  dealing  in  cotton  who  bring  this  article  in  order  to  re-export  it,  and  it  being 
desirable  to  increase,  if  possible,  the  arrival  at  this  port  of  merchant  vessels,  I  have 
deemed  it  proper  to  grant,  in  view  of  the  petition  presented  for  such  purpose  by  the 
American  citizen,  J.  A.  Quintero,  that  hereafter  all  cotton  imported  to  be  re-exported 
shall  pay  as  the  only  and  entire  duty  the  sum  of  one  dollar  per  quintal  or  hundred- 
weight. I  communicate  the  same  to  you  so  that  it  may  be  duly  complied  with,  and  I 
renew  you  the  assurances  of  my  esteem. 

"  God  and  Liberty.     MONTEREY,  ^/r//  f,  1S62. 

"(Signed)  Santiago  Vidaurri. 
"  To  the  Citizen  Collector  of  the  Maritime  and 
Frontier  Custom-House  of  Matamoros." 


46o  Zbc  /iDejican  jfrcc  Zone, 

insured  the  prompt  end  of  the  French  intervention  in  Mexico,  it  would 
not  have  been  justified  in  taking  that  step. 

Senator  Patterson's  Bill,  reported  favorably  and  without  amendment 
by  the  Joint  Committee  on  Retrencliment,  on  May  i6,  1870,'  passed 
the  Senate  without  amendment,   on  June  9,  1870.     In  the  House  of 

'  Forty-first  Congress,  2d  Session.  Senate  Report  A^o.  166.  In  the  Senate  of 
the  United  States,  May  16,  1870.  Ordered  to  be  printed.  Mr.  Patterson  made  the 
following  report.     (To  accompany  Bill  S.  No.  783.) 

"The  Joint  Select  Committee  on  Retrenchment,  to  whom  was  referred  Senate 
bill  No.  7S3,  '  to  repeal  all  existing  laws  authorizing  the  transportation  and  ex- 
portation of  goods,  wares,  and  merchandise  in  bond  to  Mexico  overland,  or  by  inland 
waters,  and  for  other  purposes,'  having  considered  the  same,  respectfully  submit  the 
following  report : 

"  The  object  of  the  bill  is  to  protect,  so  far  as  it  can  be  done  by  legislation  on  our 
part,  the  revenue  of  the  United  States  and  the  interests  of  our  frontier  bordering  on 
the  Rio  Grande  from  the  losses  and  injuries  resulting  from  the  facilities  for  smuggling 
afforded  by  the  laws  which  it  is  proposed  to  repeal,  and  by  the  existence  of  the  Zona 
Libre,  or  Free  Belt,  on  the  Mexican  side  of  the  Rio  Grande. 

"  Prior  to  1858  the  American  towns  enjoyed  greater  commercial  advantages  and 
were  much  more  thrifty  and  populous  than  their  Mexican  neighbors  on  the  opposite 
side  of  the  river. 

"  By  the  act  of  August  30,  1S52,  the  transportation  to  Mexico  of  goods  in  bond 
was  permitted  by  certain  routes  specified  in  the  act,  and  by  such  others  as  the  Secretary 
of  the  Treasury  might  prescribe.  This  enabled  American  merchants  to  store  larger 
quantities  of  goods  in  our  bonded  warehouses,  until  a  favorable  opportunity  arrived  to 
withdraw  them  for  consumption  or  for  exportation  in  bond  to  Mexico. 

"  It  is  simply  an  impossibility  to  prevent  smuggling  on  such  a  line  as  that  formed 
by  the  Rio  Grande,  so  long  as  a  sufficient  inducement  to  smuggle  exists,  and  doubtless, 
at  that  time,  there  was  considerable  smuggling  from  the  American  side  of  the  river,'  to 
the  detriment  of  the  revenue  of  Mexico  and  the  legitimate  commerce  of  her  merchants, 
who  were  unable  to  compete  successfully  with  those  whose  goods  had  paid  only  the 
lower  rate  of  duty  then  required  at  the  American  ports,  or  having  been  exported  from 
the  United  States  in  bond  and  smuggled  into  Mexico,  had  escaped  payment  of  duties 
to  either  nation. 

"  On  the  28th  day  of  December,  1S57,  the  legislature  of  the  State  of  Tamaulipas 
passed  an  act  creating  the  Zona  Libre,  which  was  promulgated  March  17,  1858,  by 
decree  of  Ramon  Guerra,  then  provisional  governor  of  Tamaulipas.  The  immense 
amount  of  smuggling  on  the  Rio  Grande,  and  the  necessity  for  the  repeal  of  our  laws 
authorizing  the  exportation  of  goods  in  bond  to  Mexico,  are  mainly  in  consequence  of 
that  act. 

"As  the  Zona  Libre  promises  to  be  a  matter  of  considerable  interest  to  the 
country,  we  give  the  decree,  establishing  it  in  full  in  the  appendix  to  this  report ;  also 
the  testimony  of  competent  witnesses  showing  its  effects  on  our  revenue  and  the  pros- 
perity of  the  frontier. 

"  The  object  of  the  act  is  clearly  shown  in  the  preamble,  where  it  is  recited  '  that 
the  villages  on  the  northern  frontier  are  found  in  a  really  ruinous  state,'  and  that  the 
decree  is  issued  '  that  they  may  not  be  entirely  depopulated  by  emigration  to  the 
neighboring  country.' 

"  By  the  first  article  of  the  decree  foreign  goods  are  admitted  to  Matamoros  and 
other  towns  in  the  State  of  Tamaulipas  on  the  Rio  Grande,  free  of  duty,  except  such 


I 


^be  /IDejican  iFree  Zone.  461 

Representatives  it  was  referred  to  the  Committee  on  Commerce,  but  it 
was  not  reported  by  that  Committee,  and  consequently  failed. 

Senator  Reagan,  from  Texas,  following  in  the  footsteps  of  Senator 

as  might  be  imposed  for  local  purposes,  which  were  mainly  municipal  and  trifling  in 
amount. 

"Article  second  invites  merchants  established  on  the  American  bank  of  the  river 
to  transfer  their  business  and  effects  to  the  other  side,  and  grants  special  facilities  and 
privileges  for  doing  so.  The  other  articles  are  mainly  occupied  with  the  regulations 
for  the  transfer  of  merchandise  from  the  Zona  Lih-e  to  the  interior  of  Mexico. 

"  That  the  result  of  this  decree  was  not  unanticipated  by  its  authors  is  clearly 
shown  in  Article  eighth,  in  which  the  inhabitants  are  invoked  '  to  impede,  by  every 
means  in  their  power,  the  conversion  of  this  benefit  granted  to  them  into  a  shameless 
contraband  traffic' 

"  The  purpose  of  the  act  was  evidently  to  build  up  the  Mexican  towns  at  the 
expense  of  their  American  neighbors,  which  was  to  be  accomplished  by  furnishing  to 
smugglers,  for  hundreds  of  miles  along  a  frontier  that  it  is  impossible  to  guard,  a  safe 
and  convenient  place  of  deposit  for  goods  which  they  received  free  of  duty,  until  a 
convenient  opportunity  should  occur  to  smuggle  them  into  the  United  States.  The 
inevitable  result  was  the  destruction  of  the  commerce  and  prosperity  of  the  American 
towns,  and  great  frauds,  estimated  at  from  $2,000,000  to  $6,000,000  per  annum,  on 
the  revenue  of  the  United  States. 

"  The  general  government  of  Mexico  hesitated  to  approve  an  act  so  hostile  to  the 
interests  of  a  friendly  nation  ;  and  it  was  not  until  July  30,  1861,  when  Texas  was  in 
the  possession  of  the  so-called  Confederate  States,  to  whom  the  Zona  Libre  would  be 
of  great  advantage,  that  it  received  the  sanction  of  President  Juarez. 

"  During  the  war  the  towns  of  the  Zona  Libre  furnished  free  ports  of  entry  for  the 
Confederates,  through  which  they  exported  their  cotton,  and  received  in  return  large 
supplies  of  arms  and  other  munitions  of  war.  The  Mexican  Government,  while  pro- 
fessing friendship  for  the  United  States,  sympathized  with  the  rebels,  and  aided  them 
by  every  means  in  its  power.  It  modified  its  customs  regulations  so  as  to  facilitate 
the  exportation  of  cotton  and  the  return  of  war  material ;  and  while  the  Confederate 
ports  were  blockaded  by  our  cruisers,  permitted  merchandise  and  munitions  of  war, 
imported  into  the  Zona  Libre,  to  be  transferred  to  the  Confederacy  at  one-fourth  the 
rate  of  duty  required  on  the  same  articles  when  shipped  to  other  countries,  or  even 
taken  to  other  places  in  Mexico.  Under  the  guise  of  friendship  and  neutrality  the 
Mexican  Government  did  us  more  harm  during  the  late  war  than  it  could  have  done  if 
openly  hostile  ;  for  in  that  case  we  could  have  easily  blockaded  the  mouth  of  the  Rio 
Grande,  and  have  completely  cut  off  that  great  source  of  Confederate  supplies. 

"  Since  the  close  of  the  war  the  Zona  Libre  has  served  as  a  base  from  which  smug- 
gling into  the  United  States  can  be  safely  carried  on.  The  American  towns  have 
decayed,  and  the  Mexican  towns  have  flourished  in  proportion,  so  that  instead  of  being 
in  a  '  really  ruinous  state,'  and  liable  to  be  '  entirely  depopulated  by  emigration  to  the 
neighboring  country,'  as  they  were  in  1S58,  they  contained  in  1868  a  population  more 
than  three  times  as  large  as  that  of  their  American  neighbors,  that  ten  years  before 
were  threatening  to  absorb  them.  Honest  merchants,  unable  to  compete  with  the 
smugglers,  have  been  compelled  to  abandon  the  country  or  to  engage  in  illicit  trade 
themselves,  and  the  whole  community  on  both  sides  of  the  river  has  become  so  thor- 
oughly demoralized  that  smuggling  is  generally  considered  a  legitimate  and  honorable 
business.  The  desperate  characters  whom  this  condition  of  things  has  attracted  or 
created,  plunder  private  citizens  as  well  as  defraud  the  government,  and  frequently 
make  raids  into  Texas  and  drive  large  herds  of  cattle  across  the  river  into  Mexico.     It 


462  Xlbe  /iDejican  dfrce  Zone, 

Patterson,  introduced  in  the  Senate  of  the  United  States,  on  January 
6,  1890,  a  Bill  to  prevent  the  transportation  of  merchandise  in  bond 

is  estimated  by  well-informed  men  that  the  loss  by  these  raids  is  sometimes  as  high  as 
two  hundred  thousand  head  a  year. 

"  The  prosperity  of  the  whole  frontier  is  paralyzed  by  the  existence  of  the  Zona 
Libre.  The  revenue  of  Mexico  suffers  as  well  as  our  own.  By  the  decree  of  Ramon 
Guerra,  only  goods  consumed  in  the  Zona  Libre  were  exempted  from  duty  ;  but, 
although  the  importations  exceed  many  times  the  amount  that  can  be  consumed  by  the 
population  of  that  territory,  the  custom-houses  collect  barely  enough  to  pay  their  own 
expenses. 

"  The  Secretary  of  the  Treasurj'  of  Mexico,  in  his  Report,  published  in  the  fall 
of  1669,  says  : 

"  'Another  of  the  causes  which  have  contributed  most  powerfully  to  diminish  the 
product  of  the  public  rents,  and  especially  that  of  importation  duties,  has  been  the 
institution  of  the  Free  Zone,  enjoyed  by  the  frontier  of  Tamaulipas.  The  establish- 
ment of  this  institution,  owing  in  the  beginning  to  the  desire  of  favoring  the  frontier 
population  of  Tamaulipas,  constitutes  an  exception  which  can  with  difficulty  be  sus- 
tained according  to  good  economical  principles,  and  which  has  given  and  will  still  give 
margin  for  abuses  and  frauds  of  importance  by  which  suffer  greatly  the  comm.erce  of 
good  faith  and  the  Federal  exchequer.' 

"  Soon  after  the  restoration  of  order,  the  attention  of  the  Mexican  Government 
was  called  to  the  injuries  resulting  to  both  countries  from  the  existence  of  the  Zona 
Libre,  and  to  the  unfriendly  spirit  shown  by  enacting  for  the  territory  bordering  on 
our  frontier  different  customs  regulations  from  those  which  existed  in  other  parts  of 
the  country,  by  which  the  enforcement  of  our  laws  and  the  prevention  of  frauds  on  our 
revenue  were  made  impossible.  The  President  and  heads  of  the  executive  departments 
admitted  the  justice  of  our  complaints,  and  gave  reason  to  hope  that  the  decree  estab- 
lishing the  Zona  Libre  would  be  abrogated  at  the  next  session  of  Congress.  No  action 
was  taken  by  the  Mexican  Congress  until  December  last,  when,  instead  of  abrogating 
the  decree,  they  extended  it  so  as  to  include  the  States  of  Nuevo  Leon  and  Coahuila. 

"The  following  extract  from  an  article  which  appeared  in  La  Cronica,  March 
18,  1870,  and  which  it  is  understood  was  written  by  a  distinguished  member  of  the 
Mexican  Congress,  will  show  the  spirit  in  which  this  extension  was  made  and  the 
manner  in  which  the  Zona  Libre  is  regarded  by  the  enlightened  statesmen  of  Mexico : 

"  '  The  newspapers  of  the  United  States  are  full  of  complaints  against  the  institu- 
tion of  the  Free  Zone  on  our  northern  frontier.  The  evils  resulting  therefrom  to  the 
treasury  and  the  commerce  of  their  country  are  serious,  and  they  denounce  the  measure 
as  contrary  to  the  reciprocity  which  should  exist  between  the  two  countries.  For  our- 
selves, from  the  time  the  establishment  of  the  Free  Zone  was  discussed  in  Congress,  it 
never  seemed  to  us  a  measure  favorable  to  the  interests  of  Mexico,  and  we  believed 
further  that  it  would  tend  to  destroy  the  relations  of  friendship  existing  between  the 
two  nations. 

"  '  We  remember  that  Congress  was  deluded  by  the  assurance  that  the  institution 
of  the  Free  Zone  injured  the  commerce  of  the  United  States,  and  for  this  reason  favored 
the  interests  of  Mexico.  We  admit  the  former  proposition,  but  are  far  from  expecting 
that  the  latter  will  prove  true.  We  do  believe,  after  having  studied  the  question,  that 
the  Free  Zone  injures  both  nations  ;  the  United  States,  because  all  that  frontier  being 
a  free  port,  the  merchants  of  the  American  side  will  come  to  our  territory  to  store 
their  goods,  and  watch  for  an  opportunity  to  introduce  them  in  a  clandestine  manner 
into  Texas.  Thus  Mexico  will  be  in  the  position  of  a  person  who  injures  himself  and 
at  the  same  time  injures  his  neighbor. 


XLbc  /IDejican  jfree  Xonc,  463 

through  the  ports  and  territory  of  the  United  States  into  the  Repub- 
lic of  Mexico,  and  to  restore  that  privilege  whenever  the  Zomi 
Libre   along  the  boundary  line  between   the   two  countries  shall  be 

"  '  It  was  said  in  Congress  that  Mexico  was  free  to  dictate  her  own  laws.  No- 
body can  doubt  that  she  has  this  right,  but  neither  can  we  disregard  the  obligations 
imposed  upon  nations  by  natural  law  not  to  make  themselves  bad  neighbors,  one  to 
the  other.' 

"With  a  knowledge  of  the  course  pursued  by  Mexico  during  the  war  and  of  the 
feeling  toward  the  United  States  which  now  animates  the  majority  of  her  Congress,  it 
is  useless  to  expect  anything  from  her  friendship  or  her  justice. 

"  We  must  depend  wholly  on  ourselves  and  must  protect  our  revenue  by  the  best 
means  in  our  power.  This  can  be  partially  effected  by  the  passage  of  the  proposed 
Bill.  Large  quantities  of  merchandise  are  transported  in  bond  from  other  parts  of  the 
United  States,  mainly  from  Indianola,  Galveston,  and  Corpus  Christi,  to  the  bank  of 
the  Rio  Grande,  and  ostensibly  crossed  over  into  Mexico.  Of  this  the  certificate  of  an 
American  consul,  or,  where  there  is  no  consul,  that  of  two  merchants,  is  considered 
sufficient  evidence,  and  on  the  return  of  such  a  certificate  the  bond  is  cancelled. 
Where  nearly  all  the  inhabitants  are  engaged  in  smuggling,  such  certificates  are  not 
difficult  to  obtain.  No  inconsiderable  portion  of  those  goods  ever  cross  the  river, 
but  after  proceeding  for  a  few  miles  in  the  direction  of  the  place  to  which  they  are 
professedly  destined,  they  are  carried  into  the  chaparral,  taken  from  the  original  pack- 
ages, and  thereafter  transported  with  perfect  impunity  into  the  interior.  After  the 
requisite  time  the  certificate  that  they  have  been  landed  in  Mexico  is  returned,  signed, 
as  required,  by  two  merchants,  and  the  bond  is  cancelled.  Sometimes  the  goods  are 
actually  carried  across  the  river,  but  the  greater  portion  soon  find  their  way  back  into 
the  United  States  without  the  payment  of  duties. 

"  The  Northern  States  of  Mexico  are  mainly  dependent  for  their  supplies  on  goods 
transported  in  bond  across  a  portion  of  our  territory. 

"The  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  has  lately  issued  orders  discontinuing  routes 
designated  by  the  Treasury  Department  pursuant  to  the  provisions  of  the  Act  of 
August  30,  1852.  By  the  passage  of  the  proposed  bill  the  other  routes  authorized  by 
that  act  will  be  closed,  and  the  transit  trade  in  bond,  with  all  the  smuggling  resulting 
therefrom,  entirely  stopped. 

"  The  cost  of  supplies  for  the  Northern  States  of  Mexico  will  be  increased  by  the 
expense  of  transportation  over  long,  difficult,  and  unsafe  routes,  or,  if  received  by  the 
same  routes  as  at  present,  by  the  addition  of  the  United  States  duty,  which  must  then 
be  paid,  so  that  it  will  be  for  the  interest  of  the  people  of  those  States  to  join  with  the 
party  already  opposed  to  the  Zona  Libre  in  demanding  its  abolishment. 

"The  passage  of  the  proposed  bill  will  prevent  smuggling,  so  far  as  it  is  per- 
petrated under  cover  of  our  laws  authorizing  the  exportation  of  goods  in  bond,  but  it 
will  not  prevent  the  smuggling  into  the  United  States  of  goods  originally  imported 
into  Mexico,  and  will  therefore  prove  only  a  partial  remedy.  No  effectual  prevention 
of  smuggling  across  the  Rio  Grande  can  be  devised,  except  such  as  will  require  the 
concurrent  action  of  Mexico. 

"  The  State  Department  has  been  in  correspondence  with  the  Mexican  Govern- 
ment for  two  years  past  in  relation  to  the  Zona  Libre,  and,  although  the  President  and 
executive  officers  of  that  Government  have  expressed  their  sense  of  its  injurious  effects 
on  both  countries,  and  their  desire  for  its  abolishment,  the  only  practical  result  has 
been,  as  was  before  stated,  its  extension  by  Congress  over  two  more  States. 

"  The  hope  of  successful  negotiations  seems  to  have  been  exhausted.     In  viola- 


464  Ubc  /IDejican  iTree  Zone, 

abolished,'  which  was  referred  to  the  Committee  on  Commerce,  and 
reported  adversely  on  June  25,  1890,  by  Mr.  Cullom  of  that  Commit- 
tee, and  after  being  debated  was  recommitted  on  July  i,  1890.  Senator 
Reagan  was  not  satisfied  with  that  decision,  and  on  the  same  day,  July 
I,  1890,  he  presented  substantially  the  same  Bill  with  only  a  few  verbal 
alterations,  as  an  amendment  to  Senate  Bill  1642,'  which  was  referred 

tion  of  her  own  Constitution,  which  prohibits  the  enactment  of  revenue  laws  unequal 
in  their  efifect,  Mexico  still  persists  in  maintaining  along  our  frontier  a  belt  of  territory 
to  which  goods  are  admitted  free,  while  imports  to  all  other  portions  of  the  country 
are  required  to  pay  a  heavy  duty.  Unfriendly  is  the  mildest  term  by  which  such  con- 
duct can  be  characterized.  A  due  consideration  for  the  protection  of  our  own  interests 
may  render  other  measures  requisite  to  induce  Mexico  to  regard  the  comity  of  nations, 
and  observe  toward  us  such  a  course  of  conduct  as  is  essential  to  the  maintenance  of 
friendly  relations  between  neighboring  countries.  In  so  delicate  and  important  a 
matter,  the  Committee  offer  no  suggestions,  but  simply  report  the  facts  connected  with 
the  existence  of  the  Zona  Libf-e  for  the  consideration  of  Congress,  and  recommend  the 
passage  of  the  i)roposed  Bill  without  amendment." 

'  Fifty-first  Congress,  ist  Session  (S.  1642).  In  the  Senate  of  the  United  States, 
January  6,  1890.  Mr.  Reagan  introduced  the  following  Bill,  which  was  read  twice 
and  referred  to  the  Committee  on  Commerce,  June  25,  1890.  Reported  by  Mr. 
Cullom  adversely. 

"  A  Bill  to  prevent  the  transportation  of  merchandise  in  bond  through  the  ports 
and  territory  of  the  United  States  into  the  Republic  of  Mexico,  and  to  restore  that 
privilege  v/henever  the  Zona  Libre  along  the  boundary  between  the  two  countries  shall 
be  abolished. 

"  Be  it  enacted  by  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  of  the  United  States 
of  America  in  Congress  assembled.  That  after  thirty  days  from  the  passage  of  this  act 
it  shall  be  unlawful  for  any  person,  firm,  or  corporation  to  transport  any  merchandise 
in  bond  through  the  ports  or  territory  of  the  United  States  into  the  territory  of  the 
Republic  of  Mexico  ;  and  any  person,  firm,  or  corporation  violating  the  provisions  of 
this  section  shall  be  liable  to  a  fine  of  not  less  than  one  thousand  dollars,  and  to 
imprisonment  for  a  term  not  exceeding  one  year. 

"  Sec.  2.  That  if  the  Republic  of  Mexico  shall  at  any  time  abolish  said  Zona 
Libre,  and  shall  give  notice  of  that  fact  to  the  President  of  the  United  States,  he  shall, 
upon  the  receipt  of  such  notice,  by  proclamation  restore  the  right  to  transport  mer- 
chandise through  the  ports  and  territorj'  of  the  United  States  in  bond  into  the  terri- 
tory of  the  Republic  of  Mexico  as  now  permitted  by  law." 

-  Fifty-first  Congress,  ist  Session.  (S.  1642.)  In  the  Senate  of  the  United 
States,  July  i,  1890.  Referred  to  the  Committee  on  Commerce  and  ordered  to  be 
printed. 

AMENDMENT 
Intended  to  be  proposed  by  Mr.  Reagan  to  the  Bill  (S.  1642)  to  prevent  the  trans- 
portation of  merchandise  in  bond  through  the  ports  and  territory  of  the  United  States 
into  the  Republic  of  Mexico,  and  to  restore  that  privilege  whenever  the  Zona  Libre 
along  the  boundary  between  the  two  countries  shall  be  abolished,  viz.,  strike  out  all 
after  the  enacting  clause  and  insert  the  following : 

"  That  after  thirty  days  from  the  passage  of  this  act  it  shall  be  unlawful  for  any 
person,  firm,  or  corporation  to  transport  any  merchandise  in  bond  through  the  ports 
or  territory  of  the  United  States  into  the  Zo7ia  Libre  or  Free  Zone  of  the  Republic  of 
Mexico  ;  and  any  person,  firm,  or  corporation  violating  the  provisions  of  this  section 


il 


XTbe  /IDejican  ifree  Zone.  465 

to  the  Committee  on  Commerce,  but  that  Committee  did  not  take  any- 
further  action  on  the  subject,  and  the  matter  rested  there. 

A  similar  measure  finally  passed  Congress  on  February  27,  1895, 
and  became  the  joint  resolution  signed  by  the  President  March  i, 
1895,  and  of  which  I  will  presently  speak. 

Marauding  on  the  Frontier. — The  close  connection  that  marauding 
on  the  frontier  had  with  the  Free-Zone  question  from  1872  to  1879, 
makes  it  necessary  to  say  a  few  words  about  this  incident. 

The  unsettled  condition  of  the  frontier  at  the  time  caused  maraud- 
ers to  prey  upon  both  sides  of  the  border,  Texas  often  being  the  victim; 
and  for  this  the  Mexican  Government  was  not  responsible,  but  on 
the  contrary  exerted  itself  as  far  as  it  could  to  prevent  and  punish 
such  offenders.  There  were  at  the  time  also  Indian  raids,  made 
especially  by  the  Indians  living  in  the  United  States,  which  at  times 
were  given  permission  to  leave  their  reservations  and  hunt  in  Mexico, 
where  they  committed  terrible  crimes,  from  which  sometimes  the  Texas 
settlements  suffered,  and  all  this  contributed  to  establish  a  condition 
of  unrest  on  the  frontier.  Members  of  Congress  from  Texas  thought 
very  likely  the  Mexican  Government  was  somewhat  responsible  for 
such  occurrences,  and  they  exerted  themselves  to  place  the  responsi- 
bility upon  Mexico. 

Mr,  John  Hancock;  a  Member  of  Congress  from  Texas,  succeeded 
in  having  a  joint '  resolution  passed  by  Congress,  which  was  approved 

shall  be  liable  to  a  fine  of  not  less  than  one  thousand  dollars  and  to  imprisonment  to  a 
term  not  exceeding  one  year.  But  this  act  shall  not  be  construed  to  prohibit  the 
transportation  of  such  merchandise  into  any  part  of  the  territory  of  Mexico  where 
duties  on  imports  are  required  to  be  paid  by  that  country  ;  and  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury  shall  make  such  rules  and  regulations  as  may  be  necessary  to  carry  into  effect 
the  provisions  of  this  act. 

"  Sec.  2.  That  if  the  Republic  of  Mexico  shall  at  any  time  abolish  said  Zona 
Libre,  and  shall  give  notice  of  that  fact  to  the  President  of  the  United  States,  he  sliall, 
upon  the  receipt  of  said  notice,  by  proclamation,  restore  the  riglit  to  transport  mer- 
chandise through  the  ports  and  territory  of  the  United  States  in  bond  into  any  port  of 
the  territory  of  the  Republic  of  Mexico  as  now  permitted  by  law." 

'  [Resolution  not  of  general  nature — No.  4.] 

Joint   Resolution  appointing  commissioners  to  inquire  into  depredations  on  the 
frontiers  of  the  State  of  Texas. 

Whereas  there  are  complaints  of  many  depredations  having  been  committed  for 
several  years  past  upon  the  frontiers  of  the  State  of  Texas,  by  bands  of  Indians  and 
Mexicans  who  crossed  the  Rio  Grande  River  into  the  State  of  Texas,  murdering  the 
inhabitants  or  carrying  them  into  captivity,  and  destroying  or  carrying  away  the 
property  of  the  citizens  of  said  State  ;  as  also  that  bands  of  Indians  have  committed 
and  continue  to  commit  like  depredations  on  the  property,  lives,  and  liberty  of  the 
citizens  along  the  northern  and  northwestern  frontiers  of  said  Stale  :  Therefore, 

Resolved  by  the  Senate  amt  House  of  l-ii-pi-eseiitatives  of  the  United  Slates  of 
America  in  Congress  assembled,  That  the  President  of  the  United  States  be,  and  he  is 


466  Ubc  /IDcrican  Jfrce  Zone. 

on  May  7,  1872,  to  appoint  a  Special  Commission  of  three  persons  to 
inquire  into  depredations  by  bands  of  Indians  and  Mexicans  who  crossed 
the  Rio  Grande  into  the  State  of  Texas,  and  in  pursuance  of  that  resolu- 
tion President  Grant  appointed  Messrs.  Thomas  P.  Robb,  Richard  H. 
Savage,  and  Thomas  O.  Osborn  as  commissioners  to  investigate  such 
depredations.  Mexico,  on  her  part,  appointed  a  similar  commission 
for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  the  marauding  which  had  taken  place 
in  her  territory. 

The  United  States  Commission  presented  in  1872  a  preliminary 
report,  which  was  submitted  to  Congress  by  President  Grant  with  his 
Message  of  December  16,  1872,  In  that  report  the  Commissioners 
said,  referring  to  the  Free  Zone,  as  follows  : 

*'  The  harassing  question  of  the  Zona  Libre,  it  does  not  fall  within  the  province 
of  the  Commissioners  to  examine,  but  they  feel  called  to  notice  the  extension  of  this 
Zone  in  opposition  to  the  most  friendly  remonstrances  of  the  United  States,  as  another 
evidence  of  the  spirit  which  has  characterized  the  policy  of  the  Mexican  Government 
in  its  dealings  with  the  United  States  for  a  series  of  years." 

What  has  already  been  said  about  the  extension  of  the  Free  Zone, 
shows  how  greatly  misinformed  were  the  United  States  Commissioners 
on  the  subject. 

The  final  report  of  the  Commission  made  on  June  30,  1873,  to  the 
Secretary  of  State  containing  no  })roposal  on  the  Free  Zone,  was  com- 
municated by  President  Grant  to  Congress  with  his  Message  of  May 
26,  1874. 

President  Grant,  in  his  Annnal  Message  of  December  7,  1874,  said 
in  reference  to  the  marauding  on  the  frontier  : 

"  .  .  ,  Marauding  on  the  frontier,  between  Mexico  and  Texas,  still  frequently 
takes  place  despite  the  vigilance  of  the  civil  and  military  authorities  in  that  quarter. 

hereby,  authorized  and  empowered  to  appoint  three  persons  to  act  as  commissioners 
to  inquire  into  the  extent  and  character  of  said  depredations,  by  whom  committed, 
their  residence,  or  country  inhabited  by  them,  the  persons  murdered  or  carried  into 
captivity,  the  character  and  value  or  the  property  destroyed  or  carried  away,  from 
what  portions  of  said  State,  and  to  whom  the  same  belonged. 

Sec.  2.  That  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  said  commissioners,  or  a  majority  of  them,  as 
soon  as  practicable,  to  proceed  to  the  frontiers  of  said  State  and  take  the  testimony, 
under  oath,  of  such  witnesses  as  may  appear  before  them,  after  having  given  notice 
for  ten  days  previous,  by  publication  in  the  nearest  newspaper,  of  the  time  and  place 
of  their  meeting,  of  all  such  depredations,  when,  where,  by,  and  upon  whom  com- 
mitted, and  shall  make  up  and  transmit  to  the  President  full  reports  of  their  said 
investigations. 

Sec.  3.  That  said  commissioners  shall  be  entitled  to  and  receive  as  compensation 
for  their  services,  the  sum  of  ten  dollars  per  day  each,  and  their  travelling  expenses 
to  each,  for  and  during  the  time  they  shall  be  engaged  in  said  service  ;  and  the  sum  of 
six  thousand  dollars,  or  so  much  thereof  as  may  be  necessary,  be,  and  the  same  is 
hereby  appropriated,  to  pay  the  expenses  of  said  investigation  and  said  commissioners. 

Approved,  May  7,  1872. 

% 


TLbc  /K)ejican  fvcc  Zone,  467 

.     .     It  is  hoped  that  the  efforts  of  this  Government  will  be  seconded  by  those  of 
Mexico  to  the  effectual  suppression  of  these  acts  of  wrong. 

Which  shows  that  in  President  Grant's  oi)inion  the  Mexican  frontier 
had  also  suffered  by  the  marauding. 

From  1876  to  1878  the  relations  between  Mexico  and  the  United 
States  were  in  a  critical  condition,  owing  especially  to  the  efforts  of 
Mr.  Gustav  Schleicher,  a  Member  of  Congress  from  the  Sixth  Dis- 
trict of  Texas,  born  in  Darmstadt,  Germany,  and  who  had  served  in 
the  House  of  Representatives  and  Senate  of  the  Texas  Legislature, 
having  been  elected  to  the  Forty-fourth  Congress  and  re-elected  to  the 
Forty-fifth  and  Forty-sixth  Congresses  of  the  United  States,  although 
he  died  before  the  beginning  of  his  last  term.  Guided  either  by  a 
great  zeal  to  serve  the  interests  of  his  State,  or  because  he  desired  to 
precipitate  some  trouble  with  Mexico,  he  exerted  himself  in  an  extra- 
ordinary manner  to  make  it  appear  that  Mexico  was  giving  great  cause 
of  offense  to  the  United  States,  and  that  this  country  had  to  take  the 
necessary  means,  even  at  the  cost  of  war,  to  stop  such  imaginary 
aggressions. 

On  January  6,  1876,  the  House  of  Representatives  passed  a  resolu- 
tion introduced  by  Mr.  Schleicher,  to  the  effect  : 

"That  the  portion  of  the  President's  Message  which  refers  to  the  inroads,  rob- 
beries, and  murders  along  the  Mexican  border  in  Texas  be  referred  to  a  Special  Com- 
mittee of  five  members,  with  instructions  to  inquire  into  the  causes  and  the  nature  and 
extent  of  these  depredations,  and  the  measures  that  might  prevent  their  continuance, 
with  power  to  send  for  persons  and  papers,  and  to  report  at  as  early  a  date  as 
possible." 

As  is  usual  in  such  cases,  Mr.  Schleicher  was  appointed  Chairman 
of  that  Special  Committee,  which  gave  him,  of  course,  a  commanding 
position  in  the  same. 

On  February  9, 1876,  the  Special  Committee  appointed  in  conformity 
with  the  resolution  approved  by  the  House  on  January  6th  submitted 
its  report,'  which  concerned  especially  the  raids  on  the  frontier. 

On  the  ist  of  November,  1877,  the  House  of  Representatives  passed 
a  resolution  introduced  by  Mr.  Schleicher,  asking  the  President  to 
communicate  to  the  House  any  information  in  his  possession  relative 
to  the  Mexican  border  in  Texas,  and  any  recent  violations  of  the  terri- 
tory of  the  United  States  by  incursions  by  Mexicans,  and  in  answer  to 
that  resolution  President  Hayes  sent  to  the  House,  with  his  message 
of  November  12,  1877,  reports  of  the  Secretaries  of  State  and  of  War, 
of  the  same  date,  with  their  accompanying  papers.  This  Message  was 
referred  by  the  House  to  the  Committee  of  Foreign  Affairs,  and  on 
December  loth  of  the  same  year  a  resolution  presented  by  Mr. 
Schleicher  was  adopted  by  the  House  of  Representatives,  referring  to 

'  Forty-third  Congress,  ist  Session.     House  of  Representatives  Ex.  Doc.  No.  257. 


46S  Tibc  /IDcjican  jfrce  Zone, 

the  same  Committee  so  much  of  the  Annual  Message  of  the  President 
of  the  United  States  to  the  two  Houses  of  Congress  at  that  ses.-iion, 
togetlier  with  the  accompanying  documents,  as  related  to  the  difticultics 
on  the  Rio  Grande  border. 

The  report  of  the  Committee  on  Foreign  Affairs  of  the  House  of 
Representatives  of  the  Forty-fifth  Congress,  2d  Session,  presented  on 
April  25,  1878,  by  Mr.  Schleicher,  accompanying  a  resolution  '  which 
was  equivalent  to  a  declaration  of  war  against  Mexico,  was  based, 
among  other  imaginary  insults,  on  the  supposition  that  the  Free  Zone 
in  Mexico  was  very  injurious  to  the  United  States,  and  its  establish- 
ment almost  an  act  of  hostility  on  the  part  of  Mexico. 

Mr.  Schleicher  died  at  Washington  on  January  10,  1879,  and  this 
incident  ended  with  him,  his  death  having  coincided  with  the  consoli- 
dation of  peace  in  Mexico. 

Joint  Resolution  of  March  i,  iSqj. — When  some  of  the  most  promi- 
nent men  of  the  United  States  misunderstood  the  scope  and  purpose  of 
the  Free  Zone,  it  is  not  strange  that  some  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  Texas 
border  should  have  done  so  also,  and  should,  for  that  reason,  have  shown 
a  strong  dislike  and  opposition  to  it.  Some  citizens  of  Texas,  living  on 
the  frontier,  and  prejudiced  against  the  Free  Zone,  presented  a  peti- 
tion, on  January  24,  1895,  to  the  Texas  Legislature,  which  was  after- 
wards approved  by  that  body,  in  the  shape  of  a  resolution  calling  upon 

'  Forty-ninth  Congress,  ist  Session,  House  of  Representatives.    (Report  No.  2615.) 

JOINT   RESOLUTION, 
Be  it  resolved  by  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  of  the  United  States 
of  America  in  Congress  assembled  : 

1.  That  experience  has  fully  demonstrated  the  necessity,  under  existing  con- 
ditions, for  the  presence  of  an  adequate  military  force  on  the  Mexican  border  in 
Texas,  as  the  only  guarantee  of  the  lives  and  property  of  our  citizens  against  the 
cattle- thieves,  robbers,  and  murderers  who  cross  from  the  Mexican  side  of  the  Rio 
Grande  ;  and  that  the  President  is  therefore  requested  to  keep  on  that  border,  from 
the  mouth  of  the  Rio  Grande  to  El  Paso,  a  military  force  of  not  less  than  five  thousand 
men,  of  which  at  least  three  thousand  shall  be  cavalry. 

2.  That  the  orders  of  the  President,  issued  by  the  Secretary  of  War  June  i,  1877, 
authorizing  the  crossing  of  the  border  by  our  troops  in  certain  cases,  are  necessary  for 
an  efficient  defense  of  the  lives  and  property  of  our  citizens,  and  should  not  be  with- 
drawn or  modified  until  treaty  stipulations  shall  have  been  agreed  to  by  Mexico  that 
will  secure  an  equally  efficient  protection. 

3.  That  the  following  should  be  secured  by  treaty  stipulations  : 

First.  Indemnity  for  injuries  to  the  persons  and  losses  to  the  property  of  citizens 
of  the  United  States  for  which  the  Government  of  Mexico  shall  be  found  liable. 

Second.     The  abolition  of  the  Free  Zone. 

Third.  Such  provisions  as  will  hereafter  secure  on  the  border  the  speedy  trial 
and  punishment  of  criminals,  residents,  or  citizens  of  Mexico,  as  well  as  others,  in  the 
courts  within  whose  jurisdiction  the  crimes  have  been  committed. 

Fourth.  The  exemption  of  American  citizens  residing  in  Mexico  from  forced 
loans  and  all  other  illegal  exactions. 


TTbe  /IDejican  fvcc  Zone,  469 

the  Members  of  Congress  from  that  State  to  urge  upon  Mexico  to 
abolish  the  Free  Zone,  and,  in  case  of  a  refusal,  then  for  the  United 
States  to  close  its  bonded  warehouse  against  all  goods  entering  Mexico 
through  any  of  our  ports.  Mr.  Jeremiah  V.  Cockrell,  a  member  of 
Congress  from  the  13th  District  of  Texas,  undertook  with  more  zeal 
than  discretion  to  carry  out  the  wishes  of  the  Texas  Legislature,  and 
on  January  17,  1895,  he  introduced  a  joint  resolution  "  with  a  long 
preamble,  asserting  that  the  Free  Zone  was  detrimental  to  the  interests 
of  American  merchants  doing  business  near  the  said  Zone,  by  reason 
of  their  inability  to  compete  with  the  untaxed  importations  of  foreign 
countries;  that  it  was  depriving  this  Government  of  much  revenue  by 
reason  of  the  increasing  evil  of  smuggling  on  the  frontier  of  the  Rio 
Grande,  where  an  increased  force  of  customs  inspectors  adequate  to 
prevent  this  contraband  trade  would  entail  an  enormous  expense,  and 
that  all  the  free  importations  landed  on  the  Free  Zone  caused  loss  of 
revenue  to  this  Government. 

'  Fifty-third  Congress,  3d  Session  (House  of  Representatives,  260).  In  the 
House  of  Representatives,  January  17,  1895.  Referred  to  the  Committee  on  Ways 
and  Means  and  ordered  to  be  printed.  Mr.  Cockrell  introduced  the  following  joint 
resolution  : 

"Joint  resolution  in  reference  to  the  Free  Zone  along  the  northern  frontier  of 
Mexico  and  adjacent  to  the  United  States. 

"  JV/icreas,  the  so-called  '  Free  Zone'  along  the  northern  frontier  of  Mexico  and 
adjacent  to  the  United  States,  in  which  all  foreign  goods  are  admitted  free  of  duty 
by  the  Mexican  Government,  has  had  for  years  past  a  detrimental  effect  on  the  interests 
of  American  merchants  doing  business  near  the  said  Zone,  by  reason  of  their  inability 
to  compete  with  the  untaxed  importations  from  China,  Japan,  France,  Italy,  Germany, 
England,  and  all  Europe  ;  and 

"  Whereas,  The  said  Free  Zone  has  for  years  and  is  daily  depriving  the  Gov- 
ernment of  much  revenue  by  reason  of  the  increased  and  growing  evil  of  smuggling 
on  that  frontier  of  the  Rio  Grande  where  an  increased  force  of  customs  inspectors 
adequate  to  prevent  this  contraband  trade  would  entail  an  enormous  expense  not  com- 
mensurate with  the  revenues  there  collected  ;  and 

"  JVhereas,  AH  the  free  importations  that  are  landed  on  that  Zone,  which  cause 
the  loss  of  revenue  to  this  Government  and  the  humiliation  of  daily  violations  of  its 
customs  laws,  which  it  is  impossible  to  correct,  are  carried  in  bond  through  this 
country  and  delivered  in  said  Zone.     Therefore,  be  it 

"  /^esoh'eif,  by  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  of  the  United  States  of 
America  in  Congress  assembled,  That  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  be,  and  is  hereby, 
directed  to  suspend,  so  long  as  the  Mexican  Free-Zone  law  exists,  obedience  to  the 
laws  that  p_ermit  merchandise  in  bond  to  be  landed  thereon,  as  tlie  only  means  this 
Government  has  to  prevent  loss  of  revenue  and  to  protect  the  honest  importers  of  the 
United  States  from  the  unjust  discrimination  which  the  Free  Zone  of  Mexico  occasions 
against  them,  without,  however,  impairing,  hindering,  or  impeding  the  l>o>ia  fide  im- 
gojtations  into  the  interior  of  Mexico  beyond  the  Free-Zone  frontier,  or  in  any 
manner  disturbing  the  commercial  relations  of  the  two  countries,  excepting  so  far  as 
the  Free  Zone  of  Mexico  is  concerned,  which  has  proven  to  be  inimical  to  the  interests 
of  the  United  States,  and  after  long  toleration  has  juslitied  this  course. 


470  XT  be  /iDcjican  jFrce  Zone, 

From  what  1  have  already  stated  from  official  information  obtained 
from  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  and  from  the  testimonials  of  gen- 
tlemen from  Texas,  holding  high  official  positions,  who  know  all  about 
the  Free  Zone,  Mr.  Cockrell's  assertions  will  be  seen  to  be  destitute  of 
foundation. 

Both  the  preamble  and  enacting  clause  were  so  objectionable  to  the 
Committee  of  Ways  and  Means  that,  when  they  reported  this  resolu- 
tion '  to  the  House  on  February  i8,  1895,  they  had  to  omit  the  former 
and  leave  of  the  latter  only  the  provision  that  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury  "  should  suspend  the  operation  of  Section  3005  of  the  Revised 
Statutes,  in  so  far  as  the  same  permits  foreign  goods,  wares,  and  mer- 
chandise to  be  transported  in  bond  through  the  United  States  into  the 
Free  Zone  of  Mexico,  so  long  as  the  Mexican  Free-Zone  law  exists.' 

'  Fifty-third  Congress,  3d  Session,  House  of  Representatives.  Report  No.  18^0. 
Mexican  Free  Zone.  February  18,  1895.  Committed  to  the  Committee  of  the  Whole 
House  on  the  State  of  the  Union,  and  ordered  to  be  printed.  Mr.  Bynum,  from  the 
Committee  on  Ways  and  Means,  submitted  the  following  Report.  (To  accompany 
H.  Res.  277): 

"The  Committee  on  Ways  and  Means,  to  whom  was  referred  the  House  Resolu- 
tion (H.  Res.  260)  entitled,  '  A  joint  resolution  in  reference  to  the  Free  Zone  along 
the  northern  frontier  of  Mexico  and  adjacent  to  the  United  States,'  having  had  the 
same  under  consideration,  respectfully  report  the  same  back  with  the  recommendation 
that  the  accompanying  substitute  be  adopted  in  its  stead. 

' '  The  design  of  the  resolution  was  to  prevent  the  transportation  of  merchandise 
in  bond  through  the  United  States  into  the  Free  Zone  of  Mexico.  The  Free  Zone  of 
Mexico  is  a  narrow  strip  extending  along  the  northern  boundary  of  Mexico  from  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  Government  of  Mexico  does  not  allow 
shipments  in  bond  through  its  territory  into  the  Free  Zone,  hence  all  shipments  into 
this  territory  are  made  through  the  United  States.  The  sparsely-settled  country  along 
the  line  between  the  United  States  and  Mexico  makes  smuggling  easy,  and  the  officers 
of  the  Government  have  found  it  impossible  to  prevent  the  same.  The  exemption  of 
that  portion  of  Zona  Libre,  between  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  Laredo,  is  deemed  advis- 
able by  reason  of  the  navigability  of  the  river  between  those  points.  There  is  no 
objection  upon  the  part  of  the  Mexican  Government  to  the  passage  of  this  resolution 
and  the  action  proposed  to  be  taken  by  this  Government." 

'^  Fifty-third  Congress,  3d  Session  (H.  Res.  277).  In  the  Senate  of  the  United 
States,  February  20,  1895.  Read  twice  and  referred  to  the  Committee  on  Finance, 
February  21,  1895.  Resolved,  That  this  joint  resolution  pass  (February  25,  1895). 
Vote  on  third  reading,  and  passage  reconsidered  and  referred  to  the  Committee  on 
Finance. 

"Joint  resolution  in  reference  to  the  Free  Zone  along  the  northern  frontier  of 
Mexico  and  adjacent  to  the  United  States  : 

"  Resolved,  by  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  of  the  United  States  of 
America  in  Congress  assembled,  That  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  be,  and  is  hereby, 
authorized  and  directed  to  suspend  the  operation  of  Section  3005  of  the  Revised 
Statutes,  in  so  far  as  the  same  permits  goods,  wares,  and  merchandise  to  be  trans- 
ported in  bond  through  the  United  States  into  the  Free  Zone  of  Mexico,  so  long 
as  the  Mexican  Free-Zone  law  exists,  at  any  point  between  the  western  boundary 
of  the  city  of  Laredo,  in  the  State  of  Texas,  and  the  Pacific  Ocean  •  Provided  that 


XLbc  /IDejican  ffree  Z^onc,  471 

In  justice  to  other  Members  from  Texas,  I  must  say  that  some  of 
them  objected  to  Mr.  Cockrell's  resolution,  and  Mr.  William  H.  Grain, 
a  young  and  very  promising  Member  from  that  State,  representing  the 
nth  District,  who,  unfortunately,  has  since  died,  spoke  in  favor  of  the 
Free  Zone,  showing  that  it  was  not  prejudicial  to  the  United  States, 
and  he  qualified  Mr.  Cockrell's  resolution  as  an  attempt  to  coerce 
Mexico  into  the  abolition  of  the  Free  Zone.  Finally,  when  he  found 
that  he  could  not  stem  the  current,  he  amended  the  resolution  to  the 
effect  that  it  should  not  embrace  his  Congressional  district,  extending 
from  Laredo,  Texas,  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico;  and  the  resolution  so 
amended  was  approved  by  the  House  of  Representatives,  reported 
favorably  by  the  Committee  on  Finance  of  the  Senate  on  February 
20th,  and  approved  by  the  Senate  on  February  25th;  but  when  the 
directors  of  the  railways  running  to  the  excluded  district  learned  of 
this  discrimination,  they  naturally  objected  to  it,  on  the  ground  that  it 
discriminated  against  them,  and  this  objection  was  so  strong  that  the 
resolution  had  to  be  reconsidered  by  the  Senate,  and  amended  to  make 
the  prohibition  general,  and  in  this  form  it  was  finally  approved  by  both 
Houses  of  Congress  and  by  the  President  on  March  i,  1895.' 

Commissioner  Lyman,  of  the  United  States  Civil  Service  Commis- 
sion, made  a  trip  to  the  frontier,  and  hearing  only  parties  inimical  to 
the  Free  Zone,  and  giving  full  credence  to  their  statements,  made  a  re- 
port to  the  Commission  on  his  return  to  Washington  in  February,  1895, 
in  which  he  repeated  the  assertions  that  the  Free  Zone  was  prejudicial  to 
the  interests  of  the  United  States,  that  it  encouraged  smuggling,  and 
suggested  that  for  the  purpose  of  stopping  it,  the  bonded  privilege  for 
foreign  merchandise  sent  to  the  frontier  should  be  withdrawn.  How 
ungrounded  these  views  were,  will  appear  by  reading  the  opinion  of  the 
Collector  of  Customs  at  Laredo,  of  citizens  of  El  Paso  and  other 
prominent  parties  on  the  frontier  better  informed  than  Mr.  Lyman  of 

nothing  herein  contained  shall  be  construed  so  as  to  prevent  the  transportation  of  mer- 
chandise in  bond  to  be  delivered  at  points  in  the  territory  of  Mexico  beyond  the  limits 
of  said  Free  Zone." 

Passed  the  House  of  Representatives,  February  19,  1895. 

(Attest)        James  Kerr,  C/erk. 

'  Public  Resolution,  No.  23.  Joint  resolution  in  reference  to  the  Free  Zone 
along  the  northern  frontier  of  Mexico  and  adjacent  to  the  United  States : 

"  Resolved,  by  the  Senate  and  the  House  of  Representatives  of  the  United  States 
of  America  in  Congress  assembled,  That  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  be,  and  is 
hereby,  authorized  and  directed  to  suspend  the  operation  of  Section  3005  of  the  Re- 
vised Statutes,  in  so  far  as  the  same  permits  goods,  wares,  and  merchandise  to  be 
transported  in  bond  through  the  United  States  into  the  Free  Zone  of  Mexico,  so  long 
as  the  Mexican  Free-Zone  law  exists  ;  Provided,  That  nothing  herein  contained  shall 
be  construed  so  as  to  prevent  the  transportation  of  merchandise  in  bond  to  be  delivered 
at  points  in  the  territory  of  Mexico  beyond  the  limits  of  said  Free  Zone." 

Approved,  March  i,  1S95. 


472  Zbc  /IDcjicaii  Jfrcc  Zone. 

the  condition  of  things  there.  His  opinion,  however,  could  not  fail 
to  assist  the  friends  of  the  measure  proposed  in  the  House  by  Mr. 
Cockrell. 

Mr.  Cockrell's  resolution,  after  all  his  exertions,  was  inoperative 
because  of  its  imperfect  wording,  to  the  effect  "  that  the  Secretary  of 
the  Treasury  should  suspend  Section  3005  of  the  Revised  Statutes  in 
so  far  as  the  same  permitted  goods,  wares,  and  merchandise  to  be 
transported  through  the  United  States  into  the  Free  Zone  of  Mexico  so 
long  as  the  Free-Zone  law  exists." 

When  this  resolution  went  to  the  Treasury  Department,  it  was  found 
that  Section  3005  of  the  United  States  Revised  Statutes,  which  was  the 
only  one  repealed  by  the  same,  was  insufficient  to  accomplish  the  pur- 
pose intended  by  its  originators,  as  it  ought  to  have  repealed,  also, 
Sections  3002,  3003,  and  3004.  Section  3005  allowed  foreign  goods  to 
enter  in  transit  in  bond  directly  to  the  place  of  destination  without  ex- 
amination; while  the  others  allowed  the  same  goods  to  enter  for  ware- 
house and  transportation  with  examination  at  the  port  of  arrival.  As 
the  other  three  sections  had  been  left  in  force,  the  only  result  accom- 
plished by  the  Act  was  that  goods  sent  to  the  frontier,  intended  for  the 
Mexican  Free  Zone  Avould  now  be  required  to  be  examined,  when 
before  they  could  be  passed  without  examination.  Therefore,  the  efforts 
of  Mr.  Cockrell  were  entirely  ineffective;  but  even  if  they  had  been 
successful,  their  practical  result  would  have  been  that  European  goods 
intended  for  the  Free  Zone,  which  formerly  came  through  the  United 
States,  paying  freight  to  the  American  railways,  would  be  imported 
through  Mexican  ports,  and  from  there  transported  to  the  Free  Zone, 
to  the  advantage  of  the  Mexican  railways  and  Mexican  merchants,  and 
that  the  American  merchants  on  the  frontier  who  formerly  handled 
such  goods  and  gained  the  commission  on  the  same,  would  be  deprived 
of  that  business  which  would  be  transferred  to  the  Mexican  merchants 
and  the  right  bank  of  the  Rio  Grande. 

Prior  to  the  attempt  of  the  United  States  to  put  an  end  to  the  bond- 
ing privilege  allowing  the  shipping  of  goods  through  the  United  States, 
Mexico  extended  no  bonded  privilege  from  her  ports  of  entry.  This 
forced  all  shipments  from  foreign  countries  to  American  ports  and  over 
American  railroads.  The  Mexican  entry  ports  of  Tampico,  Veracruz, 
and  Guaymas  did  not  recognize  the  Zone,  and  full  duties  were  required 
on  all  goods  entered  regardless  of  their  ultimate  destination.  The 
people  of  the  United  States,  therefore,  had  up  to  April  ist,  1895,  an 
absolute  monopoly  of  the  carrying  trade  of  the  Zone  and  a  monopoly 
of  the  selling  trade  of  that  territory  in  nearly  every  line  of  goods.  Such 
is  the  result  of  ill-advised  legislation. 

The  danger  that  foreign  goods  transported  in  bond  from  or  to  the 
frontier  and  passed   into  Mexico  should  be  smuggled  back  into  the 


XTbe  /IDejican  3Frce  Zone.  473 

United  States  could  not  be  remedied  by  that  Act,  because  the  same 
danger  exists  in  regard  to  the  same  goods,  once  in  the  Free  Zone, 
whether  they  come  through  the  United  States  or  through  Mexican  ter- 
ritory, and  therefore  the  measure  enacted  was  entirely  inadequate  to 
accomplish  the  object  intended. 

These  reasons  were  so  plain  that  on  December  i8,  1896,  Mr.  Seth 
W.  Cobb,  a  member  of  Congress  from  Missouri,  introduced  by  request 
in  the  House  of  Representatives  a  joint  resolution  for  the  repeal  of  the 
Act  of  March  i,  1S95,  which  was  referred  to  the  Committee  on  Ways 
and  Means  of  the  House.' 

If  the  purpose  of  that  Act  was  to  obtain  from  Mexico  a  repeal  of  the 
Free  Zone,  as  might  be  inferred  from  its  wording,  and  especially  in 
the  form  in  which  it  was  originally  submitted,  that  purpose  entirely 
failed,  and  I  can  affirm  that  this  and  similar  measures  will  be  new  and 
serious  obstacles  for  the  abolition  of  the  Free  Zone. 

An  incident  happened  in  this  connection  which  I  think  worth  men- 
tioning. In  the  report  of  the  Committee  on  Ways  and  Means,  sub- 
mitted to  the  House  of  Representatives  on  February  18th,  1895,  Mr. 
Bynum,  who  had  this  matter  in  charge,  stated  that  there  was  no  objec- 
tion on  the  part  of  the  Mexican  Government  to  the  passage  of  that 
resolution  and  to  the  action  proposed  to  be  taken  by  the  Government  of 
the  United  States.  While  this  matter  was  pending  in  Congress,  I  pur- 
posely refrained  from  speaking  to  any  member  on  the  subject,  or  taking 
any  action  in  regard  to  it,  notwithstanding  that  I  was  sure  that  Mr. 
Bynum  was  misinformed,  lest  my  interference  might  be  considered 
as  an  attempt  to  influence  legislation,  and  because,  as  we  have  ob- 
jected to  the  United  States  Government  interfering  in  our  legislation 
on  the  Free  Zone,  to  be  consistent,  I  thought  we  ought  not  to  interfere 
when  the  United  States  attempted  to  legislate  on  the  same  subject. 
But,  after  the  joint  resolution  had  been  approved  by  the  President  and 
it  was  placed  in  the  statutes  of  this  country,  I  thought  I  would  make 
this  matter  clear,  and  I  wrote  to  Mr.  Bynum  the  following  letter: 

"  Washington,  March  6,  iSgj. 
"Hon.   William  D.  Bynum ^  Indianapolis,  Indiana: 

"  My  dear  Sir, — I  noticed  that  you  stated,  both  in  the  report  submitted  by  your- 
self on  the  18th  of  February  ultimo  in  behalf  of  the  Committee  of  Ways  and  Means 

'  Fifty-fourth  Congress,  2d  Session  (H.  Res.  222).  In  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives, December  iS,  1896.  Mr.  Cobb  (by  request)  introduced  the  following  joint 
resolution,  which  was  referred  to  the  Committee  on  Ways  and  Means  and  ordered  to 
be  printed  : 

"  Joint  resolution  to  repeal  the  joint  resolution  in  reference  to  the  Free  Zone  : 
"Resolved,  by  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  of  the  United  States  of 
America  in  Congress  assembled,  That  the  joint  resolution  entitled,  'Joint  resolution 
in  reference  to  the  Free  Zone  along  the  northern  frontier  of  Mexico  and  adjacent  to 
the  United  States,'  approved  March  i,  1895,  be,  and  the  same  is,  hereby  repealed. 


474  ^bc  /IDejican  JFrce  Zone. 

of  the  House  of  Representatives,  and  during  the  discussion  on  the  subject  in  the 
House,  that  there  was  no  objection  on  the  part  of  tlie  Mexican  Government  to  the 
passage  of  the  resolution  to  suspend  the  transportation  of  our  merchandise  in  bond, 
through  the  United  States,  destined  to  the  Free  Zone  in  Mexico.  As  I  am  not  aware 
that  my  Government  has  made  any  declaration  concerning  this  matter,  you  will  confer 
a  favor  on  me  if  you  will  kindly  inform  me  what  was  your  foundation  for  this  statement. 
"  Apologizing  for  the  trouble  I  am  giving  you,  I  remain, 

"  Very  faithfully  yours,  M.  Romero." 

In  due  time  I  received  from  Mr,  Bynum  the  following  answer: 

"Committee  of  Ways  and  Means, 

"  House  of  Representatives, 

"  Washington,  D.  C.,  March  27,  iSgs. 
'^^  Mr.  M.  Romero,   Washington,  D.  C.  : 

"  My  dear  Sir, — Yours  of  the  6th  instant  addressed  to  me  at  Indianapolis  was 
returned — hence  the  delay  in  answering.  The  report  upon  the  bill  for  abolition  of 
the  shipment  of  goods  in  bond  through  the  United  States  into  the  Free  Zone  of  Mexico 
was  written  very  hastily  in  the  closing  hours  of  the  session.  The  statement  therein 
that  the  Government  of  Mexico  had  no  objections  to  the  measure,  was  based  upon 
representations  made  to  the  Committee  by  parties  who  appeared  before  it  in  advocacy 
of  the  passage.  It  was  not  based  upon  anything  purporting  to  come  from  any  official 
or  representative  of  the  Mexican  Government. 

"Very  respectfully,  W.  D.  Bynum." 

Reaction  in  Favor  of  the  Free  Zone. — There  are  some  symptoms  of 
reaction  against  the  hostility  of  the  Free  Zone  developed  in  the  United 
States,  and  1  will  mention  here  briefly  in  what  they  consist.  1  have 
already  referred  to  the  resolution  introduced  by  Senator  Morgan  in  the 
Senate  of  the  United  States,  asking  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  for 
information  as  to  whether  and  to  what  extent  the  Free  Zone  in  Mexico 
encouraged  smuggling  into  this  country,  and  to  Secretary  Fairchild's 
answer  which  showed  how  insignificant  was  the  foreign  trade  through 
the  Free  Zone.  At  the  same  time,  on  February  16,  1888,  Senator  Mor- 
gan introduced  another  resolution  calling  "on  the  Secretary  of  State 
for  all  correspondence  with  the  Government  of  Mexico  or  its  diplomatic 
representatives,  respecting  the  laws  and  regulations  of  that  Republic 
relating  to  customs  duties  and  their  collection  in  the  belt  of  border 
country  extending  along  the  frontier  of  the  United  States  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Rio  Grande  to  the  Pacific  Ocean,  known  as  the  Free 
Zone  of  Mexico. ' '  This  last  resolution  was  intended  to  bring  out  my  two 
official  communications  to  the  Secretary  of  State,  of  February  loth  and 
14th,  1888,  respectively,  which  were  sent  to  the  Senate  with  the  Presi- 
dent's Message  of  March  16,  1888,'  and  which  I  append  to  this  paper, 

'  In  the  Senate  of  the  United  States,  February  16,  1888.  Congressional  Record, 
vol.  xix. ,  part  ii.,  p.  1261. 

the   MEXICAN    FREE   ZONE. 
"  Mr.  Morgan. — I  submit  the  following  resolution  : 

"  '  Resolved,  That  the  Secretary  of  State  is  directed  to  send  to  the  Senate  copies  of 
all  correspondence  with  the  Government  of  Mexico,  or  its  diplomatic  representatives, 


Ube  /ll>erican  fvcc  Zone,  475 

There  are  also  signs  of  a  reaction  in  Congress  on  this  subject,  as  is 
shown  by  the  fact  already  stated  that  Mr.  Seth  Cobb  introduced  a 
resolution  to  repeal  the  joint  resolution  of  March  i,  1895;  which  shows 
that  members  of  Congress  are  becoming  satisfied  of  the  injurious  results 
to  the  interests  of  their  own  country  brought  about  by  said  joint  reso- 
lution. 

Notwithstanding  the  preponderance  of  opinion  against  the  Free 
Zone,  to  which  I  have  just  alluded,  the  facts  in  the  case  are  so  plain 
that  it  will  hardly  be  possible  to  misrepresent  and  agitate  it  much 
longer.  When  some  of  the  public  men  of  this  country  took  the  pains 
to  study  the  scope  and  purpose  of  the  Free  Zone  they  at  first  expressed 
opinions  in  regard  to  that  institution  which  were  greatly  at  variance 
with  those  I  have  quoted,  but  after  the  question  had  been  discussed  it 
is  pleasant  to  find  that  the  false  impression  that  prevailed  in  the  United 
States  regarding  the  Free  Zone  is  being  materially  changed. 

not  heretofore  published,  respecting  the  laws  and  regulations  of  that  Republic  relating 
to  customs  duties  and  their  collection  in  the  belt  of  border  country  extending  with  our 
frontier  from  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  Grande  to  the  Pacific  Ocean,  known  as  the  Free 
Zone  of  Mexico.' 

"  il/r.  Eiitnunds. — I  suggest  to  the  Senator  from  Alabama  that  the  ordinary 
course  has  been,  and  I  think  it  ouglit  to  be,  in  calling  for  diplomatic  correspondence, 
that  the  request  should  be  addressed  to  the  Pxesident  with  the  usual  clause,  '  If  not  in 
his  opinion  incompatible  with  the  public  interest.' 

"  Mr.  Morgan. — I  had  been  informed  that  the  Minister  from  Mexico  had  made 
a  voluntary  communication  to  the  Secretary  of  State  setting  forth  what  the  laws  and 
regulations  were. 

"  Mr.  Edmunds. — I  dare  say  that  may  be  true  as  a  matter  of  fact,  but,  officially, 
we  do  not  know  it.     I  think  we  had  better  preserve  the  usual  form. 

"  Mr.  Morgan. — That  was  the  reason  why  I  put  the  resolution  in  the  form  I  did, 
knowing  that  there  was  no  secret  about  the  matter.  I  am  quite  willing  to  change  it 
so  as  to  direct  the  resolution  to  the  President,  '  if  not  incompatible  with  the  public 
interest.' 

"  The  President  pro  tempore. — The  modification  of  the  resolution  will  be  read. 

^'  The  Chief  Clerk  read  as  follows  : 

"  'Resolved^  That  the  President,  if  not  incompatible  with  the  public  interest,  is 
requested  to  send  to  the  Senate  copies  of  all  correspondence  with  the  Government  of 
Mexico,  etc' 

"  J/r.  Edmunds. — It  should  be,  'if  in  his  opinion  not  incompatible  with  the 
public  interest.' 

"  The  President  pro  tempore. — The  resolution  as  proposed  to  be  modified  will  be 
read. 

' '  The  Chief  Clerk  read  as  follows  : 

"  '  Resolved,  That  the  President,  if  in  his  opinion  not  incompatible  with  the 
public  interest,  is  requested  to  send  to  the  Senate  copies  of  all  correspondence  with 
the  Government  of  Mexico,  etc' 

"  The  resolution,  as  modified,  was  agreed  to. 

"The  replies  to  these  resolutions  are  printed  respectively  as  Senate  Executive 
Documents  Nos.  109  and  130,  ist  Session,  Fiftieth  Congress." 


476  Zbc  /IDcjican  Jfrcc  Zone. 

Mr,  Warner  P.  Sutton,  an  able  Consular  officer  of  the  United  States, 
who  represented  his  country  for  fifteen  years  as  Consul  on  the  frontier, 
serving  for  five  years  as  Consul  and  ten  years  as  Consul-Gen^eral  in 
Mexico — the  first  eleven  at  Matamoros  and  the  remainder  of  the  time 
at  New  Laredo — holds  that  the  Free  Zone  in  Mexico  is  advantageous, 
rather  than  in  any  way  detrimental  to  the  commercial  and  revenue  in- 
terests of  the  United  States,  and  he  expressed  those  views  in  an  inter- 
view, which  was  published  by  the  New  York  Evening  Post,  of  May  19, 
1894.  I  attach  so  much  importance  to  Mr.  Sutton's  views  that  I 
append  his  interview  to  this  paper. 

As  I  have  already  stated,  Mr.  Crain,  a  Member  of  Congress  from 
Texas,  delivered  a  speech  in  the  House  of  Representatives  on  February 
27,  1895,  in  which  he  plainly  demonstrated  that  the  Free  Zone  in 
Mexico  is  in  no  way  prejudicial  to  the  interests  of  the  United  States; 
and  to  the  letters  addressed  to  him  on  February  25,  1895,  by  the  Col- 
lector of  Customs  at  Laredo,  which  express  exactly  the  same  views, 
and  on  January  27,  1895,  by  the  leading  citizens  of  Brownsville,  Texas, 
including  the  Mayor  and  other  public  men — a  city  which  had  been  the 
hot-bed  of  the  opposition  to  the  Free  Zone — asserting  that  the  Free 
Zone  was  advantageous  to  the  commercial  interests  of  the  United 
States. 

The  feeling  on  the  frontier  of  the  United  States  in  so  far  as  the 
Free  Zone  is  concerned  is  at  present  quite  different  from  what  it  was 
thirty  years  ago.  Brownsville,  Rio  Grande  City,  and  Nogales  have  no 
railroad  outlet  to  the  north,  and  in  these  places  few  opponents  of  the 
Zone  as  an  institution  can  now  be  found.  The  American  opposition  to 
the  Zone  is  to  be  found  in  the  cities  of  Laredo,  Ea-gle  Pass,  and  El  Paso, 
as  it  is  claimed  there  that  the  trade  of  the  American  merchants  in  Eu- 
ropean goods,  such  as  silks  and  other  luxuries,  is  ruined  by  the  prox- 
imity of  the  Free  Zone  and  the  towns  across  the  river.  Nuevo  Laredo, 
opposite  Laredo;  Piedras  Negras,  opposite  Eagle  Pass;,  and  El  Paso  del 
Norte,  opposite  El  Paso,  Texas,  are  built  up  at  the  expense  of  those  on 
the  American  side.  Ajiother  class  \v]iich  hri'i;  nppf^ffijjiP^Frfp  7nn^  is 
rJimited  number  of  real  estate^^'ncrs  in  the  hard£X_tpwns  of  the  United 


\j   States,  who  imagiji^l^at^^.LHITpy^^fmlirTinn  their  rivals  on  the  other  side 
"of  theriver  ihev  would  enjov  a  perpetaaX-feee«^-Ql  prosperity. 

United  States  Opposition  to  the  Free  Zone  has  been  in  the  Way  of  its 
Abolition. — I  think  it  is  proper  on  this  occasion  to  state  that  the  mis- 
understanding which  has  prevailed  here  with  regard  to  the  object  and 
tendencies  of  the  Free  Zone  and  the  manner  in  which  that  misunder- 
standing has  been  expressed  by  Federal  and  State  officials,  has  really 
served  as  a  powerful  argument  to  the  Mexican  defenders  of  the  Free 
Zone,  to  keep  up  that  institution,  as  they  accuse  their  opponents  of 
subserviency  to  this  country,  attributing  to  them  a  design  to  sacrifice 


Ube  /iDcricau  Jfrce  Zone,  477 

the  interests  of  Mexico  to  the  demands  of  the  United  States.  It  may 
not  be  out  of  place  for  me  to  quote  here  certain  views  regarding  this 
aspect  of  the  question  which  I  expressed  as  Secretary  of  the  Treasury 
of  Mexico,  in  my  annual  report  submitted  to  the  Federal  Congress, 
under  date  of  September  i6,  1870,  and  which  are  the  following: 

"  The  friendly  representations  made  by  the  United  States  Government  to  that  of 
the  Republic  in  relation  to  the  injury  accruing  to  the  United  States  from  the  P'rce 
Zone  are  also  worthy  of  being  taken  into  consideration  by  Congress,  not  that  it  may 
seek  to  please  the  neighboring  nation  in  a  spirit  of  servility,  at  the  expense  of  the 
rights  and  interests  of  the  Republic,  which  it  is  under  obligations  to  care  for  and 
uphold  above  everything  else  (which  spirit  would  be  unworthy  of  our  national  repre- 
sentatives) ;  but  as  a  neighborly  act,  and  in  order  to  have  a  right  to  be  heard  and 
treated  with  consideration  in  case  that  in  the  process  of  time  some  difficulty  may  arise 
on  our  northern  frontier  of  such  a  nature  as  to  possess,  regarding  Mexico,  the  charac- 
ter which  the  Free  Zone  possesses,  as  regards  our  neighboring  nation  ;  in  order,  more- 
over, that  Mexico  may  acquire  a  new  title  to  be  heard  and  considered  in  a  cordial  and 
friendly,  as  well  as  just  and  equitable,  manner  when  she  may  have  occasion  to  offer 
remonstrances  with  a  view  to  the  protection  of  her  interests.  A  nation's  dignity  is  not 
so  well  upheld  by  refusing  to  consider  the  moderate  and  amicable  remonstrances  of  a 
neighboring  nation,  as  it  is  by  hearing  and  considering  such  remonstrances  and  then 
acting  according  to  the  requirements  of  justice." 

T/ie  Free  Zone  and  the  Hanseatic  Cities. — The  Free-Zone  question 
had  a  ])recedent  in  the  Hanseatic  cities  of  Germany,  which  it  is  proper 
to  consider,  as  showing  that  the  Free  Zone  was  not  a  Mexican  inven- 
tion and  what  may  be  its  probable  outcome.  The  Hanseatic  cities, 
especially  Hamburg  and  Bremen,  had  practically  the  same  thing  as  the 
Free  Zone,  and  it  is  perhaps  well  to  compare  the  situation  which  existed 
in  these  Hanseatic  cities  of  Germany  with  that  of  the  Free  Zone  in 
Mexico.  The  Hanseatic  cities  were,  from  a  customs  and  financial  point 
of  view,  treated  as  a  foreign  country;  and  all  goods,  whether  of  foreign 
or  of  domestic  manufacture,  had  to  pay  full  duties  upon  entering 
Prussia. 

After  the  war  between  France  and  Germany,  Prince  Bismarck  con- 
sidered it  necessary  that  the  rich  populations  of  Hamburg  and  Bremen, 
consisting  of  over  half  a  million  of  people,  should  contribute  to  the 
national  expenses  in  revenue,  and  was  persistent  in  that  the  mentioned 
cities  should  abandon  their  privileges.  The  Hanseatic  cities  did  not 
take  the  initiative  step  for  a  customs  union  with  the  remaining  part  of 
Germany,  and  the  people  at  large  were  opposed  to  any  change;  but  the 
manufacturers  of  Hamburg,  who  could  not  ship  goods  into  the  remaining 
part  of  Germany,  without  paying  duties,  had  for  several  years  been  ad- 
vocating such  a  union  with  the  other  part  of  the  empire.  Prince  Bis- 
marck contended  that  the  privileges  enjoyed  by  the  Hanseatic  cities, 
from  a  national  and  financial  point  of  view,  were  a  drawback  to  the  in- 
terests at  large  of  Germany,  as  it  was  very  difficult  to  prevent  smuggling 


478  ^be  /IDcjican  jfree  Eonc. 

from  the  free  territory  into  the  territory  paying  duties,  and  thus  the 
Imperial  Government  was  deprived  of  a  good  deal  of  revenue. 

Finally  Prince  Bismarck's  views  prevailed,  the  desired  change  was 
accomplished  :  but  when  the  Hanseatic  cities  were  brought  into  the  cus- 
toms union,  there  existed  very  little  sympathy  for  the  new  state  of 
affairs.  However,  time  has  shown  tliat  the  people  are  now  fully  satis- 
fied with  the  existing  conditions;  and  if  to-day  a  movement  should  be 
inaugurated  to  go  back  to  the  old  system,  it  is  extremely  doubtful  if  a 
majority  could  be  found  in  favor  of  the  old  conditions. 

Since  the  formation  of  this  customs  union  with  Prussia,  manu- 
facturing, both  for  export  and  domestic  consumption,  has  increased 
enormously  in  the  Hanseatic  cities,  a  good  deal  of  the  manufacturing 
being  done  in  the  bonded  warehouse  or  free  district,  where  everything 
enters  free  and  there  is  no  interference  by  the  Government. 

The  prices  of  some  articles  in  the  Hanseatic  cities,  of  course,  in- 
creased when  they  had  to  pay  duties,  but  the  increased  manufacturing 
created  a  demand  for  labor  and  consequent  increase  of  wages,  so  that 
the  people  were  thus  fully  compensated  for  the  increase  in  the  prices 
of  some  articles  on  account  of  their  having  to  pay  duties. 

In  the  German  cities  of  this  union  there  are  certain  districts  con- 
taining from  three  to  twelve  square  kilometres,  where  foreign  goods  are 
stored  or  deposited  without  any  customs  requirements  excepting  for 
statistical  purposes.'     In  Hamburg  this  free  district  or  territory  contains 

'  Messrs.  Ketlesen  &  Degetau,  of  El  Paso  del  Norte.  Mexico,  having  asked,  on 
February  24,  1897,  Messrs.  Oetling  Gebruder,  of  Hamburg,  several  questions  about 
the  free  city  of  flamburg,  they  received  the  following  answer,  which  shows  how  the 
Free  Zone  could  be  adjusted  in  Mexico  : 

1.  The  free  territory  of  the  city  of  Ilambuig,  before  it  became  included  in  the 
Custom-House  Union  with  Prussia,  comprised  an  area  of  413.71  square  kilometres. 

2.  When  leaving  the  free  territory,  all  merchandise,  including  agricultural  prod- 
ucts, had  to  pay  import  duties  in  conformity  with  the  Prussian  tariff. 

3.  From  the  time  that  Hamburg  formed  part  of  the  Custom-House  Union  with 
Prussia,  there  was  a  great  improvement  noticeable  in  the  State  of  Hamburg,  and  all  its 
industries  greatly  increased. 

4.  The  prices  of  the  necessaries  of  life  did  not  increase,  as  a  general  rule,  as  they 
were  controlled  by  the  prices  ruling  in  the  principal  markets  of  Europe. 

5.  The  area  of  the  present  jurisdiction  granted  to  bonded  warehouses,  where 
articles  may  be  kept  without  paying  duties,  is  10.44  square  kilometres. 

6.  A  portion  of  these  warehouses  belongs  to  the  Government,  and  a  portion  to 
private  individuals. 

7.  The  Government  does  not  interfere  in  any  way  with  any  merchandise  entered 
at  the  free  warehouse. 

8.  Duties  in  conformity  with  the  tariff  have  to  be  paid  on  all  articles  taken  fronv 
the  bonded  warehouse  for  home  consumption  in  Germany.  No  duties  have  to  be  paid 
on  any  articles  taken  out  to  be  exported. 

Oetling  Gebruder. 
Hamburg,  March  20,  1897, 


Zbc  /iDesican  jfree  Zone.  479 

twelve  square  kilometres,  and,  while  Hamburg,  before  entering  the 
customs  union  with  Germany,  was  the  fifth  most  important  port  of  the 
world,  it  has  since  then  become  one  among  the  first  in  importance. 

This  may  be  the  way  to  solve  the  problem  in  Mexico,  that  is,  the 
Government  might  designate  a  certain  territory,  say,  two  or  three 
square  kilometres,  for  instance,  in  Matamoros,  Laredo,  Piedras  Negras, 
El  Paso  del  Norte,  and  Nogales,  where  merchants  would  be  allowed  to 
store  their  goods  without  duties  and  then,  upon  their  withdrawing  the 
same  for  home  consumption,  pay  full  duties;  and  if  they  should  be  ex- 
ported, to  be  free  of  any  expense  for  duties.  This  would  give  the  fron- 
tier towns  an  opportunity  to  develop  a  large  trade  in  commerce,  and 
even  sell  to  parties  in  the  United  States. 

Conclusion. — I  sincerely  hope  that  the  foregoing  remarks  will  in 
some  measure  contribute  to  dispel  the  false  impressions  prevailing 
in  the  United  States  in  regard  to  the  Mexican  Free  Zone,  and  that  in 
consequence  when  the  agitation  on  the  subject  shall  have  completely 
disappeared,  it  will  be  easier  to  adjust  this  matter  in  such  a  manner  as 
will  be  honorable  and  satisfactory  to  all  concerned. 


APPENDIX  TO  THE  MEXICAN  FREE  ZONE. 

president's    message    of    march    i6,    1888,   ON    THE    FREE    ZONE, 

Senate,  50th  Congress,  ist  Session,  Ex.  Doc.  No.  130. 

Message  from  the  President  of  the  United  States,  transmitting  a  letter  of  the 
Secretary  of  State,  in  response  to  Senate  resolution  of  February  16,  i883,  relative  to 
the  Mexican  Zona  Libre. 

March  ig,  i833. — Read  and  referred  to  the  Committee  on  Printing.  March  27, 
1888. — Ordered  to  be  printed. 

To  the  Senate  of  the  United  States  : 

I  herewith  transmit,  in  compliance  with  the  resolution  of  the  Senate  of  the  i6th 
ultimo,  a  report  from  the  Secretary  of  State,  accompanied  by  certain  correspondence 
in  regard  to  the  Mexican  Zona  Libre. 

Grover  Cleveland. 
Executive  Mansion,  Washington, 
March  16,  1S88. 

To  the  President  : 

The  undersigned.  Secretary  of  State,  to  whom  was  referred  a  resolution  adopted 
by  the  Senate  of  the  United  States  on  the  i6th  ultimo,  requesting  the  President,  "  if 
in  his  opinion  not  incompatible  with  the  public  interest,  to  send  to  the  Senate  copies 
of  all  correspondence  with  the  Government  of  Mexico,  or  its  diplomatic  representa- 
tives, not  heretofore  published,  respecting  the  laws  and  regulations  of  that  Republic 
in  its  belt  of  border  country  extending  with  our  frontier  from  the  mouth  of  the  Rio 
Grande  to  the  Pacific  Ocean,  known  as  the  Free  Zone  of  Mexico,"  has  the  honor  to 
submit  to  the  President,  with  a  view  to  its  communication  to  the  Senate  in  response  to 
that  resolution,  copies  of  certain  unpublished  correspondence  on  file  in  the  Department 
of  State  which  cover  the  inquiry  of  that  body. 

A  copy  of  the  important  tariff  laws  and  customs  regulations  of  Mexico,  which 
went  into  etTect  July  i,  1SS7,  and  which  include  many  special  provisions  relative  to 
importation,  bonding,  consumption,  and  travel  in  the  Zona  Libre,  is  also  transmitted, 
as  essential  to  a  knowledge  of  its  workings. 

Two  of  the  inclosures,*  with  the  note  of  the  Mexican  minister  at  this  capital, 
dated  February  10,  188S,  on  the  subject  of  the  Zona  Libre  from  a  historical  view,  are 
unavoidably  communicated  in  the  original  Spanish. 

Respectfully  submitted, 

T.  F.  Bayard. 

Department  of  State,  Washington, 
March  16,  1888. 

*  While  this  document  was  passing  through  the  press  an  opportunity  was  found  to  translate  these 
inclosures,  and  they  therefore  appear  translated  into  the  English  language. 

480 


•  appeuMj.  481 

LIST   OF    ACCOMPANIMENTS. 

1,   Mr.  Frelinghuysen  to  Mr.  Morgan,  No,  552.  April  25,  1884,  with  enclosures. 

Messrs.  Coke  and  Lanham,  April  17, 1S84,  with  petition  of  citizens  of  Texas. 
•2.   Mr.  Romero  to  Mr.   Frelinghuysen,  May  5,  1884,  with  enclosure,  being  a  law  of 
Mexico  issued  March  25,  1884,  instituting  the  Zona  Libre. 

3.  Mr.  Frelinghuysen  (o  Mr.  Morgan,  No.  575,  May  20,  1884,  with  enclosures. 

1.  Mr.  Lanliam  to  Mr.  Frelinghuysen,  May  i,  1S84. 

2.  Mr.  Morehead  to  Mr.  Lanham,  April  24,  1884. 

4.  Mr.  Romero  to  Mr.  Bayard,  June  12,  1885. 

5.  Mr.  Romero  to  Mr.  Bayard,  January  4,  i836,  with  enclosure,  heing  reports  of  the 

Secretary  of  the  Treasury  to  the  Mexican  Congress. 

6.  Mr.  Sutton  to  Mr.  Porter  (extract),  No.  408,  May  25,  1887,  with  enclosure,  being 

the  tariff  laws  of  Mexico  which  went  into  operation  July  i,  1887. 

7.  Mr.  Romero  to  Mr.  Bayard,  February  10,  1888,  with  enclosures. 

1.  Decree  establishing  the  Zona  Libre. 

2.  Circular  to  frontier  custom-houses. 

3.  To  custom-house  at  Matamoros. 

4.  Circular  to  custom-houses. 

8.  Mr.  Romero  to  Mr.  Bayard,  February  14,  18S8. 

No.     7.       MR.    ROMERO    TO    MR.    BAYARD. 

[  Translation.^ 

Legation  of  Mexico,  Washington, 
February  10, 1888. 

Mr.  Secretary  : — I  have  observed  both  in  the  correspondence  of  the  representa- 
tives of  the  United  States  in  Mexico,  which  has  been  published  by  their  Government, 
and  in  statements  made  by  prominent  persons  in  this  country,  expressions  and  opinions 
respecting  the  Free  Zone  which  exists  in  the  portion  of  Mexico  bordering  on  the  United 
States,  which  I  consider  wholly  unfounded  ;  it  has  consequently  seemed  proper  tome, 
from  a  due  regard  to  the  good  understanding  and  harmony  between  our  two  countries, 
to  offer  some  explanations  whereby  I  trust  that  the  erroneous  impressions  that  now 
prevail  on  this  subject  will  be  rectified. 

I  think  I  do  not  hazard  much  in  saying  that  both  in  official  circles  in  the  United 
States  and  outside  of  those  circles  it  is  believed  that  the  Free  Zone  was  established  in 
Mexico  as  an  act  of  antagonism,  if  not  of  hostility,  to  the  United  States  and  mainly,  if 
not  solely,  for  the  purpose  of  encouraging  smuggling,  to  the  prejudice  of  the  fiscal 
interest  of  this  country.  It  will  not  be  difficult  to  show  how  unfounded  these  opinions 
are. 

When  in  pursuance  of  the  treaty  of  February  2,  1848,  the  Rio  Grande  from  El 
Paso  del  Norte  to  the  point  where  it  flows  into  the  sea  was  accepted  as  the  boundary 
line  between  Mexico  and  the  United  States,  and  when  American  settlements  began  to 
be  made  on  the  left  bank  of  that  river,  two  peoples  were  brought  into  contact  with 
each  other  whose  economical  and  commercial  conditions  ofTered  a  striking  contrast. 
In  the  United  States  no  taxes  were  levied  upon  internal  trade,  and  it  was  not  other- 
wise restricted  ;  the  import  duties  on  foreign  goods  were  at  that  time  relatively  low, 
and  the  country  was  just  entering  upon  an  unexampled  career  of  progress,  wliile  in 
Mexico,  which  had  inherited  the  Spanish  system  of  taxation,  taxes  were  levied  which 
largely  increased  the  cost  of  domestic  goods  ;  the  collection  of  these  taxes  rendered 
internal  custom-houses  necessary,  and  the  restrictions  placed  upon  trade  were  number- 
less ;  import  duties  on  foreign  goods  were  so  high  as  to  be  prohibitory  ;  in  addition  to 


482  Ubc  /IDcjican  ifrec  Zone. 

this,  the  importation  of  various  kinds  of  goods  was  prohibited,  among  them  s  ime  of 
prime  necessity,  such  as  provisions. 

The  result  of  this  state  of  things  was  that  while  in  Brownsville,  and  other  towns 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rio  Grande,  domestic  articles  of  daily  use,  such  as  provisions, 
clothing,  etc.,  were  sold  at  a  comparatis'ely  low  price,  in  the  Mexican  towns  on  the 
right  bank  they  cost  twice  and  even  four  times  as  much,  and  that  foreign  goods  also 
were  much  cheaper  on  the  one  than  on  the  other  side  of  the  river. 

This  difference  of  circumstances  necessarily  brought  about  one  of  these  two 
results  :  It  either  caused  the  inhabitants  of  the  Mexican  towns  to  emigrate  to  those  of 
the  United  States  in  order  to  enjoy  the  advantages  which  were  to  be  had  in  that  coun- 
try, or  it  induced  them  to  purchase  the  goods  which  ,lhcy  needed  in  the  Unite^l  States 
and  then  to  smuggle  them  over  to  the  Mexican  side. 

In  1S49,  that  is  to  say,  in  the  year  following  that  in  which  the  new  boundary  line 
was  adopted,  the  situation  on  the  Mexican  frontier  became  so  disquieting  that  the 
Federal  Congress  was  oliliged  to  pass  a  law,  on  the  14th  of  April,  which  may  be  con- 
sidered as  the  first  step  toward  the  establishment  of  the  Free  Zone.  This  law  author- 
ized, for  a  term  of  three  years,  the  importation  through  the  frontier  custom-houses  of 
the  State  of  Tamaulipas  of  such  provisions  as  were  for  the  use  of  the  people  of  the 
frontier,  which  goods,  up  to  that  time,  had  been  prohibited  by  the  existing  tariff  or 
had  been  subject  to  very  heavy  duties. 

This  law  did  not  meet  the  exigencies  of  the  situation  ;  and  in  1S5S  the  Free  Zone 
was  established  by  the  governor  of  Tamaulipas  as  an  absolute  necessity  of  the  State. 

On  the  5th  of  February,  1857,  the  constitution  was  adopted  which  is  now  in  force 
in  Mexico,  and  which  went  into  operation  on  the  i6lh  of  September  following.  On 
the  first  of  September,  Don  Ignacio  Comonfort,  the  constitutional  President,  was  in- 
augtirated,  and,  unfortunately,  a  pronunciamiento  was  issued  by  him  on  the  17th  of 
the  same  month  against  the  Constitution  ;  he  also  dissolved  the  Federal  Congress 
which  was  then  in  session.  For  this  reason  several  Mexican  States,  especially  such 
as  were  at  a  distance  from  the  centre,  reassumed  their  sovereignty,  and  their  legisla- 
tures granted  extraordinary  powers  to  the  governors,  in  order  to  enable  those  officers 
to  protect  their  institutions. 

In  virtue  of  these  powers  the  governor  of  the  State  of  Tamaulipas  issued,  on  the 
17th  of  March,  185S,  a  decree  which  was  designed  to  afford  a  remedy  for  the  hardships 
that  were  then  suffered  by  the  frontier  population  of  that  State.  This  decree  estab- 
lished what  has  since  that  time  been  known  as  the  "  Free  Zone,"  in  which  foreign  goods 
intended  for  the  use  of  the  frontier  towns  of  the  State,  and  of  the  ranches  in  their 
jurisdiction,  or  for  trade  between  those  towns,  were  to  be  exempt  from  all  Federal 
duties,  but  not  from  municipal  or  State  taxes,  an  unlimited  right  of  bonding  being, 
moreover,  granted  to  those  towns.  Thus  it  was  that  foreign  goods  imported  there 
could  remain  stored  indefinitely  without  paying  any  duties  to  the  Federal  treasury. 
The  said  goods  paid  no  import  duties,  except  when  they  were  removed  from  those 
towns  to  be  shipped  to  the  interior  of  Mexico. 

Nothing  could  furnish  a  better  explanation  of  the  true  object  of  the  decree  issued 
by  the  governor  of  Tamaulipas,  if  there  were  room  for  any  well-founded  doubt  with 
regard  to  it,  than  the  grounds  on  which  he  based  his  action,  which  were  as  follows  : 

"  Whereas  the  towns  on  our  northern  frontier  are  in  a  state  of  actual  decadence 
owing  to  the  want  of  laws  to  protect  their  trade  ;  and  whereas,  being  situated  in  close 
proximity  to  a  commercial  nation  which  enjoys  free  trade,  they  need  similar  advantages 
in  order  to  avoid  losing  their  population,  which  is  constantly  emigrating  to  the  neigh- 
boring country  ;  now,  therefore,  desiring  to  arrest  this  serious  evil  by  means  of  fran- 
chises which  have  so  long  been  demanded  by  the  frontier  trade." 


BppcnMj.  483 

The  decree  of  tlie  Governor  of  Tamaulipas  of  March  17,  1858,  was  submitted  to 
the  legislature  of  the  State  and  also  to  the  Federal  Congress  for  their  approval,  and  it 
was  approved  by  the  latter  body  July  30,  1S61. 

This  brief  statement  will,  I  think,  be  sufficient  to  show  that  the  establishment  of 
the  Free  Zone  was  a  step  taken  in  fulfilment  of  the  duty  of  self-preservation,  so  to 
speak,  and  that  it  was  by  no  means  a  measure  adopted  in  a  spirit  of  unfriendliness, 
much  less  of  hostility  toward  the  United  States,  as  has  been  believed  in  this  country. 

The  second  impression  which  prevails  here  with  regard  to  the  Free  Zone  is  equally 
unfounded. 

The  events  connected  with  the  foreign  intervention  did  not  permit  the  effects  of 
the  Free  Zone  to  be  felt  in  Mexico  until  the  republic  returned  to  its  normal  condition, 
as  it  did  when  peace  was  restored. 

In  the  report  made  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  to  the  Congress  of  the  United 
Stales,  September  16,  1869,  that  officer  stated  that  one  of  the  causes  of  the  then 
depleted  condition  of  the  Mexican  treasury  was  the  large  contraband  trade  that  was 
carried  on  through  the  Free  Zone  enjoyed  by  the  frontier  towns  of  Tamaulipas.  The 
Secretary  remarked  at  the  same  time  that  the  custom-houses  of  those  towns  were 
scarcely  able  to  meet  their  expenses,  which  showed  that  that  region  had  not  prospered, 
notwithstanding  the  franchises  granted  to  it  by  the  Free  Zone,  and  that  the  said  Zone 
was  not  the  proper  remedy  for  the  evil  which  it  was  intended  to  cure. 

It  is  true  that  the  privilege  granted  by  the  Free  Zone  to  the  inhabitants  of  the 
northern  portion  of  Tamaulipas  to  import  foreign  goods  without  paying  import  duties, 
to  store  them  in  their  own  houses,  and  to  keep  them  in  bond  for  an  unlimited  time 
was,  and  has  been,  a  powerful  incentive  to  smuggling,  with  a  view  to  repressing  which 
recourse  has  been  had  in  Mexico  to  a  costly  and  complicated  system  of  inspection. 
Protection  to  smuggling  was  not,  however,  the  object  had  in  view  by  the  creators  of 
the  Free  Zone,  nor  has  it  been  possible  for  smuggling  to  be  carried  on  to  the  prejudice 
of  the  United  States  to  the  same  extent  to  which  this  has  been  done  to  the  prejudice 
of  Mexico. 

Inasmuch  as  the  duties  levied  by  the  Mexican  tariff  are  much  higher  than  those  of 
the  United  States,  it  is  evident  that  the  most  lucrative  contraband  trade  is  that  which 
is  carried  on  to  the  detriment  of  the  Mexican  treasury.  That  trade  is,  at  the  same 
time,  carried  on  with  less  difficulty,  because  the  Mexican  frontier  is  very  sparsely 
populated,  in  consequence  of  which  the  difficulty  of  guarding  it  is  greatly  increased, 
while  the  frontier  of  the  United  States  is  more  thickly  settled  and  better  defended 
against  smuggling. 

It  does  not  seem  to  me  conceivable  that,  in  order  to  encourage  smuggling,  to  the 
detriment  of  the  United  States  Treasury,  which  might  be  counted  as  one,  smuggling 
could  be  encouraged  to  the  detriment  of  the  Mexican  Treasury,  which  might  be 
counted  as  ten  [i.e.,  in  order  to  injure  the  United  States  the  Mexicans  would  not  be 
willing  to  injure  themselves  ten  times  as  much]  ;  and  if  the  smuggling  which  is  carried 
on  through  the  Free  Zone  were  a  sufficient  reason  for  the  abolition  of  the  latter,  the 
interest  of  Mexico  in  this  matter  would  long  since  have  settled  this  question. 

There  is  another  consideration  to  which  I  think  proper  to  call  your  attention 
before  concluding  this  note,  and  which,  in  my  judgment,  may  be  regarded  as  an  ad- 
vantage to  the  United  States  accruing  from  the  Free  Zone.  As  I  have  already  stated, 
the  Mexican  system  of  legislation  concerning  customs  and  excise  duties  has  generally 
been  restrictive  and  even  prohibitory,  both  by  reason  of  the  high  import  duties  estab- 
lished in  my  country  and  of  the  existence  of  interior  custom-houses  ;  also  on  account 
of  State  and  municipal  taxes,  which  necessitate  vigilance  and  restrictions  that  cannot 
do  otherwise  than  hamper  business  transactions.  I  have  frequently  seen  complaints  on 
this  account  in  official  documents  of  this  Government,  and  I  confess  that  some  of  them 


484  XTbe  /iDejican  3free  Zone, 

have  appeared  to  me  to  be  not  without  foundation,  although  we  are  the  party  that 
suffers  most  from  those  restrictions.  If  the  Free  Zone  in  Mexico  has  inconveniences 
for  this  country  much  less  serious  than  those  which  it  has  for  Mexico,  it  has,  in  my 
judgment,  one  advantage  which  has  hitherto  remained  unnoticed.  That  advantage  is 
that  goods  from  the  United  States  may  be  ira|)oited  into  Mexican  territory  duty  free, 
and  be  warehoused  in  the  region  of  the  Zone  ior  an  unlimited  time.  No  greater  privi- 
leges to  the  commerce  of  a  nation  can  be  asked  for.  If  these  privileges,  which  are 
confined  to  a  limited  zone,  were  extended  to  the  whole  country,  I  do  not  think  that 
the  United  States  would  consider  the  free  admission  of  their  productions  into  Mexico 
as  being  prejudicial  to  their  interests. 

As  I  have  already  remarked,  the  opinion  of  Mexican  statesmen  with  regard  to  the 
Free  Zone  has  been  divided,  some  having  thought  that  it  should  be  abolished,  l)ecause 
it  grants  to  one  section  of  the  country  privileges  which  are  not  authorized  by  the  Con- 
stitution, and  others  having  maintained  that,  under  the  circumstances,  it  was  an  im- 
perative necessity,  and  that  its  abolition  would  be  equivalent  to  the  destruction  of  the 
frontier.  The  latter  opinion  finally  prevailed  in  the  councils  of  the  Mexican  Govern- 
ment, and,  in  accordance  therewith  the  Free  Zone  was  extended  to  the  States  of  Coa- 
huila.  Chihuahua,  Sonora,  and  the  territory  of  Lower  California,  for  a  distance  of  20 
kilometres  from  the  boundary-line ;  and  thus,  so  far  from  any  encouragement  being 
afforded  to  those  who  favored  the  abolition  of  the  Free  Zone,  the  opposite  system 
triumphed  completely. 

The  Free  Zone  was  subjected  to  regulations,  or  rather  it  was  confirmed  and  ampli- 
fied, by  another  decree  of  the  Governor  of  Tamaulipas,  bearing  date  of  October  29, 
i860,  and  the  Federal  Government  did  not  subject  it  to  regulations  until  June  17,  1878. 
Chapter  XII.  of  the  tariff  of  January  24,  1885,  subjected  the  Free  Zone  to  regulations 
in  a  restrictive  way.  Such,  however,  was  the  pressure  exerted  by  the  frontier  towns 
and  by  their  representatives  in  the  Congress  of  the  Union  that,  by  a  decree  dated  June 
19,  1885,  the  limitations  established  in  that  chapter  were  suspended  and  more  liberal 
regulations  were  again  adopted  in  the  tariff  of  March  i,  1887,  which  is  still  in  force. 

I  think  it  proper  for  me  to  state  in  this  connection  that  when  I  was  obliged  to 
study  this  question  thoroughly,  owing  to  the  fact  of  my  filling  the  office  of  the  Secre- 
tary of  the  Treasury  of  the  United  States  of  Mexico,  I  formed  an  opinion  which  was 
decidedly  adverse  to  the  Free  Zone,  which  opinion  I  expressed  in  official  documents, 
and  recommended  its  abolition  to  Congress  ;  so  that  instead  of  having  been  an  advo- 
cate of  the  Zone  I  have  probably  been  its  most  earnest  opponent.  The  reasons  which 
led  me  to  this  conclusion  were  of  a  constitutional  character,  and  although  I  was  aware 
that  the  situation  of  the  frontier  towns  of  Mexico  required  the  adoption  of  suitable 
remedies,  I  always  exerted  myself  to  have  measures  adopted  of  such  a  nature  that  they 
could  be  extended  to  the  whole  country,  they  thereby  being  divested  of  their  odiousness 
as  privileges. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  as  to  the  right  of  the  Government  of  Mexico  to  establish 
rules  relative  to  domestic  and  foreign  trade  in  the  country  and  the  misunderstanding 
which  has  prevailed  here  with  regard  to  the  object  and  tendencies  of  the  Free  Zone, 
and  the  manner  in  which  that  misunderstanding  has  been  expressed  by  certain  Federal 
and  State  officers,  has  really  served  as  an  argument  to  the  advx)cates  of  the  Free  Zone, 
who  attribute  to  their  opponents  a  design  in  advocating  its  abolition  to  sacrifice  the 
interests  of  Mexico  to  satisfy  the  demands  of  the  United  States. 

It  may  not  be  out  of  place  for  me  to  quote  here  certain  views  that  were  expressed 
by  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  of  Mexico  in  the  report  submitted  by  him  to  the 
Congress  of  the  Union  under  date  of  September  16,  1870.     They  are  as  follows  : 

3679.  The  friendly  representations  made  by  the  United  States  Government  to  that 
of  the  Republic  in  relation  to  the  injury  accruing  to  the  United  States  from  the  Free 


BppenMj.  485 

Zone  are  also  worthy  of  being  taken  into  consideration  by  the  Congress,  not  that  it 
may  seek  to  please  the  neighboring  nation  in  a  spirit  of  servility  at  the  expense  of  the 
rights  and  interests  of  the  Republic,  which  it  is  under  obligations  to  care  for  and  up- 
hold above  everything  else  (which  spirit  would  be  unworthy  of  our  national  repre- 
sentatives), but  as  a  neighborly  act,  and  in  order  to  have  a  right  to  be  heard  and 
treated  with  consideration  in  case  that  in  process  of  time  some  difficulty  arise  on  our 
northern  frontier  of  such  a  nature  as  to  possess,  as  regards  Mexico,  the  character 
which  tlie  Free  Zone  possesses  as  regards  our  neighboring  nation  ;  in  order,  moreover, 
that  Mexico  may  acquire  a  new  title  to  be  heard  and  considered  in  a  cordial  and 
friendly  as  well  as  just  and  equitable  manner  when  she  may  have  occasion  to  offer 
remonstrances  with  a  view  to  the  protection  of  her  interests. 

"  A  nation's  dignity  is  not  so  well  upheld  by  refusing  to  consider  the  moderate  and 
amicable  remonstrances  of  a  neighboring  nation  as  it  is  by  hearing  and  considering 
such  remonstrances  and  then  acting  according  to  the  requirements  of  justice." 

As  a  supi)lement  to  this  note  I  have  the  honor  to  enclose  a  pamphlet  containing 
the  following  documents  : 

(i)  Text  of  the  decree  of  the  Governor  of  Tamaulipas,  dated  March  17,  1858, 
establishing  the  Free  Zone. 

(2)  A  law  passed  by  the  Federal  Congress  of  Mexico,  dated  July  30,  1861,  con- 
firming the  above  decree. 

(3)  Regulations  concerning  the  Free  Zone,  promulgated  by  the  Governor  of 
Tamaulipas,  October  2g,  i860. 

(4)  The  first  regulations  concerning  the  aforesaid  Zone,  promulgated  by  the  Fed- 
eral Government  June  17,  1878. 

Fuller  details  on  this  subject  will  be  found  in  the  speeches  delivered  by  the  Secre- 
tary of  the  Treasury  in  the  Mexican  Congress  on  the  2Sth  and  29th  of  October,  and 
on  the  4th  and  5th  of  November,  1870,  which  are  contained  in  the  "  verbal  reports  of 
the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  to  the  Congress  of  the  Union  during  the  first  period  of 
the  second  year  of  its  sessions,"  printed  in  the  City  of  Mexico  in  1870,  a  copy  of  which 
I  sent  to  you  as  an  enclosure  to  my  note  of  January  4,  1886. 

Be  pleased  to  accept,  Mr.  Secretary,  the  assurances  of  my  most  distinguished 
consideration. 

M.  Romero. 

Hon.  Thomas  F.  Bavard. 

no.  8.     mr.  romero  to  mr.  bayard. 

Legation  of  Mexico,  Washington, 
February  14,  1888. 

Mr.  Secretary  : — In  the  note  which  I  addressed  to  you  on  the  loth  instant  rela- 
tive to  the  Free  Zone  established  in  Mexico,  I  omitted  to  state  two  facts,  which  I  think 
proper  to  mention  here  with  a  view  to  throwing  additional  light  upon  this  matter  and 
to  dispelling  certain  prejudices  which  prevail  in  this  country  with  regard  to  it,  and 
which  might  affect  the  friendly  relations  between  Mexico  and  the  United  States. 

The  first  of  these  facts  is  that  the  Free  Zone  was  not  really  an  invention  of  the 
Mexican  authorities  of  the  State  of  Tamaulipas,  but  an  imitation  on  a  larger  scale  of 
similar  measures  which  had  been  adopted  more  than  five  years  previously  by  the 
United  States  Government  for  the  benefit  of  that  portion  of  its  territory  which  bor- 
dered on  Mexico. 

The  law  of  the  United  States  Congress,  of  August  30,  1852,  authorized  the  trans- 
portation to  Mexico  of  goods  sent  in  bond  by  certain  routes  specified  in  that  law,  and 
by  all  such  others  as  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  might  see  fit  to  authorize.  This 
rendered  it  possible  to  send  large  quantities  of  goods  to  the  frontier  towns  of  the 


486  Ubc  /IDcjican  jfrec  Zone. 

United  States  without  paying  duties,  and  to  keep  them  there  in  bond  until  a  favorable 
opportunity  offered  for  their  exportation  to  Mexico. 

As  everything  may  be  abused,  the  goods  that  were  stored  in  the  frontier  towns  of 
the  United  States  were  smuggled  into  Mexico.  The  United  States  Congress,  when  it 
passed  that  law,  of  course  did  not  intend  to  encourage  smuggling  to  the  detriment  of 
Mexico,  althougli  such  was,  practically,  its  result  ;  just  as  the  Governor  of  Tamaulipas 
at  first,  and  the  Mexican  Congress  afterwards,  did  not  intend,  in  establishing  the  Free 
Zone,  to  facilitate  smuggling  to  the  detriment  of  the  United  States. 

There  was  no  such  privilege  within  the  territory  of  Mexico.  All  foreign  goods, 
of  whatever  kind  they  might  be,  were  subjected  to  the  payment  of  duty  when  they 
were  imported. 

This  difference  of  circumstances  led  the  public  men  of  Tamaulipas  to  believe  that 
in  order  to  place  both  sides  of  the  frontier  on  the  same  footing  in  respect  to  commercial 
privileges,  they  needed  to  establish  privileges  similar  to  those  which  existed  in  the 
United  States,  although  those  which  they  did  establish  by  the  decree  of  March  17, 
1858,  were  much  more  extensive  than  those  which  existed  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rio 
Grande. 

The  second  fact  which  I  desire  to  mention  is  a  coincidence  which  is  one  of  the 
causes  that  have  induced  the  inhabitants  of  the  Mexican  frontier  to  attribute  to  the 
Free  Zone  more  beneficial  results  than  it  has  really  produced,  which  circumstance  has, 
perhaps,  led  to  its  maintenance  and  extension. 

The  situation  of  the  Mexican  frontier,  up  to  the  beginning  of  the  Civil  War  in  the 
United  States,  was,  as  I  have  already  remarked,  one  of  poverty  and  even  of  misery, 
and  formed  a  striking  contrast  to  the  other  side  of  the  Rio  Grande.  That  war  broke 
out  almost  simultaneously  with  the  establishment  of  the  Free  Zone.  The  situation  of 
the  Mexican  frontier  thereupon  changed  very  much,  and  welfare  and  prosperity  crossed 
from  the  left  to  the  right  bank  of  the  Rio  Grande  during  that  war,  and  for  some  time 
afterwards,  owing  to  the  general  prostration  which  prevailed  in  the  South.  Superficial 
observers  attributed  that  prosperity  not  to  its  true  cause,  which,  in  my  opinion,  was 
the  aforesaid  war,  but  to  the  Free  Zone,  and  feeling  convinced  that  it  has  been  pro- 
ductive of  extraordinary  results,  they  naturally  considered  it  as  a  panacea  for  all 
evils,  and  its  extension  as  an  imperative  necessity  for  the  country. 

I  hope  that  these  brief  explanations  will  serve  to  rectify  some  of  the  errors  and 
prejudices  which  prevail  in  this  country  in  reference  to  this  matter. 

Be  pleased  to  accept,  etc., 

M.  Romero. 

S.  Ex.  130 — ri. 

MR.    grain's   speech    IN  THE   HOUSE   OF   REPRESENTATIVES. 

Congressional  Record,  vol.  xxvii..  No.  65,  Fifty-third  Congress,  3d  Session, 
Washington,  Wednesday,  February  27,  1895. 

House  of  Representatives,  Wednesday,  February  27,  1895.  The  House  met  at 
II  o'clock  A.M.  Prayer  by  the  Chaplain,  Rev.  E.  B.  Bagby.  The  Journal  of  the 
proceedings  of  yesterday  was  read  and  ai)proved. 

MEXICAN    FREE   ZONE. 

The  Speaker  also  laid  before  the  House  the  amendments  of  the  Senate  to  the 
joint  resolution  (H.  Res.  277)  in  reference  to  the  Free  Zone  along  the  northern  frontier 
of  Mexico  and  adjacent  to  the  United  States. 

Mr.  Cockrell. — I  move  to  concur  in  the  Senate  amendment. 

Mr.  Crain. — Would  it  be  in  order  to  move  to  refer  this  matter  to  a  committee  ? 


BppcnMr.  487 

The  Speaker. — It  would. 

Mr.  Grain. — I  move  its  reference  to  the  Committee  on  Ways  and  Means. 

The  Speaker. — The  amendment  of  the  Senate  will  be  read. 

The  Clerk  read  as  follows  : 

"Strike  out,  after  the  word  'exists,'  in  line  S,  the  following  words  :  '  At  any 
point  between  the  western  boundary  of  the  city  of  Laredo,  in  the  State  of  Texas,  and 
the  Pacific  Ocean." " 

The  Speaker. — The  motion  to  refer  will  first  l)e  submitted  to  the  House. 

The  question  was  taken  ;  and  on  a  division  (demanded  by  Mr.  (^rain)  there  were 
— ayes  7,  noes  43. 

Mr.  Grain. — No  quorum. 

The  Speaker. — The  point  of  order  being  made  that  no  quorum  has  voted,  the 
Chair  will  appoint  tellers. 

Mr.  Grain  and  Mr.  Gockrell  were  appointed  tellers. 

Before  the  announcement  of  the  result  of  the  division 

Mr.  Grai.v  said  :  Mr.  Speaker,  I  withdraw  the  point  of  no  quorum,  with  the 
understanding  that  I  am  to  have  time  to  explain  my  pt)sition  in  reference  to  this 
matter. 

The  Speaker. — The  point  of  no  quorum  is  withdrawn.  The  noes  have  it  and 
the  motion  to  refer  is  lost. 

The  question  now  recurs  on  the  motion  to  concur  in  the  Senate  amendment. 

Mr.  Cabaniss.  —  I  would  ask  that  this  amendment  be  again  reported. 

The  amendment  was  again  read. 

Mr.  Grain. — Mr.  Speaker — 

The  Speaker. — The  Chair  recognizes  the  gentleman  from  Texas  [Mr.  Cockrell] 
in  charge  of  the  res6lution. 

Mr.  Cockkell. — I  yield  to  my  colleague  thirty  minutes. 

Mr.  Grain. — Mr.  Speaker,  the  history  of  tliis  resolution  is  a  very  peculiar  one. 
Originally,  without  the  amendment  proposed  by  the  Senate,  it  was  an  agreed  settle- 
ment of  all  of  the  differences  between  my  colleague  from  Texas  and  myself  upon  the 
subject  of  the  disestablishment  of  the  Free  Zone  by  the  coercion  of  a  neighboring 
Government  on  the  part  of  the  Congress  of  the  United  States.  The  amended  resolu- 
tion of  the  House  was  agreed  to  by  my  colleague  [Mr.  Gockrell],  my  colleague  [.Mr. 
Paschal],  and  myself,  and  was  adopted  unanimously,  I  believe,  by  the  Committee  on 
Ways  and  Means  of  the  House.  The  House  passed  it  by  unanimous  consent,  and  it 
was  passed  in  the  Senate  without  objection,  and  was  signed  by  the  Speaker  of  the 
House  and  by  the  President  of  the  Senate,  and  would  doubtless  to-day  be  the  law  of 
the  land  but  for  the  fact  that  Washington's  birthday  intervened,  and  the  resolution,  as 
thus  signed,  failed  to  reach  the  hands  of  the  President. 

The  resolution  as  amended  was  recalled  by  the  Senate  without  objection,  and  an 
amendment  inserted  by  that  body  providing  that  the  coercive  measure  suggested  in  the 
resolution  should  apply  to  the  entire  boundary  between  the  Republic  of  Mexico  and 
the  Republic  of  the  United  States.  I  have  no  objection  to  the  gentlemen  who  repre- 
sent other  portions  of  the  Rio  Grande  having  their  wishes  carried  out  in  that  regard,  but 
I  do  protest  in  the  name  of  the  constituency  I  have  the  honor  to  represent  against  the 
imposition  of  a  coercive  measure  like  this  u[)on  their  neighbors  on  the  other  side  of 
the  Rio  Grande. 

I  cannot  understand,  Mr.  Speaker,  how  Democrats  who  are  theoretically  and  who 
are  assumed  to  be  practically  free  traders  can  favor  a  measure  which  has  for  its  ulti- 
mate effect,  as  stated  in  the  body  of  it,  the  coercion  of  a  sister  Republic  into  the  dis- 
establishment of  free  trade  and  the  establishment  in  lieu  thereof  of  a  protective  tariff 
system.     I   can  readily  understand  how  logically  and  consistently  our   Republican 


488  Ube  riDejican  jfree  Zone. 

brethren  can  support  such  a  proposition,  but  I  fail  to  understand  how  gentlemen 
claiming  to  be  Democrats  and  who  are  willing  to  put  wool  upon  the  free  list  and  sugar 
upon  the  free  list  and  iron  upon  the  free  list,  and  other  raw  materials  upon  the  free 
list,  can  support  a  measure  which  declares  to  the  Mexican  Government  that  it  must 
discontinue  free  trade  along  our  frontier  and  substitute  in  place  of  it  a  protective 
tariff  system. 

The  Mexican  Free  Zone  includes  a  strip  of  territory  varying  in  width  from  three 
to  twelve  or  thirteen  miles.  In  that  territory  all  goods  coming  from  any  country  in 
the  world,  whether  from  Japan,  China,  or  the  United  States,  are  entered  by  the  pay- 
ment of  one-tenth  of  the  regular  Mexican  tariff  rate.  After  those  goods  leave  that 
Zone  they  are  compelled  by  each  municipality,  by  each  State,  and  by  the  Federal 
Government  through  whose  territory  they  pass  to  pay  the  regular  tariff  rate  imposed. 

Now,  Mexican  wool  comes  into  Texas  free.  Why?  Because  we  have  established 
a  Zofia  Libre,  not  three  miles  in  extent,  but  coextensive  with  the  limits  of  the  United 
States,  because  we  have  made  wool  free.  I  say  to  this  House,  Mr.  Speaker,  that  by 
the  adoption  of  this  resolution  we  affect  not  the  people  of  Mexico  alone,  not  those 
who  are  charged  with  being  smugglers,  but  foreign  governments,  whose  importers 
have  the  advantage  of  the  bonded  system  and  also  every  mode  of  transportation  of 
foreign  goods  in  bond  across  the  territory  of  the  United  States  intended  for  consump- 
tion in  the  Republic  of  Mexico. 

The  opposition  to  the  proposition  as  agreed  upon  and  unanimously  passed  by  this 
House,  which  opposition  was  raised  in  the  Senate,  was  not  based  upon  any  political 
or  economical  ground,  but  upon  the  pretext  that  the  carrying  trade  of  all  these  goods 
in  bond  would  enter  Mexico  by  one  railroad,  the  Mexican  National,  or  by  the  Inter- 
national and  Great  Northern,  and  would  be  taken  away  from  the  Southern  Pacific,  the 
Texas  Pacific,  and  other  roads  running  into  and  through  the  territory  represented  by 
my  colleagues  who  favor  this  resolution. 

It  is  an  injustice  to  foreign  Governments.  Why  ?  Because  the  subjects  of  these 
Governments  who  are  manufacturers,  who  are  producers,  are  prohibited  from  carrying 
their  goods  in  bond  across  the  territory  of  the  United  States  into  the  Republic  of 
Mexico.  Gentlemen  in  the  other  Chamber  of  this  legislative  body  have  said,  "We 
are  Americans  ;  we  do  not  intend  to  be  compelled  by  Germany  or  by  France  to  remove 
the  differential  tax  on  sugar,  when  they  seek  to  compel  us  to  do  it  by  retaliation  by  re- 
fusing importations  of  American  breadstuffs,  American  beef,  or  American  meat  products 
of  any  kind,  character,  or  description."  And  yet  we  propose  by  this  resolution  to  say  to 
Mexico,  "  Until  you  abolish  the  Free  Zone  you  shall  not  have  the  privilege  of  the 
bonded  system  across  our  country."  Will  any  gentleman  rise  now — and  I  pause  for  a 
reply — and  give  any  sound,  truthful  reason  for  this  proposition  ?  Nobody  suggests  a 
reason. 

It  is  said  that  the  Mexican  Government  wants  this  Free  Zone  disestablished.  It 
is  within  their  own  province.  It  is  within  their  own  territorial  jurisdiction,  and  if 
they  desire  to  have  it  abolished,  why  does  not  the  Mexican  Congress,  acting  with  the 
iMexican  President,  abolish  it?  Is  it  possible  that  in  order  to  accomplish  this  result 
they  appeal  to  the  American  Congress?  We  might  as  well  say  that  until  Great 
Britain  does  away  with  comparative  free  trade  we  will  keep  up  our  high  protective- 
tariff  system.  We  repel  the  idea  of  coercion  on  the  part  of  European  Governments, 
and  yet  we  attempt  to  establish  a  similar  policy  by  our  legislative  enactment. 

Only  twelve  per  cent,  of  the  entire  importations  into  Mexico  remain  in  the  Free 
Zone.  It  has  been  said  that  it  is  a  hiding  place,  a  nesting  place  for  smugglers.  Mr. 
Speaker,  I  have  in  my  possession  a  letter  from  the  collector  of  customs  at  Lareda 
which  is  an  answer  to  this  base,  calumniatory  charge  against  my  constituents.  I  do 
not  stand  here  to  speak  for  others.     If  colleagues  of  mine  say  that  their  constituents 


are  smugglers,  I  do  not  attempt  to  dispute  the  suggestion,  for  I  have  no  knowledge 
on  the  subject ;  but  as  to  my  own  constituents  I  do  repel  the  insinuation,  or  the 
charge,  in  whatever  form  made  or  whencesoever  it  comes,  with  all  the  power  of 
language  I  can  command. 

I  ask,  Mr.  Speaker,  that  the  Clerk  of  the  House  read  this  communication. 

The  Speaker. — The  Clerk  will  read. 

The  Clerk  read  as  follows  : 

"Custom  House,  Collector's  Office, 
"  Laredo,  Tex.,  February  2j,  i8gj. 

"  My  dear  Sir, — I  am  just  in  receipt  of  the  marked  copy  of  the  Washington  Post 
of  the  I2th  instant,  sent  me  by  you,  containing  an  extract  from  the  report  of  Civil  Ser- 
vice Commissioner  Lyman  on  his  recent  tour  of  inspection  along  the  Mexican  frontier. 
With  the  greater  part  of  the  conclusions  reached  by  Commissioner  Lyman  I  very 
heartily  agree,  but  I  am  unable  to  see  what  benefit  will  accrue  to  the  United  States 
from  the  abolition  of  the  Free  Zone.  It  is  true  that  petty  smuggling  is  constantly 
carried  on  between  the  towns  in  the  Free  Zone  just  across  the  river  and  those  on  this 
bank.  This  petty  smuggling  is  annoying  and  it  is  almost  impossible  to  prevent  it. 
The  purchases  of  foreign  goods  in  Nuevo  Laredo,  for  instance,  made  by  persons  from 
this  side  are  usually  small  in  quantity  and  value.  I  think  that  in  most  cases  the  petty 
smuggling  of  this  character  is  done  by  ladies  who  conceal  about  their  persons  a  few 
pairs  of  silk  hose,  of  kid  gloves,  small  quantities  of  lace,  and  in  some  instances  silk 
dress  patterns.  As  the  majority  of  the  people  here,  however,  do  not  indulge  in  silk 
goods  of  any  character  these  purchases  are  not  extensive.  On  the  other  hand  the 
people  who  live  across  the  river  buy  very  largely  on  this  side,  their  purchases  consist- 
ing of  groceries,  prints,  hardware,  and  articles  of  like  character. 

"  One  gentleman  who  lives  in  Nuevo  Laredo  told  me  yesterday  that  his  monthly 
bills  on  this  side  of  the  river  amounted  to  $60.  Numbers  of  families  living  in  Nuevo 
Laredo  buy  practically  all  of  their  groceries  from  merchants  on  this  side  of  the  river. 
The  commission  merchants  here  tell  me  that  they  have  in  the  Free  Zone  one  of  their 
best  markets.  Flour,  bacon,  and  many  other  American  products  are  sold  in  Nuevo 
Laredo  and  the  territory  above  and  below  that  point.  In  fact,  the  balance  of  trade  is 
very  largely  in  our  favor.  I  can  not  assent  to  the  proposition  that  the  existence  of  the 
Free  Zone  has  inured  very  largely  to  the  benefit  of  the  Mexican  border  towns,  and 
that  business  is  '  dead  and  unprofitable  '  in  the  American  towns  opposite  them.  This 
is  not  true  of  Laredo.  This  place  has  been  steadily  growing  in  importance  as  a  busi- 
ness point  for  the  past  several  years.  Our  merchants  have  been  doing  a  large  and 
profitable  business,  and  all  of  them  are  prosperous. 

"  During  the  long  period  of  depression  that  has  prevailed  everywhere  we  have  not 
had  a  single  failure  among  our  business  men.  There  is  not  a  single  storehouse  on  this 
side  of  the  river  that  is  unoccupied.  There  are  numbers  of  vacant  houses  in  Nuevo 
Laredo,  across  the  river,  and  they  have  only  two  general  dealers  whose  business  is  of 
any  importance.  On  the  Mexican  side  of  the  river  the  towns  of  Guerrero,  Mier, 
Camargo,  and  Matamoras,  all  in  the  Free  Zone,  are  dead  towns.  Guerrero  was  for- 
merly a  fine  little  city  of  about  6000  population  and  with  a  thriving  trade.  I  visited 
it  some  two  months  ago,  and  found  it  a  '  deserted  village '  of  about  800  people.  Its 
storehouses  are  closed  and  its  trade  is  dead.  I  learn  that  this  is  true  in  a  large  measure 
of  the  other  towns  named. 

"  If  the  proposition  now  before  Congress  to  withdraw  from  the  Mexican  mer- 
chants the  privilege  of  transporting  goods  in  bond  across  our  territory  become  a  law,  it 
will  divert  from  our  American  railroads  a  large  part  of  the  freight  traffic  now  enjoyed 
by  them  and  will  send  it  permanently  to  the  Mexican  ports  of  Tampico  and  Veracruz. 
Should  it  be  enacted  and  the  result  be  the  abolition  of  the  Free  Zone,  what  benefit 


49°  "G^be  /IDejican  ifree  Zone. 

will  the  United  States  derive?  I  can  think  of  none.  Those  of  our  people  who  under- 
stand this  matter  are  obliged  to  you  for  your  amendment  excepting  our  territory  from 
the  operation  of  this  law.  I  inclose  a  note  from  Special  Inspector  Izard  on  this  sub- 
ject and  a  letter  recently  published  by  Mr.  Shafter,  of  Eagle  Pass. 

"  Yours  very  truly,  Frank  B.  Earnest. 

"  Hon.  W.  II.  Grain,  Washington,  D.  C." 

Mr.  Grain. — Now,  Mr.  Speaker,  I  should  like  to  have  an  editorial  read  from  the 
Lower  Rio  Grande,  a  paper  which  is  published  at  Brownsville,  Texas. 
The  Glerk  read  as  follows  : 

"  THE  ZONA  LIBRE." 

"On  the  24th  instant  we  published  a  resolution  to  be  presented  to  the  Texas 
legislature,  which  has  since  passed  that  body,  and  which  calls  upon  our  members  of 
Congress  to  urge  upon  Mexico  to  abolish  the  Mexican  Zona  Libre,  or  Free  Zone,  and 
in  case  of  a  refusal,  then  for  the  United  States  to  close  its  bonded  warehouses  against 
all  goods  entering  Mexico  through  any  of  our  ports. 

"  We  have  been  at  a  loss  to  understand  how  or  why  such  a  ruinous  measure  could 
ever  be  proposed  and  why  or  how  it  could  pass  the  Texas  legislature,  and,  astonishing 
to  relate,  we  are  told  that  it  was  not  opposed  by  our  immediate  representatives  even, 
and  such  a  mass  of  absolute  misstatements  is  permitted  to  be  sent  as  a  basis  for  future 
Congressional  legislation. 

'■'Apropos  of  this  resolution  we  have  been  shown  a  pamphlet  written  by  Mr.  G.  R. 
Morehead,  President  State  National  Bank,  El  Paso,  Tex.,  which  is  possibly  the  basis 
of  the  resolution  passed  by  the  Texas  legislature,  which  is  a  statement  against  the 
Free  Zone,  urging  its  abolishment.  Were  Mr.  Morehead  a  citizen  of  the  interior  of 
Mexico,  or  a  European  manufacturer,  there  might  be  some  reason  to  justify  his  state- 
ments, but  as  an  American  a  more  suicidal  effort  was  never  made.  The  opening  of 
his  pamphlet  is  as  follows  : 

"  '  Along  the  Rio  Grande  River,  the  divide  between  the  territory  of  the  United 
States  and  that  of  Mexico,  are  many  causes  which  result  in  an  ill-feeling  between  the 
border  inhabitants  which  is  daily  growing  in  intensity  and  magnitude.  These  causes 
and  the  consequent  estrangement  are  the  growth  of  many  years  and  have  a  tendency 
to  result  in  a  complete  alienation. 

"'This  immediate  section,  having  once  formed  a  portion  of  the  dominion  of 
Mexico,  and  having  gained  its  independence  by  the  sword,  is  naturally  antagonized  by 
that  Government,  and  to  such  an  extent  that  forbearance  almost  ceases  to  be  a  virtue. 

"  '  The  conditions  which  cause  the  intensity  of  feeling  are  mainly  the  result  of 
long  years  of  Mexican  legislation  which  has  operated  against  the  commercial  interests 
of  the  entire  border.  This  legislation  was  first  conceived  on  March  17,  185S,  when 
the  Governor  of  the  State  of  Tamaulipas,  Mexico,  issued  a  decree  establishing  what  is 
known  as  the  Zona  Libre,  or  Free  Zone  along  the  northern  boundary  of  his  States.' 

"  Here  is  a  broad  statement  which  is  not  justified  by  a  single  condition  of  existing 
affairs.  Never  in  the  history  of  this  frontier  was  there  less  cause  for  '  ill-feeling'  than 
there  is  to-day,  and  there  is  no  more  ill-feeling  commercially  and  socially  than  there  is 
between  New  York  and  Brooklyn,  hence  the  '  consequent  estrangement '  is  no  more  or 
less  than  genuine  fol-de-rol.  No  more  amicable  condition  is  possible  to  exist  thm  !S 
existing  to-day.  The  above  statement,  though,  is  the  groundwork  for  a  bombastic 
appeal  for  the  abolition  of  the  Zo7ia  Libre. 

"  The  statements  of  Mr.  Morehead  are  too  many  to  have  their  absurdities  exposed 
in  a  newspaper  article,  but  as  his  basis  is  all  wrong  the  superstructure  must  necessarily 
be  false  and  visionary,  as  a  few  statements  of  facts  will  show. 

"  The  Zo7ia  Libre  is  a  belt  of  land  along  the  Mexican  side  of  the  Rio  Grande, 


thirteen  miles  wide,  and  not  some  forty-three  miles  wide,  as  stated  by  Mr.  More- 
head,  into  which  foreign  goods  can  be  imported  almost  free  of  duty.  Under  the 
operation  of  actual  conditions  that  belt  is  the  great  mart  in  all  Mexico  for  goods  of 
American  manufacture,  and  when  such  goods  are  taken  into  Mexico  the  sending  of 
them  into  the  interior  of  Mexico  has  to  take  place  under  the  immediate  care  of  officers 
of  the  revenue  service  of  Mexico.  In  this  Free  Zone  American  manufactures  have 
successfully  competed  for  the  trade  to  the  exclusion  of  foreign  goods.  To  close  the 
Zona  Libi'e,  or  Free  Zone,  is  simply  to  kill  off  this  large  trade  in  American  fabrics. 
Why?  Because  the  Mexican  tariff  would  exclude  American  fabrics,  and  nothing  but 
the  lower  priced  foreign  goods  could  enter  and  pay  duties  in  competition  with  the  fab- 
rics of  Mexico.  American  goods  would  be  upon  the  American  border  to  be  smuggled 
into  Mexico,  but  while  the  Zona  Libre  lasts  Mexico  is  in  no  danger  of  such  frauds 
being  perpetrated  upon  her  revenues,  as  was  the  actual  condition  before  the  Zona  was 
established. 

"  To  close  the  bonded  system  of  the  United  States  against  Mexico  would  be  to 
force  all  of  the  commerce  that  now  travels  over  American  railroads  and  American 
ships  to  enter  Mexico  in  foreign  bottoms  at  the  port  of  Tampico  and  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Rio  Grande  by  rail,  to  be  carried  to  the  very  same  places  where  it  is  now  taken 
over  American  lines.  The  feeling,  therefore,  which  would  deprive  Mexico  of  the 
bonded  accommodation  is  one  of  hatred  to  Mexico  and  one  of  destruction  to  American 
industries  and  trade. 

"  Mexico  is  to-day  in  no  wise  dependent  upon  facilities  in  the  United  States  to 
carry  on  her  trade  and  commerce  with  foreign  countries,  as  she  formerly  was,  and  this 
changed  condition  many  seem  not  to  understand.  The  resolution  passed  by  the  Texas 
legislature  and  the  Morehead  pamphlet,  if  carried  into  effect,  would  positively  kill 
every  American  interest  along  the  Rio  Grande  and  destroy  the  great  and  growing  trade 
now  existing  between  the  two  countries.  More  hatred,  malice,  and  folly,  from  an 
American  standpoint,  could  not  be  imagined  than  those  two  dangerous  papers  contain." 

Mr.  Grain. — Mr.  Speaker,  I  further  ask  leave  to  read  from  a  communication 
sent  to  me  from  some  leading  citizens  of  Brownsville  in  reference  to  tliis  subject  : 

"Brownsville,  Tex.,  yanuary  27,  iSgj. 

"  The  arguments  favoring  the  abolition  of  the  Zona  Libre  do  not  apply  here. 
The  importations  into  the  Zona  Libre  from  Brownsville,  Rio  Grande  City,  and  Roma 
are  chiefly  breadstuffs,  agricultural  implements,  and  other  goods  of  American  produc- 
tion ;  hence  there  is  no  smuggling  back  from  Mexico  to  the  United  States  of  foreign 
goods.  This  is  abundantly  shown  by  the  character  of  the  seizures  made  by  our  cus- 
toms officers,  which  seldom  embrace  anything  but  articles  of  Mexican  origin,  and  this 
no  change  or  modification  in  the  Zona  Libre  would  affect.  But  our  whole  transporta- 
tion system  depends  on  our  continuing  to  supply  Matamoras  and  the  adjacent  territory 
with  the  class  of  goods  they  now  purchase  from  us.  If  the  inhabitants  of  that  section 
are  compelled  to  pay  Mexican  import  duties  on  their  flour,  lard,  soap,  sugar,  beans, 
cotton  goods,  clothing,  plows,  harness,  hardware,  agricultural  implements,  and  machin- 
ery, all  of  which  American  manufactures  they  now  buy  from  us,  they  will  use  similar 
articles  of  Mexican  origin  and  production,  although  of  inferior  quality  and  higher  first 
cost,  because  they  can  get  those  native  articles  without  the  payment  of  import  duties. 
The  result  is,  we  lose  our  market  for  a  large  and  constantly  increasing  quantity  of  our 
own  products,  and  in  losing  this  market  we  so  decrease  the  volume  of  our  trade  that 
we  would  cease  to  have  direct  communication  by  steamer  and  otherwise  with  the  great 
centres  of  American  production,  our  own  local  wants  not  being  sufficient  to  justify  the 
continuance  of  the  steamer  line  to  supply  them  alone. 


I 


s 


492  TLbc  /IDcjican  3Free  Zone. 

"You  will  thus  see  the  matter  is  of  vital  importance  to  us.  We  therefore  ask 
you  to  exert  all  your  influence,  official,  legislative,  and  personal,  to  aid  us. 

"  There  is  another  phase  of  the  question.  The  threat  to  suspend  the  operation 
of  our  bonded  system  on  the  northern  frontier  of  Mexico  unless  that  country  shall 
abolish  the  Zana  Libre  is  a  very  serious  one.  Suppose  (and  the  supposition  is  fully 
warranted)  Mexico  declines  to  be  coerced  ;  then  the  American  railroads  running  to  the 
Mexican  frontier  lose  the  carrying  of  the  best-paying  and  most  valuable  portion  of 
their  traffic,  as  the  transportation  of  all  goods  of  European  origin  would  be  forced  into 
vessels  direct  to  Mexican  ports,  and  not  only  our  railroads  but  our  coastwise  carrying 
companies  would  suffer  severely,  and  in  order  to  fully  load  those  vessels  for  Mexican 
ports  direct,  the  Mexican  merchant  would  be  compelled  to  purchase  in  Europe  many 
goods  he  now  procures  from  the  United  States.  In  point  of  fact,  the  suspension  of 
our  bonded  system  to  the  northern  frontier  of  Mexico  would  benefit  only  European 
producers,  merchants,  and  carriers,  and  would  ^^•ork  a  corresponding  injury  to  those 
interests  of  our  own  country. 

"  We  are,  very  respectfully, 

"Thomas  Carson, 
"James  B.  Wells, 
"John  I.  Kleiber, 
"  Wm.  J.  Russell, 
"  G.  M.  Raphael. 
"William  Kelly." 

The  Speaker. — The  time  of  the  gentleman  has  expired. 

Mr.  Grain. — Inasmuch  as  five  minutes  of  my  time  has  been  interrupted  by  the 
receiving  of  a  message  from  the  Senate,  I  will  ask  an  extension  of  five  minutes. 

The  Speaker. — The  Ghair  hears  no  objection. 

Mr.  Grain. — Mr.  Speaker,  I  just  wanted  five  minutes  to  explain  the  proposition 
submitted  by  the  gentleman  from  Indiana  [Mr.  Bynum].  He  has  stated  to  the  House 
that  this  will  not  affect  the  importation  in  the  Free  Zone  of  American  goods.  If 
gentlemen  will  examine  the  resolution,  they  will  find  that  it  is  distinctly  stated  that 
until  the  Free  Zone  is  abolished  the  bonded  system  of  the  United  States  shall  be  sus- 
pended as  to  Mexico.  Now,  if  the  Free  Zone  is  abolished,  then  American  goods 
going  into  Mexico  have  to  pay  the  full  rate  of  duty.  That  is  all  I  have  to  say,  Mr. 
Speaker. 

The  previous  question  was  then  ordered,  and  under  the  operation  thereof  the 
Senate  amendment  was  concurred  in. 

On  motion  of  Mr.  Gockrell,  a  motion  to  reconsider  the  vote  by  which  the  Sen- 
ate amendment  was  concurred  in  was  laid  on  the  table. 

MR.  Sutton's  opinion  on  the  free  zone. 

The  Ne-v  York  Evening  Post,  May  19,  1894.  The  Free  Zone.  Agitation  of 
Texas  Citizens  for  its  abolition.  What  the  Zone  is  ;  advantages  which  Mexicans 
have  under  existing  conditions. 

"  Washington,  May  ig,  i8g4. 

"  The  agitation  by  citizens  of  Texas  in  favor  of  abolishing  the  Free  Zone  between 
this  country  and  Mexico  has  got  as  far  as  a  resolution  of  inquiry  brought  into  the  House 
by  Representative  Grain,  calling  for  the  correspondence  between  our  Government  and 
that  of  Mexico  on  the  subject  of  the  Zone.  Warner  P.  Sutton,  who  for  many  years 
was  a  Gonsul-General  of  the  United  States  in  Mexico,  was  asked  by  the  Evening  Post 
correspondent  to-day  for  some  account  of  the  Free  Zone. 


appeuMy.  493 

"  '  It  is  a  narrow  strip  of  territory,'  he  answered,  '  nowhere  more  than  twelve  and 

one  half  miles  wide,  along  the  northern  border  of  Mexico.     Into  the  ports  of  this  Zone 

goods  may  be  imported  on  payment  of  only  lo  per  cent,  of  the  regular  duty.     The 

people  on  the  Mexican  side  of  the  border  can  thus  get  French  wines,  liquors,  silks, 

and  laces  and  similar  goods  from  other  foreign  countries,  cheaper  than  those  on  the 

American  side.     The  merchants  on  the  Mexican  side  have  to  pay  only  one  tenth  of 

'{.         the  Mexican  duty  on  these  goods,  while  those  on  our  side  pay  the  whole  of  our  duty. 

I  ,       As  a  consequence,  there  is  a  strong  temptation  for  residents  on  the  American  side  to 

U         buy  these  things  on  the  Mexican  side  and  run  them  over  without  paying  duties.     A 

I  j      substantial  advantage  is  reaped  in  this  way  by  the  Mexican  merchants. 

'I  "'This  advantage,  however,  is  largely  offset  by  the  high  taxes  levied  on  the ' 

'l  '      Mexican  side.     They  have  a  stamp  tax  there  which  would  make  the  internal-revenue 

1         provisions  of  the  Wilson- Voorhees  bill  green  with  envy  ;  and  every  time  a  dollar  shows 

'/         itself  it  is  loaded  with  a  new  tax.     If  one  or  two  houses  go  out  of  business,  their  tax  is 

',.        usually  added  on  to  the  quota  of  those  remaining,  so  that  the  Zona  Lzdre  benefits  are 

L  ,      largely  eaten  up  by  higher  taxes. 

Ill,  "  'Aside  from  the  class  of  European  goods  I  have  mentioned,  we  supply  this  fron- 

P>  tier  market  with  nearly  everything  sold  there.  Take  it  all  around,  we  probably  outsell 
the  rest  of  the  world  three  to  one,  all  along  this  border  line  of  Mexico  from  the  Pacific 
I  Ocean  to  the  Gulf.  As  our  goods  are  free  on  our  side  and  pay  lo  per  cent,  of  the 
:j  high  Mexican  duty  on  the  Mexican  side,  our  merchants  can  and  do  compete  with  the 
;,  Europeans  in  everything  we  produce.  We  almost  hold  our  own  against  many 
European  goods.' 

"  '  These  conditions  must  reflect  themselves  in  the  prosperity  of  the  towns  on  the 
two  sides  of  the  border  ? ' 

"  '  They  do.  Matamoras,  which  was  formerly  the  gate  to  Mexico,  has  now  very 
little  business ;  Brownsville,  on  our  side  of  the  river,  has  it  all.  Nuevo  Laredo, 
Mexico,  has  less  business  every  year,  while  Laredo,  Texas,  gains  steadily.  Most  of 
the  chief  buyers  of  Nuevo  Laredo  come  over  and  buy  groceries,  dry  goods,  furniture, 
etc.,  on  the  American  side,  and  get  them  across  on  verbal  permits  or  on  the  regular 
invoices  of  importers.  The  largest  stocks  are  carried  on  the  American  side.  There 
are  two  or  three  large  stores  on  the  Mexican  side  ;  but  even  with  the  Zona  privilege 
i  the  advantages,  except  on  a  few  lines  of  European  goods,  are  with  our  people.     At 

Piedras  Negras  and  Eagle  Pass  business  is  about  equally  divided  ;  but  this  is  because 
the  railway  shops  are  located  on  the  Mexican  side.     At  El  Paso,  Texas,  and  Juarez, 
Mexico,  the  American  side  has  three  times  the  trade  of  the  Mexican  side.' 
"  '  In  all  these  cases  the  Rio  Grande  is  the  boundary,  is  it  not  ? ' 
"'Yes;   but   at   Nogales,   Arizona,   and   Sonora,   Mexico,   the   boundary  is  an 
imaginary  line,  and  you  have  to  get  your  bearings  by  the  hills  and  other  landmarks 
from  time  to  time  to  tell  whether  you  are  in  Mexico  or  the  United  States.     This  gives 
rise  to  many  oddities.     One  dramseller  has  the  line  running  through  his  bar-room.    As 
the  license  laws  are  easier  in  Mexico,  he  has  his  drinking  bar  on  that  side,  and  his 
customers  cross  the  room  into  the  United  States  to  wipe  off  their  perspiration.' 
" '  The  idea  of  abolishing  the  Zona  Libre  is  not  new  ?' 

"  '  By  no  means.  It  has  been  discussed  for  thirty-five  years  at  least.  During 
our  Civil  War  the  free  belt  made  Matamoras  the  third  port  in  the  world.  As  we  have 
increased  our  production  of  goods  which  Mexico  needs,  the  benefits  of  the  Zone  have 
diminished,  until  now  it  serves  only  to  keep  alive  the  towns  on  the  Mexican  side. 
The  Mexicans,  except  along  the  border,  think  no  more  of  it  than  we  do.  They  would 
be  very  glad  of  some  convenient  way  to  get  rid  of  it.  But  they  know  that  if  it  were 
abolished  summarily  it  would  utterly  kill  out  what  little  mercantile  life  now  remains 
on  their  side.  What  ought  to  be  done  is  to  negotiate  a  treaty  by  which  the  products 
of  each  country,  at  least  in  small  amounts,  could  cross  the  border  without  payment  of 


494  ^be  /IDcjican  Jfrce  Zone, 


duties  on  either  side.     If  that  were  done  Mexico  could  afford  to  wipe  out  the  Free 
Zone  and  dispense  with  European  goods." 

"  '  How  would  the  summary  abolition  of  the  Zone  affect  us? ' 
"  '  It  would  not  do  for  us  to  urge  its  abolition  without  this  local  free  interchange 
of  products,  becau-^e  the  Zone  is  now  a  large  consumer  of  many  of  our  goods.  Wheat, 
flour,  corn,  bacon,  lard,  etc.,  are  supplied  by  us  exclusively,  as  well  as  many  other 
necessaries.  So  long  as  the  inhabitants  of  the  Zone  can  import  these  at  lo  per  cent, 
of  the  regular  duties,  they  can  eat  them  ;  but  if  the  full  duties  were  exacted,  they 
would  be  too  expensive.  For  instance,  some  five  million  pounds  of  our  flour  are  im- 
ported every  year  at  Matamoras,  Nuevo  Laredo,  Piedras  Negras,  Juarez,  and  Nogales, 
exclusively  for  consumption  in  the  Zone,  for  scarcely  a  barrel  goes  into  the  interior. 
The  full  duty  is  more  than  two  cents  a  pound  on  wheat  and  four  cents  on  wheat  flour. 
Those  who  live  in  the  Zone  can  pay  lo  per  cent,  of  this  duty  and  eat  our  flour ;  those 
farther  back  have  to  buy  Mexican  flour  or  eat  corn-meal.' 

"  '  How  would  you  advise  going  about  the  improvement  of  present  conditions?' 
"' What  we  have  long  needed  in  our  relations  with  Mexico  is  to  put  political 
questions  in  the  background  and  study  and  treat  with  Mexico  on  a  friendly  commercial 
basis.  Do  you  know  that  we  have  absolutely  no  treaties  of  any  sort  in  force  with 
Mexico  to-day  except  an  extradition  treaty — an  extremely  faulty  one — dated  away  back 
in  1861  ?  It  is  high  time  to  negotiate  at  least  a  commercial  treaty.  Mexico  needs  our 
products  and  has  always  been  disposed  to  meet  us  half  way.  Too  much  protection 
buncombe  by  one  party  and  too  much  free-trade  theorizing  by  the  other  have  pre- 
vented our  doing  five  or  ten  million  dollars'  worth  of  commerce  with  Mexico  every 
year,  to  the  great  benefit  of  both  countries. 

"  '  We  had  the  Grant-Romero  treaty  in  1883.  I  worked  on  that  with  General 
Grant,  and  hoped  that  even  so  small  a  step  in  the  right  direction  would  be  followed  by 
others.  The  House  proceeded  to  pitch  the  treaty  out  of  court,  while  some  individuals 
added  insult  to  injury  by  saying  mean  things  about  Mexico.  We  ought  now  to  pass  a 
general  resolution  reciting  what  should  be  done,  intrust  the  plan  to  a  non-partisan 
commission  to  work  out,  and,  when  they  have  made  a  report,  enact  the  necessary  legis- 
lation promptly,  with  such  conditions  that  it  will  stay  in  force  not  less  than  ten  years.' 
"  '  Why  not  have  complete  free  trade  with  Mexico,  as  our  next  neighbor?' 
"  '  It  would  be  idle  to  talk  about  that  for  the  present.  Mexico  is  too  poor  even 
to  consider  such  a  suggestion.  She  could  afford,  however,  and  I  believe  would  be 
willing,  to  try  a  system  of  limited  reciprocity,  with  such  local  border  interchange  of 
national  products  as  would  enable  her  to  abolish  the  Zona  Libre.  Both  countries 
would  reap  the  advantage  of  a  cessation  of  smuggling,  and  Mexico  would  be  enabled 
to  do  away  with  most  of  her  interior  customs  guards,  and  save  a  half-million  dollars  or 
more  in  salaries  every  year.  Along  with  such  a  system  some  articles  could  be  made 
free  in  each  country,  and  a  few  others  given  lower  duties.  The  subject  is  of  great 
importance,  and  one  to  which  I  have  given  much  study  for  fifteen  years.  I  earnestly 
hope  a  change  in  present  conditions  will  be  inaugurated  soon.'  " 

Supplement  to  the  Free  Zone. — At  the  end  of  this  book  I  will  append 
a  Supplement  to  the  Free  Zone  paper,  containing 'recent  official  infor- 
mation received  from  the  Mexican  Government  since  this  paper  went 
to  press,  on  the  extent  of  the  foreign  trade  in  the  Free  Zone,  and  a 
brief  review  of  the  action  taken  on  the  same  subject  by  the  Fifty-fifth 
Congress  of  the  United  States,  resulting  in  the  repeal  by  the  House 
of  Representatives  of  the  Joint  Resolution  of  March  i,  1895,  and  caus- 
ing the  production  of  important  official  documents. 


LABOR  AND  WAGES  IN  MEXICO, 


495 


LABOR  AND  WAGES  IN  MEXICO. 

I  have  often  heard  it  stated,  in  this  country,  as  the  chief  reason  for 
advocating  restrictions  on  its  trade  with  Mexico,  that  we  pay  low 
wages  to  our  laborers,  who  are  sometimes  called  paupers  and  peons, 
and  that  the  maintenance  of  the  high  wages  prevailingfhere  requires 
that  the  free  entrance  of  Mexican  products  similar  to  those  of  the 
United  States  be  prohibited  by  the  imposition  of  high  duties. 

As  long  as  I  did  not  hear  these  ideas  expressed  by  Federal  func- 
tionaries, I  did  not  think  that  I  was  called  upon  to  rectify  them,  but 
when  Mr.  Thomas  H.  Carter,  formerly  a  Member  of  Congress,  and 
now  a  Senator  from  Montana,  in  a  speech  delivered  in  the  House  of 
Representatives,  on  May  15,  1890,  in  support  of  the  provisions  of  the 
tariff  bill  which  became  the  Act  of  October  i,  1890,  levying  a  duty 
upon  lead  in  ores,  based  his  arguments  on  the  fact  that  we  had  in 
Mexico  peon  or  slave  labor,  and  that  the  United  States  had  to  protect 
her  own  citizens  against  the  pauper  labor  of  Mexico,  I  believed  it  was 
my  duty  to  explain  what  we  meant  in  Spanish  by  peon,  and  what  was 
the  condition  of  the  Mexican  laborers,  thus  rectifying  the  mistaken 
opinions  in  that  regard  prevailing  in  this  country.  I  considered  myself 
specially  called  upon  to  do  so,  as  the  same  objection  is  repeated  when- 
ever it  is  proposed  to  adopt  liberal  measures  for  the  promotion  of 
trade  between  the  two  neighboring  Republics.  It  seemed  to  me  that 
I  might  contribute  to  the  better  understanding  of  each  other  and  to  a 
reciprocally  advantageous  increase  of  their  trade  relations,  if  I  should 
give  some  idea  of  the  condition  of  the  Mexican  laborer  ;  of  the  wages 
which  are  paid  in  Mexico  ;  of  the  causes  which  control  their  amount  ; 
of  the  manner  in  which  these  causes  affect  the  cost  and  therefore  the 
price  of  the  commodities  we  produce;  and  of  the  price  of  Mexican 
articles  obtained  with  low  wages,  as  compared  with  the  price  of  the 
same  commodities  produced  here  with  high  wages,  and  finally  of  the 
cost  of  living  in  Mexico. 

Before  writing  on  the  subject,  I  waited  TH^il  some  time  had  elapsed 
after  the  tariff  l)ill,  approved  October  i,  iSgo^slKid  become  a  law,  to 
avoid  incurring  the  imputation  of  desiring  to  interF^e  in  the  internal 

497 


498  Xaboc  ant>  Mages  tn  /Hiejico. 

legislation  of  this  country;  and  even  then  I  was  careful  not  to  allude  to 
Mr.  Carter's  remarks  as  having  in  any  way  influenced  me  in  writing  the 
article,  which  appeared  in  the  North  American  Review  for  January, 
1892. 

The  campaign  for  the  Presidential  election  held  in  November, 
1895,  began  over  three  years  after  my  article  was  published  by  the 
North  Ajuerican  Review,  and  the  cardinal  point  in  that  campaign  was 
the  standard  of  money  in  this  country,  that  is,  whether  the  United 
States  should  adhere  to  the  gold  standard,  or  return  to  the  free  coin- 
age of  silver,  and  possibly  come  finally  to  the  single  silver  standard. 
As  Mexico  is  a  silver  country  and  adjoins  the  United  States,  it  afforded 
an  example  to  judge  of  the  results  of  the  silver  standard,  pro  and  con^ 
according  to  the  views  entertained  by  the  respective  parties.  Several 
committees  and  numerous  newspaper  correspondents  were  sent  to 
Mexico  to  study  this  question,  with  a  view  to  use  the  information 
gathered  in  the  electoral  campaign.  Some  of  them  had  made  up  their 
minds  before  they  left  this  country,  either  in  favor  of  the  gold  or  silver 
standard,  and  none  of  them  remained  in  Mexico  long  enough  to  under- 
stand it  thoroughly.  Their  reports,  therefore,  while  most  of  them  were 
undoubtedly  written  in  good  faith,  contained  but  little  information  of 
real  value,  with  many  errors  that  led  to  serious  mistakes  and  misunder- 
standings. They  sometimes  presented  the  cheap  products  of  Mexico 
as  a  proof  of  her  poverty  and  a  reason  operating  against  her  prosperity; 
and  at  the  same  time  when  in  some  cases  her  products  were  high,  that 
fact  was  mentioned  as  a  reason  for  the  same  result.  The  silver 
standard  was  made  responsible  for  many  results  in  which  it  had 
nothing  to  do. 

My  desire  to  rectify  the  main  errors  published,  induced  me  to  re- 
vise my  article,  availing  myself  of  the  data  which  came  to  light  since 
it  was  first  published,  especially  from  official  sources  like  the  reports  of 
tlie  Minister  and  of  the  Consul-General  of  the  United  States  at  the 
City  of  Mexico,  and  of  the  arguments  presented  during  the  last  canvass 
on  both  sides  of  the  question,  so  far  as  they  involve  serious  mistakes  in 
matters  of  fact  affecting  Mexico. 

My  main  and  only  object  in  writing  this  paper  was  to  show  that 
poorly  paid  Mexican  labor  cannot  compete  with  well-paid  American 
labor  ;  but  as  this  subject  is  so  closely  connected  with  the  rate  of  im- 
port duties,  I  had  to  allude  to  this  incidentally.  I  understand  very 
well  that  in  my  position  it  would  be  an  intrusion  on  my  part  to  discuss 
this  question,  which  is  one  pertaining  to  the  internal  affairs  of  the 
United  States,  and  I  will  only  refer  to  it  in  so  far  as  it  affects  the  rate 
of  wages.  In  this  connection  I  consider  it  proper  to  state  here  that, 
while  my  jjcrsonal  views  lead  me  rather  to  lean  on  duties  for  revenue, 
I  was  not  able  in  either  of  the  three  different  times  in  which  I  served 


ifi 
iiii 


w 


UntroDuction,  499 

as  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  of  Mexico,  to  make  any  material  reduc- 
tions on  our  very  heavy  import  duties,  much  higher  than  those  pre- 
vailing in  this  country,  that  notwithstanding  that  sometimes  I  had 
legislative  authority  to  do  so,  and  that  therefore  I  could  not  consis- 
tently find  fault  with,  and  much  less  criticise,  the  prevailing  high  tariff 
views  of  the  public  men  in  the  United  States,  who  think  them  indis- 
pensable for  the  prosperity  and  welfare  of  their  country,  and  that  my 
whole  and  only  object  was  to  show  that  the  low  Mexican  labor  ought 
not  to  alarm  the  United  States  with  any  fear  of  competition. 

I  should  be  very  glad  if  with  this  contribution  I  could  in  some  way 
dispel  some  of  the  mistaken  ideas  prevailing  in  this  country  in  regard 
to  labor  and  wages  in  Mexico,  which  so  far  have  stood  in  the  way  of 
measures  tending  to  increase  our  mutual  trade. 

Since  my  article  was  published  I  have  paid  more  attention  to  this 
subject,  and  have  read  all  I  could  obtain  on  the  same,  as  Wages,  by 
Francis  Walker;  Wages  and  Capital,  by  F.  W.  Taussig;  The  Labor 
Movement  hi  America,  by  Richard  T.  Ely;  A  History  of  Money  and 
Prices,  The  Industrial  Situation,  and  The  Economy  of  High  Wages,  by 
J.  Schoenhof  ;  Who  Pays  your  Taxes?  by  Bolton  Hall;  Wages  vs. 
16  to  I,  by  John  de  Witt  Warner  ;  Relation  of  Tariff  to  Wages,  by 
David  A.  Wells;  The  Bargain  Theory  of  Wages,  by  John  Davidson  ; 
Production  and  Distribution,  by  M.  Cannan  ;  The  Law  of  Wages,  the 
Pate  and  Amount^  by  Mr.  John  Richards  of  San  Francisco  ;  Mr. 
Henry  George's  books  relating  to  the  labor  question:  A  Perplexed 
Philosopher,  Progress  and  Poverty,  Social  Probletns,  Protection  or  Free 
Trade,  Property  in  Land,  The  Condition  of  Labor,  The  Land  Question, 
and  his  posthumous  book  just  published,  The  Science  of  Political  Econ- 
omy ;  the  several  chapters  on  labor  of  Mr.  Edward  Atkinson's  Indus- 
trial Progress  of  the  Nation,  and  several  other  pamphlets,  including  the 
valuable  statistics  on  labor  published  by  the  United  States  Labor  De- 
partment, and  the  statistics  on  Farm  Labor  in  the  United  States, 
issued  by  the  Department  of  Agriculture. 

The  revised  article  is  the  following. 


I 


LABOR  AND  WAGES  IN  MEXICO. 

To  do  justice  to  this  complex  matter,  I  will  have  to  speak  separately 
of  the  different  subjects  affecting  the  wage  question  in  Mexico,  but  I 
will  try  to  be  as  concise  as  possible  regarding  each  of  them,  as  I  do 
not  intend  to  write  a  long  treatise. 

Different  Theories  on  Wages. — There  are  several  theories  about 
wages,  their  sociological  character,  and  their  relation  to  production 
and  wealth.  It  would  be  foreign  to  my  purpose  to  dwell  upon  the  dif- 
ferent theories  of  wages,  and  I  will  therefore  only  state  here  that  the 
oldest  one,  called  "  The  Subsistence  Theory,"  inaugurated  by  Ricardo, 
consists  in  fixing  wages  to  an  amount  sufficient  to  provide  for  a  man's 
subsistence,  and  this  theory  is  considered  as  a  remnant  of  the  servitude 
in  which  the  wage-earner  was  held  up  to  the  beginning  of  the  present 
century.  "  The  Productivity-of-Labor  Theory,"  which  is  a  forward 
step  in  the  evolution  of  wages,  intended  to  emancipate  the  wage- 
earner  from  his  employer,  consists  in  making  wages  depend  on  the 
value  of  the  commodities  they  produce.  "  The  Bargain  Theory  of 
Wages,"  as  stated  by  Mr.  Davidson  in  his  book  entitled  The  Bar- 
gain Theory  of  Wages,  considers  wages  as  any  other  commodity  which 
is  bought  and  sold,  and  whose  price  is  determined  both  by  the  seller 
and  buyer  with  equal  voice  in  the  bargain.  "  The  Wages-Fund 
Theory"  considers  labor  as  regulated  by  the  supply  and  the  demand, 
and  has  as  its  complement  the  theory  of  "  The  Mobility  of  Labor," 
namely,  to  transport  labor  from  where  it  is  cheap  to  places  where  it  is 
better  paid. 

I  do  not  think  that  the  last  word  on  this  subject  has  yet  been 
spoken.  I  imagine  that  each  theory  on  wages  has  some  sound  princi- 
ple which  really  and  actually  affects  wages,  and  I  think  that  an  eclectic 
system  combining  all  theories  will  be  a  sound  one. 

A  Main  Factor  Regulating  Wages. — Without  attempting  to  support 
any  special  theory,  I  think  that  there  is  a  factor  which  invariably 
affects  labor.  I  will  enunciate  this  factor,  which  consists  in  a  very 
simple  principle  that  my  experience  shows  me  to  be  perfectly  correct, 
and  which  I  think  I  fully  demonstrate  in  this  paper,  namely,  that  wages 
are  regulated  by  the  amount  of  work  that  they  produce,  and,  conse- 

50I 


502  Xabor  an&  Mages  in  /IDejico. 

quently,  that  low  wages  bring  about  high  cost,  and  high  wages  low  cost 
in  the  product  of  labor. 

As  the  fear  of  competition  by  the  cheap  Mexican  labor,  or  peon 
labor,  as  it  is  often  called  in  this  country,  has  played  such  an  important 
part  in  adjusting  duties  on  Mexican  products  imported  into  the  United 
States,  I  consider  it  my  duty  to  dwell  somewhat  on  this  point. 

For  a  long  period  of  time  there  was  great  fear  of  competition  in 
manufactures  from  England.  The  advocates  of  high  duties  never 
wearied  of  describing  the  "  pauper  "  labor  of  England,  and  the  ne- 
cessity of  high  duties  here  to  prevent  labor  in  the  United  States 
from  falling  to  the  same  level  of  wages — to  them  one  of  indescribable 
misery  and  extreme  poverty.  Even  within  a  few  years  an  account  of 
the  hand  nail-makers  in  the  iron  districts  was  circulated,  which  was 
regarded  as  the  best  evidence  of  what  "  free  trade  "  in  England  had 
done  for  the  workingmen.  The  question  of  labor  cost  is  now  dis- 
cussed from  a  more  scientific  standpoint,  and  the  fallacy  of  basing 
conclusions  upon  money  wages  has  been  demonstrated.  Experience 
has  shown  that  high  wages  in  the  United  States  mean  high  productive 
ability,  and  when  American  manufactures  meet  similar  foreign  products 
in  neutral  markets,  and  control  those  markets,  the  old  theory  cannot 
stand. 

As  the  exporter  of  manufactures,  England  was  looked  upon  as  the 
country  most  to  be  feared.  When  Continental  nations  began  to  man- 
ufacture on  so  large  a  scale  as  to  provide  a  surplus  for  export,  the 
"  pauper  labor  of  Europe  "  was  a  new  reason  for  fear,  and  the  wages  of 
the  Continent,  much  lower  in  money  than  the  wages  of  England,  were 
quoted  by  the  friends  of  high  wages  in  the  United  States.  For  some 
years  the  sums  of  money  received  weekly  by  the  glass-makers  of 
Belgium,  the  ribbon-makers  of  France,  and  the  textile-workers  of  Ger- 
many did  yeoman  service  in  supporting  the  demands  of  manufacturers 
in  this  country,  that  duties  should  be  maintained  because  of  "high- 
priced  and  dear  labor  "  prevailing  here.  It  was  useless  to  repeat  that 
money  wages  did  not  express  labor  cost,  or  that  England  would  long 
since  have  been  driven  from  the  field  by  this  "pauper"  labor  of 
Europe  if  such  arguments  were  true.  A  table  was  prepared,  showing 
a  remarkable  difference  in  money  wages,  and  this  table  was  looked 
upon  as  unanswerable  proof  of  that  theory. 

Signs  of  another  change  of  base  are  now  visible.  Continental  Europe 
may  still  serve  to  frighten  a  few  who  may  not  have  been  enlightened, 
and  even  English  wages  are  quoted  occasionally  as  a  memorial  of 
the  old  days,  when  such  an  argument  was  accepted  without  question. 
But  neither  of  these  excites  the  same  horror  that  it  once  did,  and  the 
pauper  labor  of  Asia  and  Mexico  is  now  the  main  reason  advanced. 
Manufacturers  urged  duties  that  would  protect  them  and  the  labor 


B  /IDain  jfactor  TRegulatinG  Mages.  503 

they  employed  from  the  products  of  China,  Japan,  and  of  British 
India,  the  East  Indies,  and  Mexico.  The  harrowing  condition  of  labor 
in  those  countries  has  been  dwelt  upon  as  an  apparently  strong  argu- 
ment, and  any  wages — a  few  cents  a  day — were  named  as  representing 
the  earnings  of  these  peoples.  Textile  fibres  grown  by  "  pauper  labor 
or  labor  paid  in  the  most  niggardly  manner  ";  chemicals  made,  or  to 
be  made  in  China,  with  labor  at  starvation  wages  ;  machinery  and 
machine  products,  the  outcome  of  Japanese  ingenuity  in  applying 
their  ridiculously  cheap  labor  to  copying  American  inventions  and 
trade-marks,  the  influx  of  Eastern  copies  of  Western  manufactures,  were 
presented  as  the  reason  for  a  nearly  prohibitive  legislation  enacted  to 
protect  the  infant  industries  of  the  United  States. 

The  fear  over  the  possible  competition  in  the  East  has  grown  in 
recent  years,  but  a  study  of  the  commerce  between  the  United  States 
and  Asia  fails  to  disclose  any  evidence  of  this  competition,  as  the 
official  returns  of  the  Bureau  of  Statistics  of  the  United  States  Treas- 
ury Department  shows  that  during  the  last  five  years  the  trade  with 
China  and  Japan  has  increased  slowly  in  so  far  as  the  imports  from 
those  countries  are  concerned,  while  the  increase  of  the  exports  from 
the  United  States  to  them  has  been  very  material,'  and  the  trade  with 
British  India  and  the  British  East  Indies  has  decreased. 

The  tariff  of  March  3,  1883,  was  determined  by  a  fear  of  European 
competition.  An  average  duty  of  forty-five  per  cent,  was  regarded  as 
good  protection  against  the  Continent  of  Europe  as  well  as  England; 
against  the  machine  products  of  Great  Britain,  France,  and  Germany, 
as  well  as  against  the  home  industries  of  Russia  and  Austria.  If  that 
rate  was  required  against  Europe,  what  rate  will  be  demanded  against 
Asia  and  Mexico  ? 

It  is  very  strange  that  while  many  in  the  United  States  thought  it 
necessary  to  protect  their  manufactures  from  foreign  competition  by 
high  duties.  Count  Goluchowski,  Premier  of  Austria,  should  be  so  much 
afraid  about  the  competition  of  American  manufactories  in  European 
markets,  and  should  call  on   Europe  to  unite  in  a  commercial  league 

'  In  the  last  five  years  imports  from  China  have  gained  $1 ,600,000  ;  but  this  increase 
is  almost  entirely  to  be  found  in  the  single  item  of  raw  silk.  In  the  same  period  the 
imports  from  British  India  and  the  British  East  Indies  decreased  $4,400,000,  and  not 
a  single  item  of  manufactures  shows  a  larger  import  in  the  year  1896  than  in  that  of 
1892.  With  Japan,  the  country  most  to  be  feared  in  manufactures.  United  States 
imports  have  gained  $1,800,000  in  five  years,  and  in  manufactures  of  silk,  flax, 
and  hemp,  there  has  been  a  small  increase  :  yet  it  is  an  increase  too  small  to  weigh 
in  the  supply  of  such  a  market  as  the  United  States.  United  States  exports  to 
Ja])an  have  gained  $4,300,000  in  five  years,  to  China  $1,300,000,  and  to  British  India 
have  lost  $400,000.  On  the  face  of  the  returns  these  countries  are  better  customers 
for  American  products  than  the  United  States  is  for  theirs.  The  gains  with  Mexico 
are  still  larjier. 


504  Xaboc  auD  Maoes  In  ^ejico, 

against  the  United  States  and  Japan,  in  a  speech  delivered  in  Vienna 
in  November,  1S97. 

Agricultural  products  of  this  country,  like  wheat,  cotton,  and  others, 
notv/ithstanding  the  high  wages  paid  here  to  field  laborers,  successfully 
sustain  in  the  English  and  other  neutral  foreign  markets,  a  sharp  com- 
petition with  similar  foreign  products  obtained  with  low  wages,  in  some 
cases  even  lower  than  those  in  Mexico,  as  in  the  case  of  China  and  the 
East  Indies,  as  is  shown  by  the  very  large  increase  of  the  exports  of  this 
country.  The  exports  of  the  year  1897  exceeded  those  of  1896,  which 
were  abnormally  large,  by  $93,292,278,  or  9  per  cent.  There  need, 
therefore,  be  no  fear  of  competition  from  Mexico. 

I  believe  that  the  people  of  the  United  States  have  the  necessary 
enterprise  and  capacity  to  compete  with  any  other  people  in  the  world 
in  the  production  of  manufactured  articles.  It  is  true  that  the  high 
wages  paid  here,  the  import  duties  upon  raw  materials,  and  the  high 
price  of  coal  as  compared  with  its  price  in  some  other  countries,  in- 
crease the  cost  of  the  production  of  certain  commodities  as  compared 
with  similar  ones  manufactured  in  England,  France,  Germany,  and 
Belgium;  but  it  must  at  the  same  time  be  remembered  that  the  appli- 
cation of  machinery,  which  is  used  here  on  a  much  larger  scale  than  in 
any  other  country,  cheapens  production  so  greatly  that  it  enables  this 
country  to  manufacture  many  articles  at  a  less  cost  than  any  other. 
An  instance  of  this  is  the  manufacture  of  steel  rails  in  the  Edgar 
Thompson  Factory  at  Pittsburg,  Penn.,  where,  the  entire  production 
being  mechanical,  few  hands  are  employed,  and  where  natural  gas  is 
used  as  fuel. 

High  import  duties  are  not  enough,  by  themselves,  to  keep  up  high 
wages.  If  that  were  so,  the  wages  in  Mexico  should  be  higher  than  in 
the  United  States,  because  our  tariff  is  still  more  protective  than  the 
tariff  of  this  country.  It  is  true  that  our  products  did  not  use  to  com- 
pete with  foreign  manufactures  in  our  home  markets,  and  that  may 
account  in  some  way  for  that  fact.  But  we  are  beginning  now  to 
manufacture  largely  a  coarser  kind  of  goods,  like  textiles,  iron,  and 
others  which  compete  with  similar  foreign  manufactures,  and  are 
driving  them  from  our  markets,  and  if  that  principle  were  true,  our 
wages  paid  for  such  manufactures  ought  to  be  higher  than  in  the 
United  States  because  our  tariff  is  higher. 

High  import  duties  collected  in  Mexico,  amounting  in  some  cases  to 
over  three  hundred  per  cent,  ad  valorem,  have  neither  increased  nor 
cheapened  our  productions,  nor  raised  our  wages.  Our  imports  in  the 
fiscal  year  ending  on  the  30th  of  June,  1889,  amounted  to  $40,024,- 
894.32;  if  we  deduct  from  this  the  free  articles,  valued  at  $13, 506, 230. 23, 
we  shall  have,  as  the  dutiable  merchandise,  $26,518,664.09,  yielding  a 
revenue  of  $32,477,962.95,  or  an  average  of  122  per  cent,  upon  dutiable 


a  /IDatn  jfactor  IReguIating  Mages.  505 

and  81.14  per  cent,  upon  the  total  imports,  which  is  larger  in  proportion 
than  that  of  any  other  American  nation,  and  almost  double  that  of  the 
United  States,  where  the  average  was  44.41  per  cent,  for  the  fiscal  year 
ending  on  the  30th  of  June,  1890,  the  last  fiscal  year  before  the  tariff, 
approved  on  October  i,  1890,  was  in  operation ;  the  value  of  the  dutiable 
articles  amounting  to  $507,511,764,  and  the  import  duties  to  $226,540,- 
037.  This  contrast  appears  still  greater  in  the  case  of  the  foreign  trade 
in  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1896,  of  both  countries.  According  to 
the  information  conveyed  in  the  President's  Message  of  December  6, 
1896,  the  proportion  on  dutiable  goods  imported  in  the  fiscal  year 
ending  June  30,  1896 — during  which  the  Wilson  Bill  was  in  operation — 
was  39.94  per  cent.;  and  on  all  articles,  dutiable  and  free  together,  it 
was  20.55  psr  cent, ;  while  in  Mexico  the  imports  of  the  same  fiscal  year 
amounted  to  $42,253,938,  out  of  which  $37,249,405  were  dutiable,  the 
proportion  being  57.6  percent,  upon  dutiable  goods  and  50.8  upon  the 
total  imports.  Notwithstanding  all  this,  and  although  our  wages  are 
lower  than  those  in  this  country,  our  production,  as  compared  with  simi- 
lar articles  produced  in  this  country,  is  considerably  dearer. 

At  the  end  of  1897  over  50,000  workmen  employed  in  the  cotton 
mills  in  Fall  River  and  other  places  of  Massachusetts  had  their  wages 
reduced  ten  per  cent.,  and  a  similar  reduction  was  made  in  other 
mills  in  New  Hampshire  and  Rhode  Island,  as  well  as  in  Lewiston, 
Auburn,  and  Biddeford,  Maine,  a  reduction  having  also  taken  place  in 
the  wages  of  a  great  shoe  factory  in  New  Bedford,  Massachusetts. 

It  would  be  unreasonable  and  unfair  to  make  the  present  tariff  ac- 
countable for  that  reduction,  with  which  it  has  nothing  to  do,  and  the 
most  satisfactory  explanation  given  of  it  is,  in  my  opinion,  the  one 
advanced  by  a  committee  of  New  England  manufacturers  sent  South 
to  investigate  the  subject,  who  have  reported  that  the  New  England 
mills,  in  their  effort  to  secure  cheaper  labor,  have  substituted  French- 
Canadian  and  other  foreign  for  American  hands,  presumably  at  lower 
rates,  but  not  necessarily  at  lower  cost  of  production,  and  that  the 
Southern  mills  with  which  they  compete  employ  American  workmen 
and  are  getting  excellent  work. 

In  an  Appendix  to  this  paper  I  will  present  the  views  of  distin- 
guished American  statesmen  on  this  subject,  which  seem  to  support 
the  views  here  contained,  to  the  effect  that  the  main  factor  of  wages  is 
the  amount  of  commodities  they  produce,  and  that  wages  are  higher 
in  the  United  States  than  anywhere  else  because  labor  here  is  more 
efficient  than  in  other  countries. 

The  Mexican  Laborer. — In  Mexico  we  call  a  laborer  any  kind  of 
wage-earner,  and  peon,  a  farm  wage-earner,  although  the  word  peon  is 
going  into  disuse,  because  it  does  not  mean  now  what  it  did  under 
the  Spanish  rule.     I  will  speak  in  another  portion  of  this  paper  of  the 


5o6  Xabor  an5  Mages  in  /IDejico. 

peonage  system,  and  here  I  will  only  make  general  considerations  re- 
garding the  wage-earners  of  Mexico  and  their  present  condition. 

It  is  impossible  to  institute  a  comparison  between  a  laborer  of  the 
United  States  and  one  of  Mexico.  Any  such  attempt  would  be  futile; 
they  are  wholly  different  in  habits  of  thought  and  in  mode  of  life.  Their 
ambitions  are  diverse,  and  their  education  and  tendencies  are  dissimilar. 
There  is  no  common  plane  of  comparison.  Mexico  must  be  measured 
by  Mexican  standards.  Erroneous  conclusions  would  be  reached  were 
we  to  apply  the  English,  French,  German,  or  American  systems  to  the 
Mexican  laborer. 

No  one  will  dispute  that  the  average  American  workingman  is  better 
off  in  many  ways  than  his  counterpart  in  Mexico.  The  public  school 
educates  the  American  workingman,  and  he  has  many  wants  to  satisfy, 
and  we  are  glad  for  it.  Otherwise  he  would  not  be  what  he  is, 
the  most  intelligent,  on  the  average,  of  all  the  world's  toilers.  He  is 
a  great  consumer  of  tropical  products,  and  this  fact  makes  him  tributary 
to  Mexico.  The  better  his  wages  the  more  he  will  consume,  and  the 
better  it  would  be  for  our  hot-country  planters. 

The  social  and  physical  status  of  most  of  the  Mexican  toilers  is  very 
unsatisfactory,  and  is  attributable  to  various  causes.  In  the  first  place, 
they  are  the  descendants  of  practically  enslaved  sons  of  the  soil,  con- 
quered by  the  early  Spaniards;  in  the  second  place,  they  have  been  prac- 
tically and  until  recently  living  under  conditions  similar  to  feudalism; 
and,  in  the  third  place,  education  has  not  yet  penetrated  among  the  adult 
laborers.  But  public  schools  are  multiplying  all  over  Mexico,  and  in 
many  regions  the  minds  of  the  little  children  of  the  laborer  are  being 
trained  and  disciplined  as  well  as  informed.  Railways,  by  making  it  easy 
for  the  laborer  to  go  from  one  part  of  the  country  to  another,  are  destroy- 
ing the  centuries-old  state  of  serfdom  among  the  laborers.  Slowly, 
very  slowly,  but  none  the  less  surely,  is  the  educational  policy  of  the 
Mexican  Government  raising  the  level  of  the  toilers  of  Mexico. 

The  laborer  in  Mexico  is  passing  from  peonage  under  the  Spaniards, 
which  was  a  very  mild  and  tolerable  form  of  feudal  servitude,  to  abso- 
lute freedom  of  action,  with  a  horizon  that  is  continually  expanding. 
He  was  contented  in  his  former  sphere,  for  the  Spaniards,  especially 
those  engaged  in  agriculture,  were  generally  good  to  their  hands.  They 
did  not  educate  them  nor  attempt  to  elevate  them,  neither  did  they  try 
to  elevate  themselves.  The  whole  of  Mexico  was  plunged  into  apathy, 
but  it  was  the  apathy  of  supreme  indifference,  not  of  despair.  Now 
they  can  go  where  they  like,  serve  whom  they  like,  and  return  to  their 
village  when  they  like.  And  they  use  their  liberty  to  the  point  of 
abuse.  Yet  still  the  horizon  keeps  enlarging.  The  rate  of  wages 
keeps  moving  upwards,  and  there  is  no  sign  that  it  has  reached  its 
h"mit.     The  number  of  Mexicans  whose  fathers  were  either  virtual  or 


/IDejican  peonage.  507 

actual  peons,  and  who  are  now  receiving  a  dollar  a  day,  is  constantly 
increasing.  It  is  easy  to  picture  the  satisfaction  felt  by  a  man  whose  boy- 
hood was  nurtured  on  the  simple  food  of  corn-cakes  and  beans,  and  who 
now  receives  a  Mexican  dollar,  day  in  and  day  out,  except  upon  Sun- 
day, and  then  as  well  if  he  is  willing  to  work  on  that  day. 

While  the  Mexican  laborers  are  deprived  of  most  of  the  comforts 
enjoyed  by  their  brethren  in  the  United  States,  it  is  the  opinion  of 
some  thoughtful  Americans  who  have  visited  Mexico  that  they  are  hap- 
pier, because  their  needs  are  fewer,  the  necessaries  of  life  for  them  are 
cheaper,  and  their  employment  is  constant — conditions  which  some- 
times do  not  exist  in  this  country. 

Mexican  Peonage. — Peon  in  Spanish  means  a  laborer  who  performs 
rough  work  that  does  not  require  either  art  nor  any  special  fitness,  and 
it  does  not  give  at  all  the  idea  of  servitude,  but  under  the  Spanish  rule 
the  conquerors  were  given  the  ownership  of  a  certain  territory,  where 
they  exercised  quasi-feudal  rights  upon  the  natives  living  there,  and  as 
they  required  their  services  to  till  the  land,  avery  mild  form  of  servitude 
was  established,  consisting  in  the  landlord's  providing  for  the  needs  of 
his  laborers  ;  that  is,  furnishing  them  money,  in  the  shape  of  an  ad- 
vance for  future  services,  whenever  they  had  any  special  need  in  the 
families,  such  as  marriage,  birth,  sickness,  death,  etc.,  they,  of  course, 
being  obliged  to  repay  their  indebtedness  to  their  employer.  In  some 
cases  this  obligation  passed  to  the  descendant  of  the  laborer,  who  had 
to  work  to  discharge  his  parent's  debt.  Since  Mexico  achieved  her 
independence  this  condition  of  things  has  changed  very  materially.  I 
never  knew  or  heard  of  any  case  in  which  the  descendant  of  a  man  had 
to  discharge  with  his  labor  the  debts  of  his  parents,  and  the  Mexican 
laws  from  the  beginning  have  been  directed  to  destroy  that  system,  as 
I  will  presently  state.  I  can  therefore  say  with  perfect  truth,  that  peon- 
age, in  the  meaning  in  which  it  is  understood  in  this  country — that  is, 
a  kind  of  slavery — never  existed  in  Mexico,  and  that  even  the  Spanish 
peonage  system  is  not  now  in  existence,  although  there  are  some  dis- 
tricts which  still  have  slight  remnants  of  peonage,  as  will  be  seen 
farther  on,  but  the  laborers  suffer  there  no  more  than  they  do  in  some 
other  countries,  as  up  to  the  end  of  the  last  century  laborers  Avere 
everywhere,  as  a  general  rule,  held  in  a  kind  of  slavery  or  peonage. 

The  early  history  of  the  United  States  shows  that  even  white  men 
were  held  in  bondage  in  all  the  States  to  work  out  debts,  and  to  expiate 
offences,  and  it  is  only  a  generation  back  that  slavery  on  a  great  scale 
was  abolished.  There  are,  to-day,  the  "  convict-camp  "  abuses  in  the 
Southern  States  of  the  American  Union,  against  which  influential 
journals  in  that  section  are  strongly  protesting.  In  Pennsylvania,  one 
reads  of  the  poverty-stricken  condition  of  the  imported  foreign  miners, 
who  try  to  maintain  families  on  fifty  and  sixty  cents  a  day. 


5o8  Xabor  an&  Maoes  in  /IDejico, 

In  all  countries  there  are  plenty  of  abuses;  children  are  over- 
worked, and  women  forced  into  coarse  pursuits.  Mexico  is  able  to 
show  as  good  a  record  as  any  country  in  these  matters,  and  a  strong 
public  opinion  is  growing  there  against  all  forms  of  opi)ression  of 
human  beings. 

All  over  the  civilized  world  men  are  becoming  humaner  in  senti- 
ment, the  fundamental  rights  of  men  are  more  regarded,  and  the 
struggle  against  selfish  greed  on  the  part  of  the  minority  of  employers 
is  making  good  progress. 

Peonage  never  meant  a  low  system  of  wages,  as  is  understood  in  the 
United  States.  The  prevailing  impression  in  this  country  regarding 
the  Mexican  peon  is  an  erroneous  one.  It  is  supposed  here  that  peon- 
age is,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  sheer  slavery,  and  that  it  extends  throughout 
the  whole  country.  I  have  shown  that  it  is  not  slavery,  and  now  I 
will  say  that  it  exists  principally  in  a  comparatively  reduced  area  where 
laborers  are  very  scarce,  and  this  fact  shows  that,  while  the  system  is 
liable  to  abuse,  it  has  some  advantages  for  the  laborer. 

Meantime  our  peons  are, not  starving,  and  are,  for  the  most  part,  a 
quiet  and  philosophic  people,  enjoying  their  frequent  respites  from 
toil,  and  complaining  very  little,  while  a  patriotic  Government  has 
their  interests  at  heart  and  is  planning  for  their  welfare,  and  especially 
for  that  of  their  children. 

What  follows  will  show  how  much  the  evils  of  the  peonage  system 
in  Mexico  have  been  exaggerated,  and  how  they  all  are  being  now  radi- 
cally corrected  ;  but  before  proceeding  any  farther,  I  will  state  what 
is  the  condition  of  the  Mexican  farm  laborer,  or  peon,  in  the  different 
localities  of  Mexico. 

The  largest  portion  of  the  Mexican  population  is  located  on  the 
mountains,  central  table-lands,  and  other  high  regions,  which  enjoy  a 
cold  and  healthful  climate  on  account  of  their  elevation  above  the 
sea.  Only  the  products  of  the  cold  zone  can  grow  there,  and 
these  were  formerly  cultivated  on  a  limited  scale,  solely  for  local  con- 
sumption, as  the  high  cost  of  transportation  prevented  their  being 
carried  to  any  distance.  In  this  region  labor  is  abundant,  and  until 
recent  years  it  exceeded  the  demand;  consequently,  wages  were  low, 
and  the  peonage  system  only  existed  to  a  small  extent;  because  of  the 
number  of  working  hands  being  greater  than  the  demand,  the  laborers 
were  exposed  to  disadvantages  that  fortunately  are  now  beginning  to 
disappear,  as  prosperity  of  the  country  increases  the  demand  for 
labor. 

The  temperate  region  embraces  the  land  situated  at  from  three  to 
five  thousand  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  it  is  sparsely  popu- 
lated; but  it  yields  valuable  products,  such  as  coffee,  sugar,  and  other 
tropical  fruits.      It  is  very  difficult  to  find  in  this  region  the  necessary 


/IDejicaii  iPeonaae.  509 

hands  to  till  the  land  on  a  large  scale.  For  these  reasons,  and,  above 
all,  because  of  the  high  cost  of  transportation,  tropical  products  could 
not  be  grown  before  the  railways  were  built,  except  in  a  few  places  favor- 
ably located,  and  then  in  a  limited  quantity.  This  explains  why  some 
of  these  products  commanded  a  higher  price  in  some  localities  of  the 
country  where  they  are  produced  than  in  foreign  markets,  to  which 
they  are  transported  from  great  distances.  Sugar,  for  instance,  which 
is  retailed  in  New  York  at  4^  cents  a  pound,  costs  in  the  City  of 
Mexico  from  12  to  18  cents,  and  it  is  not  so  well  refined  as  the  article 
sold  here,  although  it  probably  has  for  that  reason  a  greater  amount 
of  saccharine  matter. 

The  hot  region,  which  embraces  the  coast  on  both  oceans  and  the 
low  valleys  situated  in  the  interior  of  the  country,  is  very  sparsely  in- 
habited; labor  is  therefore  very  scarce,  and  wages  are  higher  here  than 
in  any  other  region.  While  in  the  high  and  cold  regions  wages  were 
often  12^  cents  a  day  and  rations,  on  the  coast  they  are  sometimes  $1 
a  day.  The  inhabitants  of  the  cold  and  temperate  regions  do  not  like 
to  descend  to  the  warm  zone,  because  they  are  exposed  to  maladies 
prevailing  there,  such  as  yellow  fever  and  intermittent  and  remittent 
fevers,  and  because  they  are  terribly  annoyed  by  mosquitoes,  and  they 
can  hardly  endure  the  heat.  If  at  any  time  they  do  go  down  there,  it 
is  only  to  remain  a  few  days.  It  has  been  thought  that  as  the  lowlands 
are  the  most  fertile  and  rich,  and  are  almost  uninhabited,  they  could 
be  cultivated  only  by  means  of  negro  or  Asiatic  labor;  and  this  idea 
has  induced  some  Mexican  planters  to  try  Chinese  immigration,  as 
Article  II.  of  our  Constitution  grants  to  all  men  the  right  freely  to  enter 
and  leave  Mexico. 

The  laborers  living  in  the  warm  lands  have,  on  account  of  the 
smallness  of  their  number,  advantages  which  are  not  shared  by  their 
fellow-laborers  inhabiting  the  higher  regions.  The  first  of  these  ad- 
vantages is,  as  I  have  already  stated,  larger  wages;  the  second  is  that 
they  can  obtain  advances,  in  reasonable  amounts,  for  any  needs  they 
may  have,  as  marriages,  births,  sickness,  or  death  in  their  families, 
since  the  small  amount  of  their  wages  does  not  allow  them  to  econo- 
mize for  such  emergencies,  and  these  advances  are  willingly  made  by 
their  employers  and  set  to  the  account  of  future  services,  without  in- 
terest or  security. 

Unfortunately,  the  very  advantages  which  the  laborers  living  in  the 
hot  lands  of  Mexico  enjoy,  and  the  smallness  of  their  numbers,  which 
I  have  just  mentioned,  are  sometimes  the  causes  of  great  abuses  on  the 
part  of  some  employers,  of  which  the  laborer  is  the  victim  on  account 
of  his  ignorance  and  complete  destitution,  on  the  one  hand,  and  the 
influence  and  wealth  of  his  employer  on  the  other. 

I  speak  of  this  subject  from  personal  experience,  because,  having 


5IO  Xabor  an&  XlClades  in  /IDesico, 

spent  several  years  as  a  planter  in  the  District  of  Soconusco,  State 
of  Chiapas,  where  these  conditions  prevail,  I  saw  the  practical  work- 
ings of  the  peonage  system.  It  was  not  possible  to  obtain  there  a 
laborer,  either  as  a  domestic  or  a  field  hand,  without  first  paying  the 
debt  of  from  one  to  five  hundred  dollars  that  he  had  contracted  with 
his  former  employer;  so  that  it  is  easy  to  understand  what  an  expendi- 
ture of  money  was  required  before  a  large  number  of  hands  could  be 
obtained.  Lapse  of  time  increases  the  debt  instead  of  diminishing  it, 
since  the  laborer  asks  each  week,  as  a  rule,  for  more  than  the  amount 
of  his  wages.  Whenever  the  hands  are  displeased  with  their  work — 
either  because  they  quarrel  among  themselves,  because  their  employer 
does  not  treat  them  well,  because  they  do  not  get  all  the  money  ad- 
vances they  ask,  or  for  any  other  reason — they  have  entire  freedom  to 
offer  their  services  to  anybody  else,  who  willingly  pays  their  debt,  as 
everybody  is  always  in  need  of  help;  but  often,  and  especially  when 
the  employer  does  not  live  permanently  in  the  country,  as  was  my  case 
when  I  was  in  Soconusco,  laborers  whose  debts  reach  a  considerable 
sum  conceal  themselves,  fly  to  another  district  where  they  are  not 
known,  or  in  some  other  manner  evade  the  payment  of  their  indebted- 
ness; with  the  result  that  it  is  a  total  loss  to  their  employer.  The  same 
is  the  case  when  the  indebted  laborer  dies  or  becomes  disabled  for 
work. 

These  are  the  practical  results  of  the  peonage  system,  so  far  as  my 
experience  goes,  although  I  do  not  deny  that  it  is  liable  to  great  abuse 
on  the  part  of  the  employers,  who  are  favored  in  a  few  cases  by  the 
tolerance  of  the  local  authorities  and  by  the  ignorance  and  poverty  of 
the  laborers. 

There  are  some  places — especially  in  the  States  of  Tabasco  and 
Campeche,  where  mahogany,  cedar,  ebony  and  dyewoods  are  cut  in 
uninhabited  spots,  which  change  as  the  wood  is  exhausted — where  the 
employer  assum.es,  in  the  absence  of  any  magistrate  or  other  authority, 
and  generally  through  an  overseer,  for  he  himself  seldom  remains  at 
such  places,  all  the  powers  of  government.  Of  course,  opportunities 
for  doing  injustice  are  very  much  increased,  in  view  of  the  fact  that 
there  an  employer  is  hardly  ever  called  to  account  for  abuse  of 
authority.  In  most  of  these  cases  the  employer  is  obliged  to  set  up, 
for  the  convenience  of  his  laborers — as  I  have  heard,  though  I  have  no 
personal  knowledge  in  the  matter — a  store  where  they  can  provide 
themselves,  there  being  no  other  near  by,  with  provisions,  groceries, 
and  such  dry-goods  as  they  may  need  in  the  ordinary  course  of  life, 
paying  for  them  with  the  scrip  issued  to  them  by  the  employer  over 
his  signature  in  settlement  of  their  wages.  It  is  easy  to  see  how  greatly 
this  system  is  liable  to  abuse,  since  the  laborer  has  to  purchase  at  the 
store  of  his  employer  everything  he  wants,  and  at  such  prices  as  the 


/JOejican  peonage,  511 

owner  may  think  fit  to  charge,  thus  losing  all  the  benefits  of  compe- 
tition." 

But  the  peonage  system  has  no  legal  existence  in  Mexico,  because 
Article  V.  of  our  Constitution  of  1857,  enacted  for  the  purpose  of 
abolishing  it,  provides  that  "  nobody  should  be  obliged  to  render  per- 
sonal service  without  proper  compensation  and  his  full  consent,"  and 
forbids  the  issuance  of  any  law  to  authorize  any  contract  which  might 
have  for  its  object  the  "  loss  or  irreparable  sacrifice  of  the  freedom  of 
man  through  work,  education,  or  religious  vows."  This  article  was 
amended  on  the  25th  of  September,  1873,  chiefly  with  a  view  of  pro- 
hibiting the  taking  of  religious  vows  in  Mexico,  and  also  of  making  it 
more  explicit,  and  it  reads  now,  so  far  as  work  is  concerned,  as  follows: 
"  The  state  cannot  allow  the  fulfilment  of  any  agreement,  contract,  or 
covenant  which  may,  in  any  manner,  impair,  destroy,  or  irrevocably  sac- 
rifice man's  liberty,  either  through  work,  education,  or  religious  vows." 

Whatever  abuses  might  have  been  committed  under  the  peonage 
system  in  Mexico  in  former  years  when  laborers  were  abundant  and  occu- 
pation scarce,  and  the  laborers  were  ignorant  and  destitute,  they  have 
either  disappeared  altogether  or  been  very  materially  reduced  with  the 
changing  conditions  of  the  country,  as  labor  is  now  in  great  demand, 
so  much  so  that  in  very  many  places  the  demand  exceeds  the  supply. 
The  laborers  began  to  be  educated  with  the  restoration  of  peace.  The 
local  authorities  vie  with  each  other  to  enforce  the  laws  which  guar- 
antee the  personal  rights  of  every  inhabitant  of  the  country. 

Rate  of  Agricultural  Mexican  Wages. — The  broken  surface  of  Mex- 
ico gives  us  all  the  climates  of  the  world,  frequently  at  very  short  dis- 
tances from  each  other,  and  enables  us  to  produce  the  fruits  of  all  the 
zones,  while  placing  at  our  disposal,  at  the  same  time,  an  immense  hy-, 

'  It  seems  that  something  similar  to  this  is  done  in  the  United  States,  as  is  shown 
by  the  following  extract  from  Gen.  Rush  C.  Hawkins's  article,  entitled  "  Brutality  and 
Avarice  Triumphant,"  published  in  the  June,  1S96,  number  of  the  N'orth  American 
Review,  page  660  : 

"  One  of  the  most  facile  means  in  the  hands  of  avarice  for  cheating  the  poor  and 
helpless  is  the  'corporation  and  contractor's'  store.  It  is  usually  owned  by  corpora- 
tions whose  employees  are  the  only  patrons,  and  the  rule  is  to  sell  the  poorest  possible 
quality  of  supplies  at  the  highest  price  obtainable.  In  many  instances  employees  are 
given  to  understand  that  they  are  expected  to  trade  at  the  company  and  contract  stores, 
or,  failing  to  do  so,  will  be  discharged.  This  oppressive  method  of  cheating  is  not 
confined  to  any  particular  part  of  the  country,  but  prevails,  with  varying  degrees  of 
malignancy,  wherever  under  one  management,  either  corporate,  partnership,  or  indi- 
vidual, any  considerable  number  of  employees  are  assembled  together.  Since  the 
close  of  the  Civil  War  many  thousands  of  ignorant  blacks  have  been  made  the  victims 
of  this  common  and  heartless  swindle,  which  has  absorbed  their  scant  earnings.  At 
the  end  of  each  month,  year  in  and  year  out,  it  has  proved  to  their  untrained  minds 
an  astonishing  fact  that  the  longer  and  the  harder  they  worked  the  more  they  got  in 
debt  to  their  employers." 


I 


512  Xabor  an^  Maoes  in  /IDejico. 

draulic  power,  of  which  for  the  j)resent  we  hardly  avail  ourselves.  But, 
on  the  other  hand,  this  condition  of  things  made  transportation  very- 
expensive,  and  rendered  the  interchange  of  products  exceedingly  diffi- 
cult. The  obstacles  to  communication  between  the  various  sections 
of  the  country,  and  the  diversity  of  conditions  existing  in  each,  cause 
a  great  difference  in  the  wages  paid  in  different  localities. 

The  Department  of  Public  Works  of  the  Mexican  Government 
has  been  for  some  time  past  collecting  data  regarding  the  wages  paid 
to  field  laborers,  and  during  one  of  my  visits  in  189 1,  to  the  City  of 
Mexico,  I  obtained  a  summary  of  such  data.  It  is  very  difficult  to 
present  it  in  a  complete  and  correct  form,  because  there  are  several 
systems  of  wages.  In  some  places  a  fixed  amount  is  paid  for  one  day's 
work;  in  others,  again,  besides  the  wages,  rations  are  given,'  consist- 
ing of  a  certain  quantity  of  grain,  sufficient  for  the  subsistence  of  the 
laborer  and  his  family;  the  quality  and  quantity  of  these  rations  vary, 
as  well  as  their  value,  for  grain  has  different  prices  in  the  various 
localities;  and  all  these  causes  render  it  very  difficult  to  make  an 
entirely  accurate  re'surne  of  the  official  data. 

The  most  complete  that  I  was  able  to  prepare,  during  my  visit  to 
Mexico  in  1 891,  is  the  following,  which  embraces  the  maximum  and 
minimum  field  wages  paid  in  the  different  States  of  the  Mexican  Con- 
federation, in  cents  and  per  day: 

■  This  assertion  is  confirmed  by  the  following  statement  from  Mr.  Ransom's 
(U.  S.  Minister  to  Mexico)  report  on  Prices  and  Labor  in  Mexico,  of  September  26, 
1896,  published  in  vol.  xiii.,  part  i,  page  117,  of  Special  Consular  Reports,  on  Money 
and  Prices  of  Foreign  Countries  : 

"  A  large  portion  of  the  farming  in  Mexico  is  carried  on  under  the  '  share  system.' 
The  Government  reports  show  that,  in  many  instances,  rations  of  corn  are  furnished 
to  the  hired  laborer  ;  in  some  cases  we  find  that  he  is  allowed  a  small  amount  per  day 
for  his  board  in  addition  to  wages  ;  again,  he  is  furnished  by  the  landlord  with  a 
small  piece  of  land  to  cultivate  for  his  own  benefit." 

These  views  are  confirmed  by  a  report  on  the  condition  of  Mexico,  dated  at  its 
capital  city,  on  September  4,  1896,  from  Governor  Thomas  T.  Crittenden,  then  Consul- 
General  of  the  United  States  in  the  City  of  Mexico,  and  published  by  the  Journal  of 
New  York,  in  its  issue  of  September  17,  1896: 

"  The  wages  paid  laborers  and  artisans  are  largely  improved.  Formerly  work- 
men, particularly  agricultural  laborers,  were  paid  in  'kind'  ;  now  they  are  paid  in 
money.  In  the  case  of  farm  laborers,  it  is  the  custom  of  the  country  for  the  employer, 
in  addition  to  the  regular  wages,  to  allow  the  laborer  the  use  of  a  certain  acreage  to 
raise  his  own  food.  In  many  of  the  agricultural  districts,  instead  of  employing  labor 
directly,  the  owners  of  haciendas  follow  what  is  known  in  the  United  States  as  tht 
share  system  of  cultivating  their  land.  Those  who  were  formerly  practically  serfs  now 
receive  half  the  crop  they  raise.     Corn  is  the  great  staple  of  the  country. 

"  In  considering  the  labor  and  wage  question  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the 
American  skilled  workman  possesses  on  the  average  a  much  higher  degree  of  skill  in 
his  trade  than  the  Mexican  employed  in  a  similar  vocation.  The  American  skilled 
workman  also  performs  much  more  work  in  a  day  than  the  workman  in  this  country. 


IRate  ot  Hccicultural  Mages  in  ^ejico. 


513 


DAILY    WAGES    PAID    TO    FIELD    HANDS    IN    MEXICO    IN    1S9I. 


Aguascalientes 

Lower  California  (T). 

Chiapas 

Chihuahua  

Coahuila 

Colima 

Durango 

Federal  District 

Guanajuato 

Guerrero 

Hidalgo 

Jalisco 

M  exico 

Michoacan 

Morelos 

Nuevo  Leon , 

Oaxaca 

Puebla 

Queretaro 


San  Luis  Potosi 

Sonora 

Tabasco 

Tamaulipas 

Tepic  (T) 

Tlaxcala 

Veracruz 

Yucatan 

Zacatecas 

Average  in  the  whole  country. 


Minimum.   Ma 

ximum.    Av 

erage. ' 

Cts. 

Cts. 

Cts. 

$o.i8|      $0 

i8f     $0 

i8| 

50 

50 

50 

25 

75 

50 

i8f 

25 

2I|  — 

3ii 

»75 

53i 

25 

37i 

3ii 

25 

75 

50 

3ii 

37h 

34| 

i8| 

3ii 

25 

i8| 

50 

24I 

12^ 

37i 

25 

i8f 

50 

34f 

I2i 

37i 

25 

I5i- 

75 

45i 

25 

75 

50 

I8f 

iSf 

i8f 

i8f 

50 

34l 

i8f 

50 

34I 

18J 

371 

28| 

i8| 

25 

22J 

30        I 

00 

65 

37^ 

50 

43l 

25 

50 

374 

25 

50 

37i 

25 

50 

37i 

25 

62^ 

431 

25 

37i 

3ii 

x8f 

50 

34f 

233- 

50 

36  - 

Before  giving  an  account  of  the  causes  of  the  diversity  of  wages 
paid  in  Mexico  for  field  work,  and  showing  why  these  wages  are  so 
low,  it  is  opportune  to  say  that  it  is  not  in  Mexico  only  that  such  diver- 
sity of  wages  exists,  for  something  similar  is  the  case  in  this  country. 
According  to  information  published  by  the  Wisconsin  Labor  Bureau, 
in  i8gi,  a  common  laborer  in  Atlanta  earns  7^  cents  per  hour,  while 
the  same  laborer  in  Galveston,  also  a  Southern  city,  earns  25  cents  per 
hour,  or  three  times  as  much. 

The  Division  of  Statistics  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  of  the 
United  States  issued,  in  1892,  a  report  (Miscellaneous  Series,  Report 
No.  4)  on  the  '*  Wages  of    Farm  Labor  in  the  United  States.     Re- 

'  The  averages  in  this  table  are  not  properly  made,  because  they  are  obtained  by 
adding  the  minimum  and  maximum  wages  and  dividing  the  result  by  two,  and  that 
does  not  give  the  true  average.  To  secure  an  average  rate,  each  rate  should  be  multi- 
plied by  the  number  of  persons  receiving  it,  then  the  total  number  receiving  all  rates 
should  be  divided  into  the  aggregate  amount,  as  shown  by  the  multiplication.  The 
total  average  in  the  preceding  table  was  obtained  by  adding  all  rates  in  each  column 
and  dividing  by  the  number  of  rates,  which  gives  only  an  arithmetical  mean  and  not  an 
average,  but  not  having  the  data  necessary  to  make  a  true  average,  I  only  did  what  I  could. 


5U 


Xabor  anD  Maoes  in  /iDejico. 


suit  of  nine  statistical  investigations,  from  1866  to  1892,  with  exten- 
sive inquiries  concerning  wages  from  1840  to  1865,"  which  contains 
(page  16)  a  tabular  statement  showing  that  in  1892  the  average  wages 
for  farm  labor,  without  board,  was  $12.50  per  month  in  South  Carolina, 
$13.30  in  North  Carolina,  $13.50  in  Georgia,  and  $13.75  in  Alabama, 
while  in  California  the  wages  paid  were  $36.50  and  in  the  State  of 
Washington  $37.50,  the  average  for  all  the  States  for  that  year  being 
$18.60.  For  farm  labor,  with  board,  the  wages  varied  from  $8.40  to 
$25,  and  averaged* $12.54. 

Mr.  Ransom's  and  Mr.  Crittenden' s  Reports  oji  Wages. — On  Septem- 
ber 26,  1896,  Mr.  Matthew  M.  Ransom,  United  States  Minister  at  the 
City  of  Mexico,  sent  to  the  State  Department  a  report  on  the  currency, 
prices,  and  condition  of  labor  in  that  country,  which  was  published  in 
the  Special  Consular  Report  (vol.  xiii.,  part  i)  on  Money  and  Prices 
in  Foreign  Countries,  and  to  which  he  appended  a  statement  of 
wages  paid  to  men  for  agricultural  labor  in  1893,  stating  that  the  rates 
were  taken  from  the  Government  statistics  for  that  year,  and  that  they 
were  expressed  in  Mexican  currency.  As  that  statement  is  a  little 
more  comprehensive  than  mine  and  somewhat  later,  and  although  it  is 
not  complete  and  cannot,  I  think,  be  taken  as  entirely  correct,  because 
it  would  be  exceedingly  difficult  to  make  an  altogether  reliable  state- 
ment, I  consider  it  a  fair  one  and  insert  it  here: 

WAGES    PER    DAY    OF    AGRICULTURAL    LABOR    IN    1893 MEN.' 


Aguascalientes... 

Campeche 

Mexico 

Guerrero 

Hidalgo 

Jalisco 

Michoacan 

Sonora 

Tabasco 

Coahuila 

Colima 

Tainaulipas 

Chihuahua 

Durango 

Guanajuato 

Nuevo  Leon 

Oaxaca 

Puebla 

Veracruz 

Yucatan 

Zacatecas 

Federal  District. 
San  Luis  Potosi.. 
Morelos 


Major- 
domos. 


0.25  to 
.50  to 
•37  to 
•75  to 
•37  to 
•37  to 
.50  to 
.62  to 
•75  to 
.50  to 


$0.37 
1.50 
1. 00 
1. 00 
1. 00 
1. 00 
2.00 
1.00 
1. 00 

•75 
1.00 
•50 


.50  to 
•37  to 
•75  to 
.50  to 
.50  to 
.50  to 

1. 00  to 
•37  to 

1. 00  to 
.50  to 

1.00  to 


1. 00 

1. 00 
1.00 
1. 00 
1.00 

1.25 

1.25 

•75 
1.50 

•83 
2.00 


Overseers. 


Herders. 


$0.25  to  $0.37 
.25  to  .31 
.2510  .50 
•so 
.18  to  .50 
.2510  .50 
.25  to  .50 
.50  to  1.75 
•50  to  .75 
•37  to       .50 


$0.13  to  $0.20 
.25  to  .75 
.18  to 
•37  to 
.18  to 
.25  to 

I       .25  to 

I    -3710 

1     .25  to 

I    .3710 


•50 
•50 
•50 
•50 
•50 

1 .00 

•50 
•50 


Shepherds. 


$0.18  to 


$0.25 
•25 


.18  to 
.5010 
.31  to 
•37  to 


.25  to  I.OO 

.37  to  .50 

■37  to  .50 

.37  to  I.OO 


.25  to      I.OO 

.50 
.40 
.50 


.18  to 
.50  to 
.31  to 

•  25  to 

.25  to 

•25*0 
•37  to 
.5010 
•25  to 


•25 

•75 
.50 
•37 

•75 
•  50 
.60 

I.OO 

•75 
•75 
•50 
.20 
.50 


.18  to 
.2510 
.18  to 
•37  to 
.2510 

•  25  to 


•31 
•50 
•37 

I.OO 

•50 

•25 

•37 


.25  to 
.i8to 
.18  to 


.18  to 
•37  to 
.25  to 
•37  to 
•37  to 
.18  to 


•31 

I.OO 

•50 
•50 
•50 

.20 


Pulque 
Hands. 


Peons. 


$0.28  to  $0.37 


•37 

•37 

.18  to      .50 


.iSto 
•37  to 


•  25  to 


.18  to       .50  I 

•37  to      .50  I 
.18  to      .25  I 


$0.13  to  $1 
.25  to 
.18  to 
.12  to 
.18  to 
.25  to 
.18  to 
•37  to 
•37  to 
.25  to 
•37  to 
.18  to 
•37  to 
.25  to 
.18  to 
.iSto 
.25  to 
.18  to 
.i8to 
.2510 
.i8to 
•37  to 
.18  to 
•37  to 


io.25 
■50 

.50 
.31 
•50 

•  5" 
•75 

I.OO 
I.OO 

•37 
•7S 

•25 

.62  ■ 
•37 

•25 

•50 
.50 

•  50 
.37 
•75 
.50 
.40 
•25 

I.OO 


'  These  rates  are  taken  from  the  Government  statistics  for  the  year  1893.  They 
are  expressed  in  Mexican  currency  ;  in  United  States  currency  they  are  about  one-half. 

In  some  of  the  States  rations  of  corn  and  bacon  are  furnished  ;  very  seldom  any 
meat. 


/iDr.  IRansom's  anC)  /IDr.  Crittenden's  IReports.      515 

Besides  Mr.  Ransom's  report,  another  with  the  same  purpose,  made 
by  Mr.  Thomas  T.  Crittenden,  United  States  Consul-General  at  the 
City  of  Mexico,  dated  September  i,  1S96,  containing  important  data, 
was  published  in  the  same  number  of  the  Special  Consular  Reports  of 
the  United  States.  Both  reports  embrace  data  about  wages  in  the 
factories,  mines,  and  railroads  that,  while  I  believe  they  are  correct  as 
far  as  they  go,  are  not  comprehensive  enough,  as  they  relate  only  to 
certain  factories  and  mining  districts.  So  far  as  the  railroads  are  con- 
cerned, they  are  entirely  reliable,  because  the  railway  companies  are 
but  few,  and  most  of  them  furnished  directly  to  Mr.  Ransom  a  correct 
schedule  of  their  wages.  As  they  serve  to  show  the  rate  of  Mexican 
wages,  I  append  to  this  article  such  tabular  statements  sent  by  Mr. 
Ransom  as  I  think  of  interest. 

Mr.  Crittenden's  report  contains  the  following  table  of  wages  and 
salaries  paid  in  and  about  the  City  of  Mexico  on  September  i,  1896: 

MEXICAN    WAGES. 


EMPLOYMENT. 


Agents,  railway per  month . 

Boiler  makers per  day . 

Brakemen per  month. 

Bricklayers  (native) per  day. 

Clerks  (office) per  month . 

Cooks,  women  ' do. . . 

Cooks,  men do. . . 

Carpenters    per  day . 

Conductors,  passenger per  month. 

Conductors,  freight do. . . 

Conductors,  street-car per  day. 

Coachmen,  private  (native) per  month. 

Coachmen,  public  (native) do. . . 

Division  (railway)  superintendents do. . . 

Drivers,  street-car per  day. 

Engineers  : 

I,ocomotive per  month . 

Stationary,  with  board  ^ per  day. 

Stationary,  without  board  •' do. .  . 

Engravers do. . . 

Firemen,  locomotive per  month. 

Firemen,  ordinary do . . . 

Furnace  men per  day. 

Harness  makers,  etc do. . . 

Iron  workers do.  . . 

Jewellers do.  . . 

Laborers,  in  large  cities do. . . 

Laborers,  in  the  country  * do. . . 


MEXICAN   CUR- 
RENCY. 


I75-00 

4.00 

35.00 

1. 00 

40.00 

6.00 

25.00 

1.50 

100.00 

100.00 

•50 

15.00 

250.00 
•50 


150. 

3- 

5- 

75- 

20. 

I. 

2. 

2, 


00  - 
50  - 
50  - 
00  - 
00  - 
00  - 
00  - 
50  - 
00  - 
00   - 

375- 
10  - 


gl  50.00 

8.00 

75.00 

1.50 

200.06 

12.00 

75.00 

4-75 
160.00 
200.00 

1. 00 

30.00 

^15-00 

350.00 

1. 00 

250.00 

3-35 
5.00 

10.00 
100.00 

50.00 
1.50 
2.00 
2.50 
5.00 


15 


UNITED    STATES 
CURRENCY. 


$39.00 

2.08 

18.20 

.52 

20.00 

3.12 

13.00 

.78 

52.00 

52.00 

.26 

7.80 

130.00 
.26 


$78.00 

4.16 

39.00 

.78 

104.00 

6.24 

39.00 

2.37 

83.20 

104.00 

.52 

15.60 

7.80 

192.00 

.52 


78.00  -    130.00 

1.82 

2.60 

5.20 

52.00 

26.00 

.78 

1.04 

1.30 

2.60 

■353 
.078 


1.30  - 
1.82  - 
2.60  - 

39-44  - 

10.44  - 

.52  - 

.26  - 

1.04  - 

1.04  - 

•192- 
.052- 


'  And  9  cents  (4.68  cents,  United  States)  per  day  for  rations. 

'  Maximum  ;  these  depend  largely  on  tips. 

'  In  mines  and  on  large  plantations. 

*  Laborers  (day)  in  the  country,  from  19  to  50  cents  per  day.  In  some  instances  meals  arc  fur- 
nished, or  an  allowance  of  from  lo  to  15  cents  a  day  to  cover  the  cost  of  the  meals.  The  .-iveragc 
laborer  will  live  well  and  in  good  strength  on  from  10  to  15  cenlj;  per  day,  and  will  support  his  family 


Ji 


5i6 


Xabor  auD  Maoes  in  /IDejico. 


MEXICAN    WAGES — CoTitimied. 


EMPLOYMENT. 

MEXICAN   CUR- 
RENCY. 

UNITED   STATES 
CURRENCY. 

Laborers  in  factories  (lo  to  li  hours). per  day.  . 

Laborers,  skilled  (lo  to  ii  hours) do. . . . 

Mechanics do.  . .  . 

Machinists  (shop) do. . .  . 

Miners,  skilled do.  .  .  . 

Miners,  ordinary do.  .  . . 

Maids,  house per  month .  . 

$0.50  -     $1.00 
1.50   -        2.00 
3.50  -        5.00 
3.50  -        5.00 
1. 00  -         1.50 
.50  -           .80 
4.00  -         7.00 

50.00  -    150.00 

2.00  -        2.50 
6.00  -        8.00 

7.00  -        8.00 

8.00  -      11.00 

10.00  -      12.00 

30.00  -      50.00 

1.50 

3.50  -        4.00 

2.25   -        3.50 

1. 00  -         1.50 

.37   -           .50 

150.00  -    175.00 

1. 00  -         1.25 
5.00  -      12.00 

1-35  -       I-50 
1.75  -       2.50 

$0.26  -      $0.52 

.78   -         1.04 

1.82   -         2.60 

1.82   -         2.60 

.52  -           .78 

.26  -           .416 

2.08  -        3.64 

26.00  -      78.00 

1.04  -         1.30 
3.12  -        4.16 

3.64  -        4.16 

4-i6  -       5-72 

5.20  -      6.24 

13.60  -     26.00 

.78 

Operators,  telegraph do.  .  .  . 

Plumbers : 

Native per  day .  . 

American do.  . . . 

Printers : 

Native per  week. . 

Pressmen   do ...  . 

Compositors do.  . .  . 

Policemen per  month .  . 

Switchmen per  day .  . 

Blacksmiths do.  .  .  . 

Gold-  and  silver-smiths do. . .  . 

Seamstresses do.  . .  . 

Train  masters per  month.  . 

Tailors  : 

Rejiaiiers per  day. . 

1.82  -       2.34 

1. 17  -       1.82 

.52  -         .78 

.29  -        .26 

73.00  -    91.00 

•52  -         .65 

2.60  -      6.24 

.71  -         .78 

.91 

Coat  makers per  coat .  . 

Vest  makers per  vest . . 

Pantaloonists per  pair.  . 

Low  Wages  in  Mexico. — A  great  deal  has  been  written  about  the 
low  scale  of  wages  prevailing  in  Mexico.  The  laborer  in  that  country 
has  been  held  up  to  his  brethren  in  the  United  States  as  an  object  of 
great  pity  and  commiseration,  and  his  condition  has  been  depicted  in 
most  realistic  colors.  He  has  been  compared  with  the  well-fed,  well- 
clothed,  and  well-housed  workmen  of  this  Republic,  and  the  comparison 
was  not  made  to  appear  greatly  to  his  advantage.  Wages  in  Mexico 
are  certainly  very  low,  although,  fortunately,  they  are  rising;  but 
biased  persons  from  this  country  who  visit  Mexico  and  remaira  there 
only  a  few  days,  unacquainted  with  the  language,  the  people,  and  the 
conditions  of  the  country,  completely  misunderstand  the  case,  and  are 
apt  to  come  to  general  conclusions  from  some  special  instance  that  may 
come  to  their  notice,  and  return  to  the  United  States  supposing  that 

on  from  10  to  20  cents  per  day.  Of  course  he  will  have  his  little  patch  of  corn,  beans,  and  chUes 
planted  near  his  hut,  which  is  the  largest  part  of  his  "  bill  of  fare"  three  times  a  day,  and  for  three 
hundred  and  si.xty-five  days  in  the  year.  Five  to  ten  dollars  per  year  will  clothe  him,  except,  perhaps, 
his  hat,  and  for  that,  he  will,  if  he  can  get  the  money,  pay  from  $5  to  $20.  As  to  wages  paid  for  farm 
labor,  it  is  well  to  add  that  a  large  part  of  the  farming  in  this  country  is  done  on  shares ;  almost  the 
entire  corn  crop  of  Me.xico — and  it  is  one  of  the  largest  and  most  important— is  raised  by  the  "  peons  " 
on  shares.  The  landowner  furnishes  everything,  including  a  house  to  live  in,  and  for  this  receives 
one-half  of  the  crop.  Others  of  the  poorer  class  who  are  employed  directly  by  the  owner  receive,  be- 
sides their  daily  wages,  a  small  plot  of  ground  and  a  certain  number  of  hours  each,  week  to  cultivate  it. 


%o\v  Maaes  in  /l!>crico.  517 

they  know  all  about  the  subject,  and  make  incorrect  and  ungrounded 
statements  about  the  laboring  classes  in  Mexico.' 

Farther  on  I  will  show  the  difference  in  the  cost  of  life  between  Mex- 
ico and  the  United  States,  and,  as  a  consequence  of  the  same,  how  much 
more  can  be  obtained  in  Mexico  by  a  smaller  amount  of  wages  than  in 
the  United  States.  Those  who  work  in  Mexico  live  fairly  well  accord- 
ing to  the  value  of  their  services  and  the  necessaries  of  life.  Those  who 
are  out  of  employment  find  existence  much  more  tolerable  in  tropical 
Mexico  than  in  this  country,  where  fires  and  warm  clothing  are  for  the 
greater  part  of  the  year  indispensable.  Both  in  Mexico  and  the  United 
States  the  very  poor  are  wretched.  But,  from  a  hygienic  point  of  view, 
the  Mexican  laborer's  adobe  hut  is  no  more  squalid  and  unwholesome 
than  the  swarming  tenements  and  sweat-shops  of  New  York  City. 

When  one  speaks  of  wages  in  the  United  States  he  always  refers  to 
wages  in  the  Northern  and  Western  States,  which  are  the  highest  paid  in 
this  country  and  in  theworld,  but  not  to  the  largest  section  of  this  country 
where  wages  are  comparatively  small,  especially  those  paid  to  the  negroes 
in  the  South.  It  is  true  that  the  latter  enjoy  advantages  that  the  North- 
ern laborers  do  not  :  a  more  benign  climate  and  the  privilege  of 
cultivating  a  small  plot  of  ground  where  they  can  obtain  vegetables, 
fruits,  corn,  etc.,  and  raise  some  domestic  animals,  and  find  easy  and 
cheap  shelter,  which  contributes,  of  course,  to  reduce  the  expense  of 
the  necessaries  of  life;  but  the  Mexican  laborers  are  very  much  in  the 
same  condition  with  a  great  many  decided  advantages  over  the  Southern 
negroes,  in  so  far  as  the  climate  is  concerned,  and  if  the  wages  and  the 

'  One  instance  of  this  is  the  case  of  Mr.  Theodore  Knaufl,  who  is  a  student  of 
sociology  and  recently  visited  Mexico,  and  in  December,  i8g6,  delivered  a  lecture  at 
the  Franklin  Institute  of  Philadelphia,  under  the  joint  auspices  of  that  Institute  and 
the  Young  Men's  Christian  Association  of  that  city,  upon  the  conditions  of  Mexico  as 
he  thought  he  found  them,  in  which,  at  the  outset,  he  declares  "  that  of  the  12,500,000 
people  composing  the  population  of  Mexico,  at  least  8,000,000  have  never  slept  in  a  bed 
or  worn  stockings.  They  are  forced  to  live  at  a  less  expense  per  diem  than  it  takes  to 
keep  the  meanest  American  farm-horse.  Millions  of  Mexicans  have  never  worn  any- 
thing but  a  single  garment,  called  a  '  sarappe,'  which  is  roughly  described  as  a  sack  with 
a  hole  in  the  top,  through  which  tlie  wearer  protrudes  his  head.  This  garment,"  con- 
tinues Mr.  Knauff,  "  forms  at  the  same  time  the  Mexican's  coat,  hat,  and  even  his  bed. 
The  feet  are  usually  bare  or  clothed  in  domestic  sandals.  Tlie  women  wear  a  kind  of 
cotton  shawl  over  their  heads  and  shoulders,  called  a  '  rebozo.'  The  Mexican  farm 
laborers'  conditions  are  inferior  to  those  of  the  late  slaves  of  our  Southern  States.  Their 
huts  have  but  one  opening,  no  windows,  and  dirt  floors.  When  wishing  to  go  to  bed, 
they  simply  unroll  their  mats,  and,  without  removing  their  clothing,  lie  down  and  go  to 
sleep.  The  laborer  has  a  certain  wage  and  is  given  time  and  place  to  build  himself  a 
house.  If  he  does  not  build  it  he  has  nothing  with  which  to  cover  his  head.  The  houses 
are  built  by  the  people  who  live  in  them.  Some  of  the  houses  are  mud-roofed  and 
others  roofed  by  palms  or  banana  leaves." 

Anybody  familiar  with  Mexico  knows  that  this  statement  has  as  many  mistakes  as 
lines. 


5i8  Xabor  an&  Macjes  in  /IDejico. 

condition  of  living  and  happiness  between  the  two  classes  are  com- 
pared, I  do  not  think  that  any  material  advantage  to  the  latter  would  be 
found.  Their  social  condition  is,  of  course,  infinitely  better  in  Mexico 
because  there  they  can  rise  to  the  highest  position  in  the  country.  The 
condition  of  some  of  the  working  classes  in  this  country  is  not  as  satis- 
factory as  it  might  be.  The  recent  clothing  strike  in  New  York  City  has 
shown  beyond  all  denial  that  the  pay  of  certain  classes  of  workmen 
engaged  in  the  making  of  clothing  has  been  as  follows:  Tailors,  from 
$3  to  $5  '^  week;  children's  jacket-makers,  about  $3  a  week;  knee- 
pants  makers,  $5  a  week;  vest-makers,  $4  a  week.  In  other  words, 
these  people  have  been  receiving  from  thirty-three  to  eighty-three 
cents  per  day. 

Recently,  there  has  been  a  tendency  to  reduce  the  compensation 
of  working  girls  in  the  great  shops  of  the  big  towns.  I  understand  that 
in  New  York  the  wages  of  $3  a  week  is  now  considered  quite  enough, 
and  a  working  girl  could  hardly  afford  to  live  there  on  $3  a  week. 

The  Mexican  laborer  is  receiving  wages  quite  equal  in  amount  to 
those  received  by  his  poorly  paid  unfortunate  brethren  in  this  country, 
but  his  wages  are  far  more  powerful  than  theirs  in  the  purchasing  of  those 
necessaries  which  go  to  make  up  his  life.  With  his  374-  cents  per  day, 
he  can  live,  according  to  his  notions,  in  comparative  comfort;  with 
their  37^  cents  per  day,  it  is  not  possible  to  live  with  comfort  in  this 
country.  His  climate  is  also  mild  and  delightful ;  he  needs  not  the  fuel 
and  the  clothing  which  are  necessary  to  the  New  York  workmen. 

It  is  not  possible  in  every  country  to  pay  high  wages  to  the  laborers. 
Even  in  this  great  country,  where  laborers  are  better  paid  than  any- 
where else,  and  where  they  have  sometimes  been  called  princes — and 
they  deserve  that  name,  if  compared  with  others — wages  are  sometimes 
quite  low. 

To  ensure  for  the  workingman  of  Mexico  higher  wages  many  things 
have  to  be  accomplished.  He  has  first  to  be  technically  trained,  to  be 
made  more  intelligent  by  education,  to  unlearn  his  habits  of  dawdling 
and  procrastination,  in  a  word,  to  put  more  conscience  into  his  work. 
There  are  mechanics  there  who  are  getting  good  pay  because  they  have 
learned  the  lesson  of  the  times;  they  are  diligent  and  efficient.  Foreign 
mechanics  are  well  paid  in  Mexico  when  they  are  engaged  by  respon- 
sible concerns.  In  some  lines  of  endeavor,  wages  are  very  good  there 
as  compared  with  the  cost  of  subsistence. 

Mexico  is  a  southern  land  with  a  benign  climate,  a  winterless  lana, 
a  land  of  easy  habits,  and  its  masses  are  not  yet  inclined  to  put  forth 
the  exertion  necessary  to  gain  high  wages. 

High  Wages  to  Skilled  Laborers. — Everybody  admits,  even  those 
who  most  harshly  disparage  Mexico  because  of  her  silver  standard, 
that  railway  engineers,  conductors,  and  in  fact  all  skilled  laborers,  re- 


IKIlbp  /IDcjican  Xabor  is  Cbeap.  519 

ceive  in  Mexico  higher  wages  than  such  laborers  receive  in  the  United 
States  under  a  gold  basis,  that  is,  that  the  wages  of  such  men  in  silver 
are  more  than  its  equivalent  in  gold  at  the  corresponding  price  of  silver; 
while  the  native  unskilled  labor  is  paid  a  very  low  price,  a  price  con- 
siderably lower  than  similar  labor  is  paid  in  this  country.  This  fact 
proves  very  conclusively,  in  my  opinion,  that  labor,  independently  of 
the  demand,  which  is  one  of  the  principal  factors  to  regulate  its  value, 
has  a  fixed  price;  that  is,  that  the  more  it  can  produce  the  higher  is  the 
price  it  can  obtain.  A  company,  for  instance,  finds  that  it  is  very 
profitable  to  establish  in  Mexico  cotton  or  woollen  mills,  smelters,  or 
any  other  similar  plant,  and  as  there  are  not  experts  in  Mexico  to 
establish  the  plant  and  work  it,  it  has  to  send  for  them  either  to  the 
United  States  or  to  Europe;  and  the  expert,  of  course,  would  not  go 
to  Mexico  unless  he  expected  to  receive  something  more  than  he  can 
get  at  home,  and,  naturally,  in  money  having  the  same  value.  If  the 
expert  gets  $4  a  day  in  gold  in  the  United  States  or  England,  he  would 
certainly  not  go  to  Mexico  to  receive  $4  in  silver,  which  would  be 
equivalent,  at  the  present  price  of  silver,  to  less  than  $2  in  gold,  so 
losing  more  than  fifty  per  cent,  of  his  present  wages;  but  he  would 
demand  at  least  from  $8  to  $10  in  silver,  which  is  more  than  he  re- 
ceives at  home,  and  the  company  starting  the  plant  has  necessarily  to 
pay  those  wages  or  it  would  be  unable  to  carry  on  its  business.  This 
explains  why  experts  and  skilled  laborers  get  higher  wages  in  Mexico 
than  in  the  United  States,  while  the  unskilled  laborers,  for  reasons 
already  stated,  get  a  great  deal  less. 

Skilled  labor  in  Mexico  commands,  of  course,  the  same  or  higher 
price  as  in  the  old  countries,  and  it  is  paid  in  its  equivalent  in  silver,  and 
it  is  paid  much  better  than  in  Italy,  Spain,  and  Turkey,  and  about  as 
well  as  in  England,  all  of  which  are  old  countries.  Of  course,  no  work- 
ingman  in  Mexico  can  get,  or  can  expect,  such  wages  as  are  paid  in 
Homestead,  Bethlehem,  and  Pittsburg  ;  namely,  $10,  $15,  and  $25 
per  diem,  for  the  simple  reason  that  in  Mexico  no  such  establishments 
exist  as  the  Carnegie  Works,  and,  therefore,  no  opening  for  the 
specialties  referred  to. 

IV/iy  Mexican  Labor  is  Cheap. — The  question  of  wages  is  undoubt- 
edly settled  by  fixed  laws,  but  these  laws  are  so  complex  and  affected  by 
so  many  factors  that  there  is  a  very  wide  difference  of  opinion  about 
their  true  nature.  Undoubtedly  the  amount  and  quality  of  the  work 
produced  by  the  wage-earner  in  a  given  time  is  one  of  the  principal 
factors  regulating  wages  ;  but  when  a  country  is  isolated  by  the 
condition  of  its  civilization,  by  tariff  barriers,  by  very  high  cost  of 
transportation,  or  by  other  causes,  preventing  it  from  receiving  the 
manufactures  of  the  commercial  nations  which  compete  in  the  world's 
markets,  wages  may  be  affected  by  different  principles,  like  the  cost 


520  Xabor  an&  Ma^es  in  /IDejico. 

of  living  and  others.  The  isolation  of  Mexico  during  several  cen- 
turies, and  the  want  of  cheap  and  easy  means  of  communication, 
prevented  the  development  of  agriculture,  trade,  and  industries  and 
made  many  communities  self-supporting;  that  is,  they  had  to  raise 
the  necessary  articles  of  food  for  their  own  maintenance,  and  some- 
times to  weave  the  cotton  and  woollen  goods  required  for  clothing. 
This  isolation,  of  course,  prevented  the  development  of  the  natural  re- 
sources of  the  country  and  kept  wages  necessarily  very  low;  because 
the  demand  for  its  products  being  very  limited — just  enough  to  supply 
the  needs  of  a  small  community — and  the  supply  very  great,  the  price 
of  labor  had  necessarily  to  be  very  low.  The  question  of  wages  is  set- 
tled by  natural  laws,  and  there  is  a  natural  level  for  them.  In  isolated 
districts,  not  subject  to  the  general  law  governing  wages,  as  most  of 
Mexico  was  before  the  railway  era,  the  rule  is  that  in  a  cheap  country, 
where  the  necessaries  of  life  are  but  little,  wages  are  comparatively 
low,  while  in  a  dear  country  wages  have  to  be  proportionately  high,  be- 
cause in  any  case  a  man  has  to  earn  enough  to  sustain  life.  When  a 
laborer  can  satisfy  his  needs  by  working  little  he  has  no  inducement  to 
go  beyond  that;  but  when  to  support  himself  and  his  family,  he  needs  to 
exert  himself  as  much  as  he  can  then  he  has  to  produce  a  comparatively 
large  amount  of  commodities  to  earn  higher  wages.  The  laborer's  wants 
not  only  depend,  in  such  isolated  districts,  upon  the  natural  conditions 
of  the  country,  but  also  on  the  degree  of  civilization  which  the  people 
have  reached.  Of  course,  competition  in  manufactures  which  go  to 
international  markets  controls  wages  in  commercial  and  manufacturing 
countries.  These  considerations  explain  why  wages  in  Mexico  are  so 
low,  as  compared  with  wages  in  the  United  States,  and  it  suffices  to 
say  that,  now  that  our  railways  are  built  and  the  country  has  entered 
on  the  path  of  prosperity,  as  the  old  conditions  are  changing,  wages  are 
increasing  and  tend  to  increase  considerably. 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  climatic  influences  in  both 
countries  are  so  different  that  their  respective  inhabitants,  and  espe- 
cially the  wage-earning  classes,  cannot  be  judged  by  the  same  standard. 
The  mild  climate  of  Mexico,  for  instance,  does  not  require  all  the  pro- 
visions for  winter  and  the  corresponding  increased  expense  for  that 
season  that  are  needed  in  this  latitude.  Almost  all  over  that  country, 
excepting  in  the  most  northern  States,  the  difference  in  the  seasons  is 
so  slight  that  we  do  not  need  to  change  our  style  of  clothing  from 
winter  to  summer.  We  do  not  need  to  heat  our  houses,  not  even  in 
the  City  of  Mexico,  which  is  nearly  8000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea 
and  located  in  what  we  call  the  cold  region;  and,  therefore,  we  do  not 
have  the  expenses  unavoidable  in  a  northern  climate  where  houses 
have  to  be  heated  during  the  winter.  The  benignity  of  the  Mexican 
climate  renders  unnecessary  expensive  houses  for  the  poor  people,  that 


W,oth  ot  /IDejican  anb  Bmerican  Xaborers.        521 

is,  houses  which  can  be  hermetically  closed  in  winter  to  keep  them 
warm;  on  the  contrary,  in  the  temperate  and  hot  climates,  what  is  de- 
sirable is  to  keep  the  houses  cool.  Building  materials,  namely,  adobe, 
which  is  unburnt  brick  of  very  large  size,  is  very  cheap,  and  all  this 
contributes  to  make  living  in  Mexico  much  cheaper  than  in  the  United 
States.  In  a  great  many  localities  in  Mexico  even  shoes  are  not  in- 
dispensable, and  may  be  considered  as  an  article  of  convenience  or 
luxury,  not  a  necessity.  So  far  as  food  is  concerned,  nature  has  pro- 
vided, too,  an  abundant  supply  of  fruits,  a  fertile  soil,  which  in  some 
localities  yields  as  many  as  four  crops  a  year;  and  the  maintenance  of 
a  family  is,  as  compared  with  the  same  needs  in  the  United  States,  ex- 
ceedingly cheap.  Therefore,  what  would  be  considered  as  starvation 
wages  in  this  country  would  supply  a  working  family  in  Mexico  with 
all  the  necessaries  and  even  with  some  of  the  luxuries  of  life;  and 
these  natural  conditions  cannot  be  altered  or  changed  by  legislation, 
or  by  any  artificial  means. 

I  consider  the  assumption  that  the  tendency  of  wages  in  Mexico  is 
to  become  lower  as  a  very  mistaken  one.  The  contrary  assumption  is 
the  correct  one.  Wages  in  Mexico  could  not  be  any  lower  than  they 
are,  and  in  every  kind  of  work  there  is  a  marked  tendency  to  in- 
crease, and  I  know  by  personal  experience  that  an  increase,  and  a  very 
decided  one,  has  taken  place  during  the  past  fifteen  years. 

Differejice  i?i  Amount  of  Work  Accomplished  by  Mexican  and  Ameri- 
can IVorhnen. — It  is  a  fact  that  wages  in  Mexico  are  far  lower  in  many 
instances  than  those  paid  for  the  same  industries  in  the  United  States, 
although  sometimes,  that  is,  in  the  case  of  skilled  laborers,  they  are  as 
high  or  higher;  but  this  ought  not  to  appear  strange  when  it  is  con- 
sidered that  this  country  pays  probably  the  highest  wages  in  the  world; 
not  even  the  foremost  manufacturing  nations  of  Europe,  as  England, 
France,  Germany,  and  Belgium,  being  equal  in  this  regard.  Yet  while 
it  is  true  that  labor  in  European  countries  is  not  so  well  remunerated 
as  in  the  United  States,  it  must  be  taken  into  account  that  the  same 
amount  of  labor  produces  there  less  than  here.  I  am  assured  by  com- 
petent persons  that  a  bank-bill  printer,  for  instance,  does  not  print  in 
England  more  than  looo  sheets  per  week,  while  the  average  work 
done  by  the  American  workman  is  6000  sheets  per  week;  and  it  is 
stated  in  the  Journal  des  Economistes  that  a  French  weaver  can  take 
care  of  only  four  looms,  a  Belgian  of  five,  an  English  weaver  of  six, 
and  one  from  this  country  of  eight,  while  a  Mexican  weaver  cannot 
attend  to  more  than  two  looms.  But  the  actual  production  during  a 
given  working  time  is  in  Mexico  far  less  than  in  the  United  States,  or 
even  in  Europe. 

The  day's  work  of  a  Mexican  laborer,  very  likely,  represents  in  many 
cases  only  one-fourth  of  what  is  accomplished  during  the  same  time  by 


522  Xabor  anD  Matics  in  /IDejico. 

a  laborer  in  the  United  States.  A  Mexican  laborer  working  from  ten 
to  eleven  hours  a  day,  for  instance,  accomplishes  less  work,  or  pro- 
duces l.'ss,  than  a  European  or  an  American  laborer  in  seven  or  nine 
hours,  and  in  some  instances  the  disproportion  is  as  great  as  one  to 
five.  I  have  been  assured  that  a  Mexican  bricklayer  in  eleven  hours' 
work  does  not  lay  more  than  500  bricks,  while  a  bricklayer  in  the 
United  States  lays  2500  in  nine  hours.  Mr.  Enrique  Creel,  of  Chi- 
huahua, a  prominent  Mexican  gentleman,  of  American  parentage, 
stated  in  an  interview  published  by  the  Denver,  Colorado,  News,  of 
October  25,  1896,  that  a  St.  Louis  contractor,  who  was  executing  a 
large  contract  for  the  Mexican  Government,  told  him  that  a  Mexican 
bricklayer  could  lay,  on  an  average,  500  bricks  daily,  while  an  American 
bricklayer  is  able  to  lay  5000  daily.  Under  such  conditions  the  high 
wages  of  $3  a  day  paid  in  the  United  States  are  no  higher  than  the  wages 
of  50  cents  paid  in  Mexico,  so  far  as  the  product  of  labor  is  concerned. 

The  principal  causes  for  this  difference  in  working  capacity  are,  in 
my  opinion,  the  following:  (i)  the  Mexican  laborer  is  not  so  well  fed 
as  his  fellow-laborer  in  this  country;  (2)  he  generally  works  until  he 
is  exhausted,  and  his  work  is  not,  therefore,  so  productive;  (3)  he  is 
not,  on  the  whole,  so  well  educated  as  the  average  laborer  in  the 
United  States;  (4)  he  has  fewer  wants  to  satisfy,  and  therefore  less  in- 
ducement to  work.  Perhaps  there  is,  in  addition  to  these  causes,  at 
least  in  some  localities,  another,  a  climatic  influence,  the  enervating 
character  of  the  tropical  climate  and  the  high  altitude  above  the  level 
of  the  sea,  and  the  consequent  lower  atmospheric  pressure  at  which  a 
large  portion  of  the  population  of  Mexico  is  located.  I  am  inclined  to 
believe  that  this  is  a  factor  in  the  case,  as  a  similar  difference  is  noticed 
among  animals.  A  plough  drawn  by  one  horse  in  this  country  would,  in 
Mexico,  require  two  or  three  horses  to  accomplish  the  same  work  in  simi- 
lar soil;  and  this  shows  that  the  difference  in  working  strength  may 
be  due,  at  least  in  part  and  in  some  places,  to  natural  causes  or  climatic 
influences. 

LowWages  Mean  High  Cost  of  P  roduciion. — It  is  now  time  to  show  that 
the  low  wages  paid  in  Mexico  do  not  always  produce  cheap  commodities, 
and  could  not  therefore,  by  competition,  lower  the  compensation  of 
labor,  or  the  cost  of  similar  articles  manufactured  in  the  United  States. 

We  pay  in  Mexico,  in  some  cases,  wages  amounting  to  about  a  sixth 
of  what  is  paid  here  for  similar  work,  and  yet  production  in  Mexico, 
with  such  low  wages,  is  a  great  deal  more  costly  than  the  production 
of  similar  articles  in  the  United  States,  with  probably  the  highest  wages 
in  the  world. 

It  is  true  that  v/ages  are  one  of  the  principal  factors  in  the  cost  of 
production  of  all  kinds  of  merchandise,  but  they  are  not  the  only,  and, 
in  many  cases,  not  even  the  principal  one.     The  question  of  wages  is 


Xow  Maocs  /IDean  t)igb  Cost  ot  IproDuction.       523 

very  complex,  and  it  seems  that,  in  comparing  the  wages  of  this  country 
with  those  paid  in  Mexico,  two  important  factors  are  generally  over- 
looked: first,  the  amount  of  commodities  produced  in  each  country  by 
the  same  unit  of  work,  either  because  of  the  greater  capacity  or  the 
greater  physical  strength  of  the  laborer,  or  through  the  use  of  machinery, 
which  increases  the  amount  of  production  and  cheapens  it  enormous- 
ly; and,  second,  the  cost  of  living  in  each  country,  and,  as  a  conse- 
quence of  the  same,  the  purchasing  power  of  the  currency  in  each. 
When  these  two  factors  are  taken  into  account  it  will  be  found  that  the 
high  wages  paid  here  are  often  no  higher  for  the  work  performed, 
perhaps  in  some  cases  even  lower,  than  those  paid  in  Mexico  and  in 
other  countries;  and  only  in  that  way  can  we  explain  how  this  country, 
Avith  its  high  wages,  can  produce  many  articles — as,  for  instance, 
watches  and  clocks — which  compete  successfully  with  those  made  in 
Switzerland,  where  wages  are  comparatively  low. 

The  cost  of  ])roduction,  too,  depends  on  other  circumstances,  vary- 
ing in  different  countries,  all  of  which  must  be  considered  in  order  to 
arrive  at  a  proper  understanding  of  the  subject.  I  should  need  more 
space  than  I  can  reasonably  use  in  this  article  to  mention  all  the  causes 
which  affect  wages,  and  to  shov/  how  far  they  influence  the  cost  of 
production;  and  I  shall  only  present  some  practical  and  suggestive 
examples  taken  from  the  tables  of  the  cost  of  living  which  I  will  pres- 
ently insert,  to  show  that  some  commodities  produced  in  this  country. 
with  high  wages,  cost  less,  and  therefore  are  sold  at  a  lower  price,  than 
similar  articles  produced  in  Mexico  with  low  wages. 

One  of  the  best  illustrations  of  the  correctness  of  this  statement  is 
afforded  by  the  working  of  the  mines  in  both  countries.  Although  the 
wages  of  miners  in  Mexico  are  probably  one-third  or  one-fourth  of 
those  paid  in  the  United  States,  the  production  of  silver  costs  much 
less  here  than  there.  Mr.  Thomas  H.  Carter,  a  very  competent  judge, 
stated,  during  the  first  session  of  the  Fifty-first  Congress,  that  miners' 
wages  here  were  $^  a  day,  while  he  fixes  at  50  cents  per  day  the  wages 
of  the  Mexican  miners.  I  do  not  think  his  statement  correct  so  far  as 
Mexican  mining  wages  are  concerned,  as  miners  there  can  earn  larger 
wages  than  field  hands.  That  our  production  of  silver  is  more  costly  than 
it  is  here  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  mines  similar  to  those  which  we 
abandon  because  it  does  not  pay  for  us  to  work  them,  either  on  ac- 
count of  the  low  grade  of  silver  which  they  yield,  or  for  other  reasons, 
arc  operated  in  the  United  States  with  profit.  This  is  in  a  great 
measure  because  in  the  United  States  machinery  is  largely  used  in 
mines,  which  diminishes  the  cost  of  production  and  increases  its 
amount;  but  this  very  fact  shows  that  wages  are  not  the  only  factor 
affecting  the  cost  of  production,  and  also  that  with  high  wages  it  is 
possible,  and  even  easy,  to  produce  at  a  less  cost  than  with  low  wages. 


524  Xabor  an^  TKHaoes  in  /IDcjico. 

Cotton  culture  is  another  example.  I  am  aware  that  the  cotton- 
growers  of  the  United  States  hold  that  what  they  call  their  cotton  belt 
has  peculiar  conditions  for  the  production  of  their  staple,  which  in 
their  opinion  do  not  exist  in  any  other  portion  of  the  world,  and  they 
believe,  therefore,  that  nobody  can  compete  with  them  in  this  regard. 
^Vithout  any  intention  on  my  part  to  depreciate  the  advantages  of  the 
cotton  belt  of  this  country,  I  am  yet  of  the  opinion  that  there  are  in 
Mexico  lands  as  well  adapted  to  the  production  of  cotton  as  the  best 
in  this  country,  and  in  some  other  regions  perhaps  even  better;  yet, 
notwithstanding  these  advantages  and  although  our  wages  are  low, 
cotton  is  produced  at  less  cost  in  this  country,  and  is  sold  with  profit 
by  the  planters  for  one-half  the  price  that  it  commands  in  Mexico.  So 
great  is  the  difference  in  the  price  of  this  staple  in  the  two  countries 
that  notwithstanding  an  import  duty  on  cotton  of  seven  cents  per  kilo- 
gram, gross  weight,  or  nearly  four  cents  per  pound,  which  is  equivalent 
to  fifty  per  cent,  ad  valorem,  we  import  from  this  country  almost  one- 
half  of  the  cotton  used  in  our  home  manufactures.  I  do  not  overlook 
the  fact  that  cotton  is  raised  here  by  negro  labor,  which  is  considerably 
cheaper  than  white  labor;  but,  even  assuming  that  wages  in  this  case 
be  the  same  in  both  countries,  the  difference  in  cost  is  so  great  that 
labor  is  not  the  only  factor  in  the  expense  of  production. 

Something  similar  happens  with  sugar.  Here  it  is  produced  with 
high  wages,  and — although  the  culture  of  the  sugar-cane  in  Louisiana 
is  an  artificial  one,  since  frosts  prevail  there,  since  the  cane  has  to  be 
planted  every  year  or  two,  and  the  ground  tilled  at  considerable  ex- 
pense several  times  a  year,  so  that  such  culture  is  an  artificial  one — yet 
the  Louisiana  planters  sell  their  sugar  in  New  York  with  profit  at  from 
six  to  seven  cents  per  pound,  while  in  the  City  of  Mexico  and  other 
places  in  my  country  it  commands  twice  and  even  three  times  that  price. 

The  same  is  the  case  w-ith  tobacco.  Although  the  climate  and  soil 
are  very  likely  better  fitted  for  its  culture  in  Mexico  than  in  this 
country,  tobacco  costs  there,  on  an  average,  24^  cents  per  pound, 
while  it  is  sold  here  at  8^  cents  per  pound. 

I  shall  not  speak  of  the  products  of  the  cold  climate,  such  as  wheat, 
barley,  oats,  etc.,  because  the  climate  and  soil  of  this  country  are 
naturally  adapted  for  such  culture,  while  for  tropical  products  the  con- 
ditions are  decidedly  in  favor  of  Mexico;  but  despite  the  fact  that  we 
also  have  cold  regions  in  Mexico,  and  notwithstanding  the  difference 
in  wages,  wheat  is  worth  there  twice  as  much  as  here,  and  there  is 
about  the  same  difference  in  the  price  of  corn. 

It  is  much  the  same  with  manufactured  articles,  like  common 
printing-paper,  which  in  the  United  States  is  worth  about  three  cents  a 
pound  and  in  Mexico  fifteen  cents,  although  we  have  abundant  raw 
material    and    water-power  for  its    manufacture.      To  encourage  the 


Xow  Mages  /IDean  Iblob  Cost  ot  production.       525 

making  of  paper,  we  established  an  import  duty  on  foreign  unsized 
and  half-sized  paper  of  ten  cents  per  kilogram,  or  over  five  cents  per 
pound,  equivalent  to  almost  one  hundred  per  cent,  ad  valorem,  which 
was  reduced  by  our  present  tariff  to  five  cents  per  kilogram  for  the  un- 
sized, keeping  the  duty  of  ten  cents  on  the  half-sized  i)aper;  and  not- 
withstanding this,  we  import  printing-paper  from  this  country,  where 
the  wages  are  so  high  compared  with  ours.  Something  similar  happens 
with  cotton  and  cotton  prints,  the  former  being  worth  five  cents  per 
yard  in  this  country  and  from  ten  to  fifteen  cents  per  7'(ira  of  thirty- 
three  English  inches  in  Mexico,  and  the  latter,  which  are  sold  here  at 
eight  cents  per  yard,  being  worth  in  Mexico  about  twenty  cents  per  yard. 

The  same  exactly  happens  with  almost  everything  else  produced  in 
Mexico  as  compared  with  this  country.  I  have  built  houses  in  both 
countries,  and  by  personal  experience  I  can  assure  that  substantially  the 
same  house  will  cost  in  the  United  States  about  one-third  of  what  it 
costs  in  Mexico,  notwithstanding  that  the  wages  of  bricklayers,  car- 
penters, and  other  mechanics  employed  in  building  a  house  are  very 
much  lower  there  than  they  are  here.' 

It  is  a  well-known  principle  that  the  fewer  the  hands  employed  in 
the  manufacturing  of  a  commodity,  the  less  will  be  the  cost  of  such 
commodity.  If  in  manufacturing  a  commodity  a  skilled  man  can  do 
in  a  factory  the  work  requiring  five  men  in  another,  the  former  factory 
will  need  a  much  smaller  building  to  accommodate  its  operatives  than  the 
latter,  and  that  implies  a  large  saving  of  expense,  not  only  in  constructing 
its  buildings,  in  heating,  lighting,  cleaning,  and  repairing  them,  but  also 
in  insurance,  taxes,  etc.,  the  difference  being  so  great  that  the  smaller 
building  can  afford  to  produce  the  same  commodity  at  a  much  lower  rate 
than  the  larger  building,  independently  of  the  amount  paid  in  wages. 

'  These  facts,  in  my  opinion,  support  Mr.  John  Richards's  theory  on  wages,  as  laid 
down  in  his  book,  T/w  Law  of  Wages,  the  Rate  and  Atnoiiiit,  in  which  he  asserts  that 
wages  are  controlled  by  certain  principles  uniform  all  over  the  world,  and  that  wages 
could  not  be  high  or  low  from  any  other  cause  than  the  efticiency  of  workmen,  the  im- 
plements they  employ,  and  what  they  produce.  He  naturally  makes  a  distinction 
between  the  amount  of  wages  and  the  rate  of  wages,  showing  that  the  amount  does 
not  depend  upon  the  rate.  By  amount  of  wages  he  designates  that  part  of  the  cost  of 
commodities  which  is  paid  for  labor.  By  rate  of  wages  he  designates  the  rate  per  day, 
week,  or  month,  paid  to  workmen  for  their  services.  He  appears  to  prove  that  a 
high  tariff  and  dear  material  do  not  produce  high  wages,  as  is  the  general  belief,  and 
that  the  labor  cost  of  products  is  less  in  this  than  in  any  other  country.  He  sets 
forth  the  following  principles  : 

First. — All  manufactured  articles  of  every  kind  are  made  up  of  three  elements  or 
components,  namely  :  material,  wages,  and  expenses. 

Second. — All  staple  articles  of  manufacture,  such  as  enter  into  the  world's  trade, 
must  have  a  nearly  uniform  value  or  international  value. 

Third. — The  amount  of  wages  entering  into  the  cost  of  manufactured  commodities 
is  also  nearly  uniform,  irrespective  of  the  rate  of  wages  paid  fiir  their  production. 


520  Xabor  anC>  Maaes  in  /IDcinco. 

I  believe  that  the  preceding  facts  show  beyond  all  doubt  that  unless 
there  is  a  material  change  in  the  present  conditions  of  Mexico,  there  need 
be  no  fear  of  competition  in  the  United  States  from  Mexican  manufac- 
tures or  agricultural  or  mining  products  obtained  by  us  with  cheap  labor. 

One  reason  why  Mexican  products  were  so  high  was  that  before 
they  reached  the  markets  they  had  to  pay  the  local  duty  called  alca- 
bala,  levied  in  coming  into  the  cities.  Unfortunately,  the  internal 
commerce  of  Mexico  was  not  free,  as  in  the  United  States,  where  such 
freedom  has  contributed  very  much,  in  my  opinion,  to  the  marvellous 
prosperity  of  the  people.  Our  Constitution  of  1857  prescribed  the 
abolition,  from  the  first  of  July,  1858,  of  the  interior  duties  and  custom- 
houses throughout  the  country,  but  it  was  not  until  recently  that  this 
measure  could  be  carried  out.  Since  the  first  of  July,  1895,  com- 
merce in  Mexico  is  as  free  as  in  the  United  States,  the  interior  duties 
and  custom-houses  having  been  abolished. 

V  Use  of  Modern  Ifnplemetits  and  Machinery  by  Mexicans. — 1  have 
often  heard  the  remark  made  by  public  men  of  the  United  States,  also 
contained  in  Mr.  Foster's  report  of  October  9,  1878,  to  Mr.  Carlisle 
Mason,  President  of  the  Manufacturers'  Association  of  Chicago,  that 
the  Mexicans  were  generally  opposed  to  the  use  of  agricultural  imple- 
ments, and  I  considered  this  an  error  arising  from  v/ant  of  sufficient 
knowledge  of  the  Mexican  laborer.'     As  the  Mexican  people  have  not 

Fourth. — The  rate  of  wages  depends  mainly  upon  what  workmen  produce,  varying 
with  efficiency  of  labor  and  cost  of  material  and  exi)ense. 

Mr.  Richards  asserts  that  prices  are  subject  to  general  principles  which  tend  to 
make  them  uniform,  and  that  it  would  not  be  possible  to  have  high  wages  in  a  country 
while  others  paid  low  ones,  because  labor  from  the  latter  countries  would  flow  to  the 
former  and  establish  the  proper  level,  and  he  further  states  that  if  the  rate  of  wages  is 
lower  in  some  countries,  it  is  because  workmen  produce  there  less  than  in  others. 

Long  before  I  read  INIr.  Richards's  book,  I  had  come  to  adopt  views  similar  to  his, 
although  they  did  not  occur  to  me  exactly  in  the  same  manner  in  which  he  presents 
them  in  his  book. 

'  Mr.  Foster's  report  was  communicated  to  Mr.  Evarts,  Secretary  of  State  of  the 
United  States,  on  October  9,  1878,  and  published  among  "Papers  relating  to  For- 
eign Relations  of  the  United  States,  Transmitted  to  Congress  with  the  Annual  Message 
of  the  President  of  December  2,  1878,"  pp.  636-654.  This  report,  which  in  my  opin- 
ion contains  several  serious  mistakes  concerning  Mexico,  compelled  me  to  write,  as 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury  of  that  country,  an  official  and  full  answer  to  the  same, 
dated  January  15,  1879,  addressed  to  our  Department  of  State,  for  the  purpose  of  rec- 
tifying Mr.  Foster's  mistakes,  and  explaining  points  which  were  not  made  sufficiently 
clear  in  his  report.  My  answer,  entitled  "  Report  of  the  Secretary  of  Finance  of  the 
United  States  of  Mexico  of  the  15th  of  January,  1879,  on  the  Actual  Condition  of 
Mexico,  and  the  Increase  of  Commerce  with  the  United  States,  Rectifying  the  Report 
of  the  lion.  John  W.  Foster,  Envoy  Extraordinary  and  Minister  Plenipotentiary  of 
the  United  States  in  Mexico,  the  9th  of  October.  1878,  to  Mr.  Carlisle  Mason,  Presi- 
dent of  the  Manufacturers'  Association  of  the  City  of  Chicago,  in  the  State  of  Illinois, 
of  the  United  States  of  America,"  was  published  in  English  in  New  York  in  1890,  in 
a  book  in  quarto  of  325  pages,  and  was  freely  circulated  in  this  country. 


XUse  of  /iDacbinerv?  b^  ^ejicans.  527 

used  machinery  or  implements  for  hundreds  of  years,  not  only  because 
most  of  them  have  been  invented  or  applied  only  recently,  but  because 
the  cheapness  of  labor  there  made  them  unnecessary  in  many  cases,  it  is 
natural  that  they  should  not  have  shown  a  preference  for  their  use.  Some 
have,  besides,  the  fear,  natural  in  ignorant  men,  that  the  use  of  ma- 
chinery might  diminish  the  number  of  hands  employed  on  the  farms  or 
in  industries,  and  that  therefore  a  great  many  of  them  might  be  left  with- 
out employment.  But  this  is  a  natural  feeling,  prevailing  not  only  in 
Mexico,  but  in  every  other  country.  Whenever  the  Mexican  people 
have  seen,  however,  that  the  use  of  machinery  or  implements  diminishes 
their  labor,  not  only  without  destroying,  but,  on  the  contrary,  rather 
increasing  their  wages,  they  have  shown  themselves  as  willing  to  use 
them  as  any  people  in  the  world,  and  so  far  as  their  ability  to  handle 
them  is  concerned,  they  are  second  to  none.  A  proof  of  this  is  the 
fact  that  we  have  now  in  Mexico  quite  a  large  number  of  cotton  and 
woollen  mills  and  other  manufacturing  plants  using  improved  machin- 
ery and  worked  entirely  by  Mexican  hands.  A  Mexican  laborer  may 
not  be  so  expert  as  one  from  this  country  in  attending  to  several  looms 
at  the  same  time,  but  he  is  quite  competent  to  attend  to  a  few,  and  in 
the  course  of  time  his  ability  will  be  developed,  and  he  will  be  able  to 
do  whatever  anyone  else  can  do. 

One  of  the  reasons  why  agricultural  machinery  has  not  been  more 
used  in  Mexico  is  a  very  simple  one,  which  I  know  by  personal  ex- 
perience, as  I  myself  was  engaged  in  agricultural  pursuits  for  some 
years.  I  believe  it  is  a  fact  well  known  to  farmers  and  also  to  manu- 
facturers in  this  country  that  agricultural  machines  and  implements 
have  to  vary  according  to  the  conditions  of  the  soil,  that  is,  not  only 
in  accordance  with  the  heaviness  or  lightness  of  the  soil,  but  with  the 
topographical  position  of  the  ground.  It  must  be  considered  whether 
it  is  level,  undulating,  or  hilly;  whether  stumps  remain  in  the  ground 
or  whether  it  has  been  cultivated  for  some  time,  and  so  is  entirely  free 
from  them;  whether  stones  are  or  are  not  mixed  with  the  vegetable 
earth;  and  implements  which  work  well  in  soil  possessing  certain  con- 
ditions, may  be  utterly  useless  in  other  ground  having  different  condi- 
tions, requiring  perhaps  only  some  slight  changes  to  adapt  them  to  a 
different  soil.  When  an  order  is  sent  to  the  United  States  for  agricul- 
tural implements  or  machinery,  sufficient  care  is  not  taken  to  explain 
the  conditions  of  the  ground,  and  the  manufacturer  may  send — and 
does  so  frequently — articles  which  are  utterly  useless  when  they  arrive 
at  their  destination.  I  myself  found  that  my  invoices  of  machinery 
and  agricultural  implements  were  often  entirely  useless,  doubtless  be- 
cause they  were  not  adapted  to  the  condition  of  the  soil  to  which  they 
were  applied. 

Another  objection  to  the  extensive  use  of  agricultural  machinery 


I 


528  Xabor  anC)  THaages  in  /IDejico. 

and  implements  in  Mexico — which  is  also  serious,  but  easily  overcome 
— is  that  not  everywhere  are  there  shops  to  repair  them  or  replace  broken 
pieces;  therefore,  when  a  spring,  a  screw,  or  any  other  part  of  a 
machine,  no  matter  how  insignificant  it  may  be,  is  broken  or  out  of 
order,  the  whole  machine  is  thrown  away  because  it  is  no  longer  of  any 
use,  so  causing  the  loss  of  a  large  amount  of  money;  and  when  these 
reasons  are  taken  into  consideration,  and  especially  when  the  lack  of 
acquaintance  of  the  Mexican  laborers  with  such  machines  and  imple- 
ments and  the  lowness  of  their  wages  are  considered,  it  will  not  appear 
surprising  that  they  are  not  much  used  in  that  country.  But  the  field 
there  is  a  very  large  one,  and  one  whose  importance  increases  every 
day,  and  I  have  no  doubt  that  the  time  will  come,  especially  if  due  care 
is  taken  by  manufacturers  in  this  country  to  understand  the  special 
needs  of  each  locality  in  supplying  them  with  machines  and  implements 
manufactured  in  this  country,  when  that  trade  will  be  very  valuable, 
and  it  is  already  becoming  so. 

It  will  be  seen  that  these  difficulties  could  not  be  appreciated  by  a 
tourist  who  only  spends  a  few  days  or  weeks  in  Mexico,  and  comes 
back  saying  that  the  Mexicans  are  utterly  incompetent  and  unwilling 
to  handle  agricultural  machinery  and  implements,  or  implements  of 
any  kind;  or  by  United  States  representatives  living  in  cities  where 
they  have  no  opportunity  to  come  into  close  contact  with  the  farming 
element,  and  only  report  what  they  may  hear  and  occasionally  see  in 
their  excursions  from  those  cities. 

Mexican  Wages  and  Silver. — The  impression  generally  prevails  in 
this  country  that  Mexican  wages  are  reduced  to  one-half  of  their  old 
amount  in  consequence  of  the  depreciation  of  silver,  reasoning  that  if 
wages  were  twenty-five  cents  a  day,  for  instance,  when  silver  was  on  a 
par  with  gold  at  the  ratio  of  i6  to  i,  now  that  it  has  declined  about 
one  hundred  per  cent.,  wages  of  twenty-five  cents  in  silver  are  equiva- 
lent to  about  twelve  and  a  half  cents  in  gold,  and  that  wages  not  hav- 
ing increased  in  the  same  proportion  that  silver  has  depreciated,  the  re- 
sult must  be  that  they  have  been  reduced  to  one-half.  This  is  a 
mistaken  conclusion.'     In  an  article  which  I  published  in  the  North 

'  This  assertion  is  confirmed  by  the  following  statement  in  Mr.  Crittenden's  re- 
port on  the  currency,  prices  and  condition  of  labor  in  Mexico,  dated  September  ist, 
1S96,  and  sent  to  the  State  Department  and  published  in  the  Special  Consular  Report, 
vol.  xiii.,  Part  I,  already  referred  to  : 

"  Wages  of  unskilled  labor  has  been  almost  unaffected  by  the  premium  on  gold. 
The  great  stimulation  of  all  enterprises,  the  building  of  thousands  of  miles  of  rail- 
roads, the  establishment  of  numerous  factories,  and  the  bringing  under  cultivation  of 
thousands  of  acres  of  land,  has  given  employment  to  a  vast  number  of  men.  This,  of 
course,  has  had  its  effect  in  raising  wages  and  bettering  the  condition  of  the  laboring 
classes,  at  the  same  time  reducing  the  revolutionary  spirit  that  heretofore  had  great 
sway  in  this  country.     It  has  been  a  most  difficult  matter  to  make  this  roving  class  of 


w 


/IDejican  Mages  m\t>  Silver.  529 


American  Review,  of  June,  1895,  I  explained  the  results  of  the  silver 
standard  in  Mexico,  and  showed  that  the  purchasing  power  of  the  silver 
dollar  remains  there  the  same  as  it  was  when  silver  was  on  a  par  with 
gold,  in  so  far  as  Mexican  commodities  and  services  are  concerned, 
and  that  prices  have  only  increased  somewhat  for  imported  articles, 
or  for  such  Mexican  products  as  have  their  prices  regulated  in  foreign 
markets.  1  refer,  therefore,  the  reader  to  that  article,  which  will  be 
found  in  this  volume,  and  here  I  will  only  say  that  within  the  bound- 
aries of  Mexico  there  has  been  no  such  thing  as  a  depreciation  in  silver, 
as  silver  has  maintained  its  old  level  with  regard  to  commodities.  It 
purchases  as  much  now  as  it  did  before  its  decline  in  value  relative 
to  gold  began.  It  pays  for  as  much  labor  as  before,  and  in  the 
hands  of  the  laborer  it  purchases  as  much  of  the  necessaries  of  life.  It 
is  only  in  connection  with  imports  that  the  premium  on  gold  or  the 
decline  in  silver  has  caused  an  advance  in  price.'  But  the  laboring 
population  purchase  little  that  is  imported,  and  so  whether  imported 
goods  cost  more  or  not  is  of  little  or  no  consequence  to  persons  of  that 
class.  In  many  cases  even  the  price  of  imported  articles  has  not 
enhanced,  notwithstanding  the  depreciation  of  silver.' 

people,  by  whom  this  country  is  largely  populated,  think  and  believe  that  prosperity 
and  plenty  only  come  with  peace;  now  that  they  understand,  with  but  few  exceptions 
they  are  thoroughly  contented." 

'  Mr.  Crittenden  says  on  the  subject  in  the  report  just  quoted  as  follows  : 

"  Their  value  has  in  no  way  been  affected  by  the  rise  and  fall  of  silver.  As  to 
imported  luxuries  and  fineries,  they  are,  when  the  difference  in  the  price  of  silver  is 
taken  into  consideration,  more  expensive  now  than  in  1873.  The  increased  railroad 
facilities  and  cheapness  of  transportation  have  been  more  than  offset  by  increased  du- 
ties, stamp  tax,  rent,  and  clerk  hire.  However,  the  consumption  and  use  of  imported 
articles  is  limited  almost  entirely  to  the  rich  and  travelled  natives  and  foreigners. 
Finally,  it  can  be  generally  proven  that  the  cost  of  living  and  wearing  apparel  of  the 
native  was  as  low,  and  in  many  cases  lower,  in  1873  than  at  the  present  time." 

'^  This  assertion  appears  fully  corroborated  by  the  following  interview  of  ex-Con- 
sul Crittenden,  published  by  the  Star,  Kansas  City,  Mo.,  May  2,  1895  : 

"  People  who  go  from  Kansas  City  to  Old  Mexico  almost  invariably  buy  supplies 
of  clothing  there  and  come  back  to  tell  how  much  cheaper  goods  can  be  bought  in  the 
City  of  Mexico  than  in  any  American  city.  This  has  occurred  so  often  that  Consul- 
General  Crittenden,  who  is  at  home  on  a  brief  leave  of  absence,  was  asked  yesterday 
for  an  explanation  : 

"  '  Such  a  condition  exists,'  he  said,  '  but  the  explanation  is  yet  to  be  found.  The 
Mexican  dollar  is  worth  about  fifty-two  cents  in  American  money,  but  I  can  buy  just 
as  good  gloves  for  $1.50,  Mexican  money,  in  Old  Mexico,  as  I  can  buy  anywhere  in 
America  for  $1.50,  American  money.  On  one  of  my  trips  here  I  wore  a  very  good 
suit  of  clothes,  made  to  order  in  a  very  satisfactory  manner,  which  cost  me  just  $12 
in  the  Mexican  capital.  You  can  get  an  elegant  suit  of  clothes  made  to  order  there, 
in  the  best  style,  for  $35,  Mexican  money.  Shoes  that  cost  $5  a  pair  here,  bring 
$3  a  pair  there,  no  matter  whether  they  were  made  in  Paris  or  in  Mexico.     A  very 


530  Xabor  an&  Mages  in  iTDcjico. 

Very  many  believe  that  the  low  rate  of  wages  in  Mexico  is  due  to 
the  depreciation  of  silver,  and  those  professing  this  opinion  are  very 
much  mistaken,  because  when,  thirty  years  ago,  silver  was  at  a  par  and 
even  at  a  premium  with  gold  at  the  ratio  of  i6  to  i,  the  wages  in  Mex- 
ico were  lower  than  they  are  now,  and  the  Mexican  laborer  was  not  so 
well  off  as  he  is  to-day. 

To  make  a  proper  investigation  about  the  condition  of  the  Mexican 
laborers  in  connection  with  the  money  standard,  it  would  be  necessary 
to  extend  that  investigation  to  gold  countries  such  as  Spain,  Italy,  Ger- 
many, Turkey,  etc.,  etc.,  so  as  to  see  to  what  extent  the  money  standard 
affects  the  prosperity  of  the  working  classes.  I  think  that  the  standard 
of  money  has  very  little  to  do  with  the  condition  of  labor.  The  silver 
standard  has  nothing  to  do  with  their  reward;  they  would  earn  no  more, 
in  proportion,  were  the  country  on  a  gold  basis.  In  fact,  tens  of  thou- 
sands of  them  would  be  out  of  employment  by  reason  of  the  impossibility 
of  competing  with  the  workers  of  gold-standard  countries. 

Under  the  operation  of  the  gold  standard  farm  labor  received  three 
times  as  much  in  one  part  of  the  Union  as  it  did  in  another  part,  as  is 
shown  by  the  above-quoted  publication  of  the  Agricultural  Depart- 
ment, entitled,  "  Wages  of  Farm  Labor  of  the  United  States."     The 

large  proportion  of  the  shoes  sold  in  that  country  come  from  France.  They  seem 
to  be  as  good  as  ours,  although  I  do  not  like  the  fit  quite  so  well,  and  I  usually 
buy  my  shoes  here.  What  seems  remarkable  to  me  is  that  goods  of  American  manu- 
facture sell  for  less  in  Mexico  than  in  the  United  States.  My  wife  does  most  of  the 
buying,  and  from  her  I  learn  that  she  can  buy  the  finest  silk  underwear — she  bought 
some  for  me  recently — for  25  per  cent,  less  in  Mexico  than  in  this  country.  I  under- 
stand, too,  that  the  Jaeger  underwear  is  much  cheaper  there  than  in  American  cities. 
I  don't  pretend  to  account  for  it.  The  goods  are  made  in  New  York  and  they  pay  a 
high  duty,  certainly  not  less  than  25  per  cent,  ad  valorem,  in  the  Mexican  ports  of 
entry. 

"  '  My  wife  gets  the  very  finest  Irish  linen  for  fifty  cents  a  yard  in  Old  Mexico. 
In  fact,  we  buy  everything  in  the  clothing  line,  except  shoes,  in  Mexico,  in  preference 
to  buying  here,  as  goods  are  so  much  cheaper  there. 

"  '  The  Mexicans  are  very  fond  of  jewelry,  and  get  it  very  much  cheaper  than  we 
do.  There  are  jewelry  stores  in  the  City  of  Mexico  finer  than  any  that  I  ever  saw  in 
an  American  city.  Last  winter  one  of  the  Lucases  of  St.  Louis — James  Lucas,  I  be- 
lieve— made  a  trip  around  the  world,  and  finally  reached  the  City  of  Mexico.  His 
daughter  was  with  him.  While  in  Paris  the  young  woman  saw  a  very  fine  gold  watch, 
which  she  wanted.  The  price  there  was  $225  in  American  money,  and  her  father  de- 
cided not  to  buy  it.  When  they  reached  Mexico  she  saw  an  exact  duplicate  of  the 
watch  she  had  seen  in  Paris,  and  again  asked  her  father  to  buy  it.  They  inquired  the 
price  and  found  that  it  was  $225  in  Mexican  money,  or  just  half  the  price  asked  by 
the  Paris  jeweler.  Mr.  Lucas  offered  his  check  for  it  and  referred  the  jeweler  to  me. 
Now,  why  such  a  piece  of  jewelry  should  be  sold  in  Mexico  for  half  the  price  asked  in 
Paris  I  don't  know,  nor  can  I  explain  why  American-made  goods  should  sell  for  less 
there  than  in  St.  Louis  or  Kansas  City,  but  it  is  a  fact.  The  Mexicans  are  shrewd 
buyers,  for  one  thing,  and  our  jobbers  and  merchants  desire  big  profits.  That  is  the 
only  explanation  of  the  matter  that  I  know.'  " 


)i 


TTransportation  in  /IDejico.  531 

fact  that  wages  paid  in  each  State  were  ascertained  by  averages,  shows 
that  the  difference  between  the  best-paid  labor  and  the  poorest- paid 
labor  is  still  greater.  That  report  also  shows  that  in  the  United  States 
Caucasian  farm  labor  receives  more  than  three  times  as  much  as  the 
same  labor  receives  in  Germany,  although  both  countries  have  a  gold 
standard  and  a  protective  tariff.  Between  1816  and  1834  England  had 
a  gold  standard  and  the  United  States  had  a  double  standard,  with  sil- 
ver as  the  money  in  common  use,  and  laboring  men  were  better  off  here 
than  in  England.  Turkey  is  one  of  the  gold-standard  nations,  and 
Japan,  until  recently,  coined  silver  at  a  ratio  almost  identical  to  that  of 
the  United  States,  and  yet  the  progress  of  Japan  was  really  remarkable. 
All  this  shows  that  silver  is  not  the  cause  of  the  low  wages  of  Mexico. 

Transportation  in  Mexico. — In  the  paper  entitled  "  Geographical 
and  Statistical  Notes  on  Mexico  "  (pages  9,  53,  and  154),  I  have  dwelt 
upon  the  impediments  to  commerce  and  the  consequent  reduction 
in  proportion  caused  by  the  high  cost  of  transportation  in  Mexico,  be- 
fore railroads  were  built,  in  consequence  of  the  broken  surface  of  that 
country,  and  upon  the  results  of  such  conditions  which  prevented  any 
article  from  being  profitably  exported,  unless  raised  near  the  coast  or 
unless  it  had  a  very  high  price  and  small  bulk,  like  precious  metals, 
these  facts  reducing  the  exports  of  Mexico  practically  to  the  precious' 
metals,  indigo,  cochineal,  and  similar  articles  of  high  price  and  small 
bulk.  The  final  consequence  of  such  a  condition  of  things  was,  there- 
fore, to  reduce  the  production  to  the  amount  necessary  for  local  con- 
sumption, and  as  a  consequence  of  this  to  establish  different  prices  for 
the  same  article,  varying  according  to  the  distances  it  had  to  be  trans- 
ported, establishing  in  this  manner  a  monopoly  to  the  local  production 
for  local  consumption. 

Merchandise  could  not  be  transported  from  one  place  to  another 
at  any  distance  in  Mexico  without  increasing  the  cost  very  largely. 
Sugar,  for  instance,  which  in  some  localities  was  produced  at  the  cost 
of  one  cent  a  pound,  was  sold  in  others  at  twenty-five  cents  a  pound. 
Such  a  condition  of  things  reduced  the  consumption  and  consequently 
the  production  within  very  narrow  limits,  and  very  often  a  year's 
abundant  crops  was  a  calamity  to  the  farmers,  as  the  abundance  of 
products  without  an  increase  of  consumption  caused  a  great  fall  in 
prices.  Under  such  circumstances  the  wages  paid  to  the  field  laborers 
had  necessarily  to  be  low;  and  although  they  now  begin  to  improve 
with  the  greater  demand  for  labor  brought  about  by  the  construction 
of  railroads,  and  the  consequent  development  of  the  country's  natural 
resources,  they  are  yet  far  from  being  what  is  to  be  desired,  and  what 
I  am  sure  they  will  be  before  long. 

Even  now,  when  Mexico  had,  on  October  31,  1897,  in  operation 
6j73i-3o  miles  of  railways,  and  when  the  depreciation  in  the  value  of 


532 


Xabor  ant)  TKIlaGcs  in  /IDejico. 


silver  has  established  a  bounty  of  over  one  hundred  per  cent,  on  the 
exportation  of  commodities,  the  proportion  during  the  fiscal  year  ended 
June  30,  1896,  was  $64,838,596  of  precious  metals,  and  $40,178,306  of 
commodities,  the  precious  metals  amounting  to  sixty-one  per  cent,  of 
the  total  exports,  and  the  total  amount  exported  from  Mexico  during 
the  last  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1897,  was  $111,346,494. 

Cost  of  Living  in  Afexico. — It  is  time  now  to  speak  of  the  prices  of 
Mexican  commodities  and  to  compare  them  with  such  as  are  produced 
here.  Our  Department  of  Public  Works  has  been  for  some  time  col- 
lecting data  concerning  the  prices  of  agricultural  products  in  Mexico, 
and  during  the  visit  I  made  to  the  capital  of  the  Republic,  in  1891,  I 
obtained  a  resume oi  such  data,  which  I  give  below,  reducing  the  weights 
and  measures  used  in  Mexico  to  the  same  standard  as  those  used  in  this 
country,  and  stating  the  price  of  each  article  in  each  country. 

It  has  been  very  difficult  to  make  this  table,  for  the  complete  ac- 
curacy of  which  I  cannot  vouch,  notwithstanding  that  I  have  used 
much  care  and  availed  myself  of  all  the  means  within  my  reach  to 
make  it  as  complete  as  possible;  but  the  difificulty  of  obtaining  the 
average  price  of  certain  articles  in  both  countries  is  very  great,  and 
also  the  reduction  to  a  common  standard  of  the  weights  and  measures 
'used  in  each.  So  far  as  commodities  in  the  United  States  are  con- 
cerned, I  have  taken  as  the  basis  for  fixing  their  price  the  data  con- 
tained in  No.  12  of  the  Statistical  Abstract  of  the  United  States  for  the 
year  1889,  prepared  by  the  Bureau  of  Statistics,  under  the  direction  of 
the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  and  sent  by  him  to  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives on  the  4th  of  December  of  the  same  year.  In  regard  to  such 
commodities  as  were  not  embraced  in  that  document,  I  have  used  the 
data  contained  in  the  thirty-second  annual  report  of  the  Chamber  of 
Commerce  of  the  City  of  New  York  for  the  fiscal  year  1889-90,  and  in 
the  report  of  the  Produce  Exchange  of  New  York  for  the  same  period, 
and  such  other  data  as  I  have  been  able  to  obtain  from  reliable  sources. 

PRICES    OF    WEARING    APPAREL    IN    1896. 


Flannel  (54  inches  wide)   per  vara  ' 

Gingham  (26  inches  wide) do.  . . 

Ordinary  cassimere  (52  inches  wide) do.  . . 

Prints  and  calicoes  (33  inches  wide) do.  . . 

Complete  suit  of  woollen  clothes,  the  cheapest 

Bleaching  blouses .  .    

Pantaloons,  cheap 

Woollen  hats , 

Straw  hats 


MEXICAN 
CURRENCY. 


60.20  to 


1.50  to 


fr.oo 

.25 

1-75 

.i8| 

10.00 

1.50 

1.50 

25.00 

•  50 


UNITED  STATES 
CURRENCY. 


$0. ID  to 


.77  to 


fO.51 

•13 
.90 
.10 

5.10 

•  77 

•  77 
12.75 

.26 


Vara  equals  33  inches. 


Cost  of  Xiving  in  /iDejico. 


533 


AVERAGE   PRICES  OF   COMMODITIES    IN    MEXICO  AND  THE  UNITED  STATES 

IN    1891. 


ARTICLES. 

PRICES  IN  MEXICO. 

PRICES  I.N  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Bacon  

Beeves 

Coal     

50c.  per  lb. 

8c.  per  lb.  gross  weight. 

$16  per  ton. 

22c.  per  lb. 

2c.  per  lb. 

to^c.  per  yard. 
igc.  per  lb. 
5c.  per  lb. 

50c.  per  lb. 

9c.  per  lb.  gross  weight. 

$32  per  ton. 
18c.  per  lb. 

I2c.  per  lb. 

14c.  per  lb. 

lie.  per  lb. 

15c.  per  lb. 

8|c.  per  yard. 

7c.  per  lb. 

7c.  per  lb. 

gc.  per  11).  gross  weight. 

2IC.  per  lb. 

15c.  per  lb. 

24c.  per  lb. 

3c.  per  lb. 

$16  a  cask  of  20.0787  galls., 
or  80c.  per  gall.  ;    36c.  per 
gall,  in  bond. 

20c.  per  lb. 

45  per  lb.  gross  weight. 

$3.18  per  ton. 

igc.  per  lb. 

|c.  per  lb.,  or  43c.  per  bushel  of  56 

lbs. 
3jc.  per  yard. 
IOC  per  lb. 
i^c.  per  lb.,  or  $2.75  per  bbl.  of  ig6 

lbs. 
i8c.  per  lb. 

3|c.  per  lb.  gross  weight. 
|ig  per  ton. 
8^c.  per  lb. 

7c.  per  lb. 
8^c.  per  lb. 
5|c.  per  lb. 
5c.  per  lb. 
G^c.  per  yard. 
5c.  per  lb. 
4c.  per  lb. 

5c.  per  lb.  gross  weight. 
5c.  per  lb. 
4f  c.  per  lb. 
6^c.  per  lb. 

ifc.  per  lb.,  or  83c.  per  bushel  of  60 
lbs. 

Coffee    

Corn 

Cotton  prints. .. 

Cottons 

Flour 

Ham 

Hogs  (alive). ... 

Iron,  pig 

Lard 

Meats  : 

Beef 

Mutton 

Pork 

Paper,  printing. 
Prints 

Rice 

Salt 

Sheep  

Suerar 

Tallow 

Tobacco 

Wheat 

Whiskey 

RETAIL    PRICES    OF    FOOD    PRODUCTS    IN    THE    CITY    OF    MEXICO. 


I  r 


Y) 


ARTICLES. 


^ 


Jerked  beef per  pound. 

Salt  fish do 

Salt  pork .do 

Hams,  native do 

Hams,  imported do 

Eggs per  dozen. 

Flour,  native per  pound . 

Flour,  American do 

Wheat per  bushel. 

Corn do 

Corn  meal,  American per  pound . 

Beans,  American do 

Beans,  Mexican do 

Butter,  native do 

Butter,  American do 

Sugar,  native  (uncut) do 


MEXICAN 
CURRENCY. 


$0.65 
•45 

$0.32  to     .40 

•  33 
.55 
.25 
.07 
•15 

1.50  to  1.80 
I  00  to  1.40 

•  15 

.og 

.07 
•35  to  .50 
.60  to  .75 
.08  to     .10 


UNITED  STATES 
CURRENCY. 


$0.16^  10 


.76    to 
.51    to 


.18  to 
.31  to 
.04I  to 


33 
•23 
.21 

.I7i 
.28 

•  I3f 
•03 
.08 
.gi 

•71 
.08 

•04i 
•03f 

.2(1 

•37i 
.05 


i 


534 


Xabor  anD  Mages  in  ^ejico. 


RETAIL  PRICES  OF  FOOD  PRODUCTS  IN  THE  CITY  OF  MEXICO.  —  Continued. 


Sugar,  native  (cut) per  pound. . 

Sugar,  American  (refined) do 

Molasses,  native per  gallon. . 

Maple  sirup do 

Dripped  sirup,  imported do 

Salt  (table) per  pound . . 

Coarse  salt do 

Pepper  (black) do 

Tea,  choice ....  do 

Coffee,  raw do 

Coffee,  roasted  and  ground do 

Kerosene  oil,  good per  gallon . . 


MEXICAN 
CURRENCY. 


^.70  to 
1.25  to 


go.  14 

•25 

1. 00 

4.00 

8.00 

.08 

.03 

.50 

.80 

.68 

.60 

.40 


UNITED   STATES 
CURRENCY. 


$o.35J 
•27 


$o.07i 

•  13 
.51 

2.04 
4.08 
.04^ 
.01^ 
o     .40I 
0  1.28 
.21 

•  31 

•  34i 


Mr.  Ransom's  report  on  money  and  prices  in  Mexico,  to  which  I 
have  already  alluded,  contains  a  statement  of  prices  in  Mexico,  and,  al- 
though I  cannot  vouch  for  their  correctness,  I  think  it  proper  to  give 
them  here.     IVIr.  Ransom's  statements  are  the  following: 

RETAIL    PRICES    OF    FOOD     PRODUCTS    CONSUMED    IN    MEXICO    AND 
EXPORTED    IN    1896. 


ARTICLES. 


Jerked  beef per  pound. . 

Fresh  beef  (cities) do 

Fresh  beef  (ranch) do 

Fresh  pork  do 

Salt  pork do 

Native  hams do 

Flour do 

Corn  : 

Usually do 

Now do 

Native  beans do 

Native  butter do 

Native  cheese do 

Native  soap  (laundry) do 

Native  sugar  (white) do 

Native  sugar  (brown) do 

Coffee  (raw) do 

Irish  potatoes do 

Rice do 

Lard do 

Kerosene  oil per  gallon .  . 

Tea  (common) per  pound.  . 

Tea  (good  and  choice) do 

Molasses  (ordinary) per  gallon .  . 

Wheat : 

Per  busliel 

Generally 


MEXICAN 
CURRENCY. 


^0.12  to 
.12  to 

.15  to 
.25  to 
.40  to 
.06  to 


.07  to 

.25  to 
.08  to 
.08  to 
.04  to 
.35  to 
.03  to 
.08  to 
.20  to 
.60  to 

1.50  to 


50.20 

•25 
.06 

•25 

•45 

■55 
.10 

.01^ 
.04 
.14 
■  50 

•55 
.15 

•  15 
.08 

.45 
.07 
.10 
.26 

•  75 
.50 

2.00 
1. 00 

1.50 
1.80 


UNITED   STATES 
CURRENCY. 


$0.07 
.07 


.08 
•13 


to  $0.1 2 

to     .13 

•03i- 


to 
to 
.20  to 
.03^ to 


.031  to 

.13  to 
.05    to 

•04ito 

.02|tO 

.18  to 
.oif to 
.04-1^  to 
.II  to 
.31    to 

.76   to 


•  13 
•23 
.28 
.04^ 

.ooj- 
.02^ 

.OS 

.26 
.28 
.08 
.08 
.04 
•23 

•03i 
.05 

•  13 

•  35 
.26 

1.02 

•  57 

.76 
.91 


Mr.  Crittenden's  statement  is  the  following: 


Cost  ot  Xtpina  in  flDejico. 


535 


PRICES. 

WHOLES.\LE   AND    RETAIL   PRICES   OF   ARTICLES. 

[Where  wholesale  price  is  not  given,  the  retail  prices  can  he  reckoned  on  from   15  to 

40  per  cent,  higher.] 


MEXICAN 
CURRENCY. 


UNITED  STATES 
CURRENCY. 


Corned  beef 

Jerked  beef per  pound.  . 

Salted  fish do 

Salted  pork do 

Ham  : 

American do 

American ,  wholesale do 

Mexican do 

Mexican,  wholesale do 

Eggs per  dozen . . 

Flour : 

American per  pound .  . 

Mexican do 

Wheat per  bushel.  . 

Corn  (high  on  account  of  short  crop) do 

Corn  meal,  American per  pound.  . 

Beans : 

American per  pound. . 

Mexican  (frijoles) do 

Butter  : 

American  creamery do 

Mexican,  unsalted do 

Sugar : 

Foreign do 

Mexican,  uncut do 

Mexican,  cut do 

Mcilasses,  ordinary per  gallon.  . 

Sirup,  maple do 

Sirup,  imported do 

Salt : 

Table per  pound. . 

Coarse do 

Pepper do 

Tea do 

Coffee,  green,  retail do 

Coffee,  ground,  retail do 

Coffee,  wholesale do 

Kerosene per  gallon .  . 

Gasoline do 


Not  used. 

$0.65 

•45 
$0.32-  .40 

.55 
.42 
.35 
.27 
•25 

•15 

.07 
1.50-  1.80 
1.50-  1.80 

•15 

.09 

.07 


$0.34 
•235 
.166-     .208 

.286 
.218 
.192 

.74 

•13 


.78  - 


.078 
.036 

•  936 

•  936 
.078 


.50- 
•35- 


.oS- 


•  75 
.50 

•  25 
.10 
.14 

1. 00 
4.00 
8.00 


.10 

•  03 

.70-    .So 

1.25-  2.50 

.40 

■  50 
.19-  .31 
.56-    .66 

■  37 


.26  - 
.192- 


.042- 


.047 
.036 

•  39 
.26 

.13 

•051 

.073 

•  52 
2.08 
4.16 


.052 

.016 

.364-     .418 

.65  -  1.306 

.20 

.26 

.099-     .161 

.291-     .343 

.192 


PRICES   OF   MEXICAN   MANUFACTURES. 


WHOLKSALK. 

RETAIL. 

ARTICLF.S. 

Mexican 

United  States 

Mexican 

United   States 

Currency. 

Currency. 

Currency. 

Currency. 

Flannel,  54  inches  wide 

.  .per  vara' . . 

$0.75 

$0-39 

$1.00 

$0.52 

Ginghams,  25  inches  wide. . . 

....do 

$0.18-      .20 

$0.09  -     .104 

$o,ao-      .25 

$0,104-     .13 

Cassimeres,  52  inches  wide.. 

do 

1.25-    1.50 

.65  -     .78 

'•75 

.91 

Prints,  33  inches  wide 

....do 

.15-      .16 

.078-     .483 

.19 

.094 

Prints,  27  inches  wide 

do 

.11-      .uj 

•"^57-     -058 

•'3 

.067 

Sheetings,  66  inches  wide. . . 

do 

.23-      .30 

.145-     .156 

•32 

.166 

Shirting,  26  inches  wide. . . . 

do 

.07-      .11 

.036-     .057 

.08-     .13 

.042-     .067 

'  The  vara  is  33  inches. 


536 


Xabor  aiiD  Maaes  in  /IDcjico. 


WHOLESALE    PRICES,    CITY    OF    MEXICO,     1886    AND    1896,    MEXICAN 

CURRENCY.' 


Olive  oil 

Beneseed  oil. 
Linseed  oil   . 

Cotion 

Rice 

Sugar  (uncut) 

Coffee 

Barley 

Beans 

Peas   

Flour 

Ham 

Corn 

Piloncillo  . .  . 

Cheese 

Salt 

Tallow 

Tobacco  .  . .  . 
Wheat 


QUANTITY. 


Pounds. 

25 

25 

25 

I 

100 

25 

100 

300 

300 

300 

25 

25 

300 

300 

25 

25 

25 

25 

300 


18S6. 


.00  to 


.18  to 
6.50  to 
2.17  to 


14.00  to 

5.00  to 

7-50  to 

.62  to 

3.50  to 
11.25  to 


$5.50 

3-25 

2.75 

•  19 

7.00 

2.25 

11.00 

3-5° 

13.00 

15.00 

I-3I 

5.50 

5.50 

8.00 

5-25 

.66 

4.25 

4-25 

11.50 


$8.00  to  I 
1.68  to 


14.00  to 
1 1. 00  to  I 
1. 00  to 
5.00  to 

8.25  to 

6.00  to 

.56  to 

6.50  to 
11.00  to  I 


6.00 

3-50 

5.00 

.18 

0.00 

1. 81 

0.00 

4-5" 
5.00 
7.00 
i.og 
6.0a 
7-50 
8.50 
6.50 
.b8 
3- 50 
7-50 
2.50 


On  account  of  its  natural  conditions,  the  cost  of  living  in  Mexico 
is  considerably  cheaper  than  in  the  United  States';  and,  taking  into 
consideration  that  the  Mexican  dollar  has  not  lost  any  of  its  purchasing 

'  Expressed  in  United  States  currency  will  be  about  one-half  in  i8g6,  but  in  1886 
the  Mexican  dollar  was  valued  by  the  United  States  Mint  at  81.7  cents. 

^  In  the  report  that  Mr.  Thomas  T.  Crittenden,  while  he  was  U.  S.  Consul-Gen- 
eral  to  the  City  of  Mexico,  sent  to  the  New  York  Jotirnal,  dated  at  the  City  of  Mexico, 
on  September  4,  i8g6,  he  stated  on  this  subject  the  following,  published  by  that  paper 
in  its  issue  of  September  17,  1896  : 

"  Cost  of  Livins;  in  Mexico. — As  to  the  cost  of  living  in  Mexico,  I  find  it  in  many 
respects  much  cheaper  than  in  the  United  States.  The  manner  of  life  made  possible, 
and  even  necessary,  by  the  climatic  conditions  simplifies  the  problem.  Fuel,  for  in- 
stance, so  considerable  an  item  of  expense  in  the  North,  is  an  unimportant  feature 
here.  I  doubt  if  many  families  expend  so  much  as  $15  per  year  each  for  their  char- 
coal. The  average  expense  for  fuel  for  the  better  classes  is  about  $1.25  per  week. 
The  u.se  of  fires  for  heating  alone  is  almost  unknown.  Meats  and  fatty  foods  of  what- 
ever kind,  heavy  woollen  clothing  and  other  items,  absolutely  indispensable  to  life  and 
comfort  in  Northern  climates,  are  not  needed  here  ;  on  the  contrary,  they  are  even 
detrimental  to  health.  In  general,  I  find  living  in  the  City  of  Mexico  about  as  reason- 
able as  at  my  home  in  Kansas  City.  There  are  many  articles  that  enter  into  home 
consumption  that  are  much  higher,  especially  those  not  grown  or  produced  in  Mexico, 
but  when  those  are  considered  the  costs  average  quite  well.  Servants  are  much 
cheaper,  and  when  good  ones  are  obtained  they  are  as  serviceable  and  more  contented, 
seldom  leaving  the  premises  and  never  complaining  of  the  work.  Hotel  and  board- 
ing-house rates  are  about  the  same  in  Mexican  money  as  they  are  in  the  United  States 
in  American  coin.  I  have  heard  tourists  say  they  could  get  meals  here  as  good  and 
cheaper  than  in  cities  in  the  United  States." 


Cost  of  Xiving  in  /IDcjtco.  537 

power  for  domestic  commodities,  Mexican  wages  go  considerably 
farther  than  the  same  amount  would  go  in  the  United  States. 

The  cost  of  living,  that  is,  of  food,  clothing,  house-rent,  and  every- 
thing else  that  enters  into  the  daily  life  of  a  workingman,  differs  so 
greatly  in  the  two  countries  that  the  only  comparison  possible  to  make 
intelligently  is  one  between  the  present  conditions  in  Mexico  and 
those  existing  ten  or  fifteen  years  ago,  in  the  matter  of  the  income  and 
the  expenses  representing  the  cost  of  living,  and  the  opportunity  of 
earning  such  living.  The  cost  of  livelihood  in  Mexico  for  the  working 
classes  has  not  materially  increased  during  that  time,  while  the  wages 
have  increased  considerably. 

During  the  discussion  which  preceded  the  last  Presidential  election 
Mexico  was  on  the  tapis,  and  the  opinions  expressed  on  the  subject  of 
prices  of  commodities  were  of  a  very  contradictory  nature.  Sometimes 
the  price  of  Mexican  commodities  was  represented  as  exceedingly  high, 
and  therefore  beyond  the  reach  of  the  poorer  classes,  and  when  com- 
pared with  similar  commodities  in  the  United  States  it  showed  the 
great  advantage  that  this  country  had  in  producing  cheaply  the  neces- 
saries of  life.  That  reason  was  alleged  when  it  was  intended  to  show 
that  the  silver  standard  in  Mexico  raised  the  price  of  commodities  and 
made  the  country  wretchedly  poor.  At  the  same  time,  when  commod- 
ities were  cheaper  in  Mexico  than  in  the  United  States,  that  fact  was 
presented  to  show  that  labor  was  very  badly  remunerated  in  that 
country,  a  result  which  was  also  attributed  to  the  silver  standard  pre- 
vailing there. 

Therefore,  whatever  might  be  the  result  of  a  comparison  of  prices 
between  the  two  countries,  it  always  was  unfavorable  to  Mexico.  If 
commodities  were  cheaper  there  than  in  the  United  States  it  showed 
that  labor  was  very  badly  remunerated,  and  it  was  presented  as  the 
cause  of  the  so-called  pauper  or  peon  labor  prevailing  there.  If,  on 
the  contrary,  commodities  were  there  higher  than  in  the  United  States, 
that  was  supposed  to  be  the  result  of  the  silver  standard,  which  made 
everything  higher  and  reduced  considerably  the  purchasing  power  of 
the  low  wages  of  Mexican  laborers.  This  very  fact  shows  the  fallacy 
of  such  doctrines.  Such  comparisons  are  not  fair,  because  some 
commodities  which  are  comparatively  cheap  here  and  could  not  be 
easily  obtained  in  Mexico  had  to  be  imported  from  the  United  States, 
paying  for  them  in  gold,  besides  heavy  import  duties,  and  that  made 
them,  of  course,  exceedingly  high  there;  while  other  commodities 
which  were  easily  raised  in  Mexico  were  considerably  lower  than  they 
could  be  obtained  in  this  country,  and  that  reasoning  did  not  prove, 
therefore,  what  it  was  intended  to  show. 

Several  comparisons  have  been  recently  made  in  this  regard  between 
Mexico  and  the  United  States  that  are  very  disparaging  to  the  former, 


538  Xabor  aub  Maoes  in  /IDejlco. 

but,  as  I  have  just  stated,  domestic  commodities  in  Mexico  have  not 
increased  in  price  since  the  depreciation  of  silver,  excepting  those  that, 
like  coffee,  have  their  price  regulated  in  foreign  markets,  but  which 
are  not  very  much  used  by  the  poorer  classes.  So  far  as  foreign  com- 
modities are  concerned,  of  course  they  have  almost  duplicated  their 
value,  because  they  have  to  be  paid  in  gold. 

Report  of  Labor  Asseful'/y. — The  labor  question  in  Mexico  was  so 
earnestly  agitated  during  the  last  Presidential  election  in  the  United 
States  that  the  Chicago  Trade  and  Labor  Assembly,  desiring  reliable 
information  on  the  subject,  sent  to  Mexico  a  special  committee  of  two, 
Mr.  Paul  J.  Maas,  who  organized  the  American  Confederation  of  Labor, 
and  Mr.  Patrick  Enright,  of  the  Executive  Board  of  the  Moulders' 
Union,  for  the  purpose  of  examining  the  question  on  the  spot,  and  that 
committee  presented  a  report  on  October  lo,  1896,*  which  was  widely 
circulated  in  this  country,  and  taken  as  a  conclusive  proof  of  the  bad 
results  of  the  silver  standard  in  Mexico,  so  far  as  the  laboring  classes 
Avere  concerned.  That  report,  however,  failed  to  present  the  question 
in  a  proper  light,  for  the  reason  that  the  gentlemen  who  made  it  did  not 
know  enough  of  Mexico  to  fully  comprehend  what  they  saw,  and  they 
did  not  remain  long  enough  there  for  that  purpose. 

The  report  of  these  gentlemen  shows  their  good  faith  and  their 

'  I  quote  the  following  extract  from  that  report,  which  shows  how  much  the  gen- 
tlemen who  made  it  misunderstood  Mexico: 

"  Wages  in  Mexico,  except  to  skilled  and  steady  mechanics — always  foreigners — 
are  very  low.  On  railroads  engineers  (Americans)  on  passenger  trains  receive  $210 
per  month,  while  the  firemen  (Mexicans)  receive  $1.85  per  day  ;  freight  engineers 
(Americans),  $250  per  month;  firemen  (Mexicans),  $1.50  to  $1.75  per  day  ;  passenger 
conductors  (Americans),  $160  per  month  ;  brakemen  (Mexicans),  $1.50  per  day  ;  freight 
conductors  (Americans),  $200  per  month  ;  brakemen  (Mexicans),  $57  to  $63  per  month  ; 
Pullman  conductors,  $So  per  month  (American  money),  and  the  porters,  $38  per 
month  (American  money),  with  $5  per  month  extra  for  being  able  to  talk  Spanish. 
The  national  soldiers  (or  regular  army)  of  Mexico,  called  rurales,  and  who  are  all  ex- 
bandits,  receive  $r  per  day.  In  a  broom  factory  near  the  depot  at  Jimenez  the  men 
are  paid  50  cents,  and  women  and  children  25  to  37^  cents  per  day.  In  the  cotton 
mills,  cotton-seed  oil  mills,  and  soap  factory  at  Torreon  men  are  paid  37^  to  50  cents, 
and  women  and  children  25  cents  per  day.  A  cargador  (public  carrier)  has  a  rate  of 
125  cents  per  hour,  but  you  can  hire  him  for  from  25  to  37^  cents  per  day. 

"  At  Leon,  where  nearly  all  the  leather  goods  in  Mexico  are  manufactured,  the 
peon  gets  his  leather  cut  for  shoes,  harness,  or  other  goods  to  be  made  by  him,  and 
takes  the  material  to  his  hut,  where  the  whole  family  assists  him,  the  same  as  in  the 
sweatshops  of  Chicago.  For  making  shoes  he  receives  $1  and  upward  per  dozen 
pairs  ;  on  the  other  leather  goods  he  receives  37^  to  50  cents  per  day  for  his  labors, 
working  as  long  as  daylight  lasts,  averaging  twelve  to  fourteen  hours  per  day.  Com- 
mon laborers  can  be  hired  for  18  to  50  cents  per  day.  House  servants,  male  or  female, 
receive  $3  to  $5  per  month  and  board  themselves.  In  or  near  cities  peons  live  in 
adobe  houses  and  pay  a  rental  of  $3  a  year  for  the  ground  that  the  house  stands  on. 
When  leaving  this  for  another  location  all  '  improvements '  the  peon  has  made  go  to 
the  landlord,  or  owner  of  the  land,  who  pays  no  taxes  whatever  on  the  land." 


/IDejicau  5Labor  is  not  ®roani3eD.  539 

earnest  purpose  to  present  fairly  the  condition  of  the  Mexican  work- 
men, but  they  seem  to  have  gone  to  Mexico  with  a  very  exalted  idea 
of  the  condition  of  the  Mexican  wage-earner,  imagining  that  it  might 
rival  the  situation  of  his  fellow-workman  in  the  United  States.  This  was 
a  complete  delusion,  as  there  cannot  be  any  comparison  between  the  two; 
and  when  they  found  the  true  condition  of  the  Mexican  workman,  they 
concluded  that  the  American  workingman  was  a  prince  in  comparison 
with  his  Mexican  brother — a  conclusion  which  I  do  not  consider  very 
far  wrong.  Their  principal  mistake,  however,  was  to  attribute  to  the 
silver  standard  in  Mexico  the  poor  condition  of  the  Mexican  workman. 
If  they  had  been  in  Mexico  when  silver  was  on  a  par  with  gold,  at  the 
ratio  of  i6  to  i,  that  is,  when  the  Mexican  dollar  had  one  hundred 
cents  of  gold  value  in  silver  bullion,  they  would  have  found  that  the 
Mexican  workman  was  then  a  great  deal  worse  than  he  is  now,  when 
the  Mexican  dollar  has  less  than  fifty  cents  of  the  gold  value  of  silver 
in  it,  and  they  would  have  come  to  more  just  conculsions. 

While  they  understood  some  matters  in  Mexico  tolerably  well,  as 
when  they  said,  for  instance,  that  there  was  greater  security  to  life  and 
property  in  that  country  than  in  the  City  of  Chicago,  they  made  serious 
mistakes  in  others,  as  when  they  stated  that  all  transactions  were  made 
in  cash,  when,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  all  mercantile  operations  of  any 
consequence  are  made  on  credit;  and  long  credit,  too,  as  credit  is  the 
basis  of  both  the  foreign  and  internal  trade  in  Mexico;  and  as  when 
they  said  that  it  is  but  five  years  since  a  law  was  passed  in  the  City  of 
Mexico  compelling  men  to  wear  trousers;  with  many  other  almost 
laughable  mistakes  to  point  out,  which  would  take  too  long  and  would 
divert  me  from  my  principal  object  in  this  paper. 

I  will  consider  in  the  two  following  chapters  of  this  paper,  two  of 
the  main  objections  that  the  committee  made  to  the  Mexican  laborer. 

Mexican  Labor  is  7iot  Organized. — It  has  been  observed  that  Mexi- 
can labor  is  not  organized,  and  this  assertion  is  entirely  correct.  I 
have  no  doubt  that  in  the  course  of  time  Mexican  labor  will  be  prop- 
erly organized,  and  that  then  it  will  enjoy  all  the  benefits  of  organiza- 
tion; and  while  I  recognize  that  organization  is  a  very  great  advantage 
to  the  laboring  man  as  long  as  he  does  not  become  the  instrument  of  un- 
scrupulous persons  who  occasionally  are  at  the  head  of  such  organiza- 
tions, they  so  far  have  met  with  serious  objections  in  this  country,  and  it 
is  yet  the  problem  how  this  matter  will  turn  out,  there  being  great  proba- 
bility that  the  present  conditions  of  labor  and  capital  may  suffer 
material  changes.' 

It  is  hardly  possible  for  the  present  that  organized  labor  will  be 

'  The  danger  that  the  working  people  will  take  active  steps  to  change  the  present 
conditions  of  labor  appears  very  plain  from  the  following  extract  from  one  of  Mr. 
Henry  George's  books,  a  man  remarkable  for  his  rare  character  of  simplicity  and  de- 
votion to  duty  : 


540  Xat>or  an^  Maocs  in  /IDejico. 

able  to  dominate  the  industrial  situation  to  enforce  its  demands  against 
associated  capital  which  has  the  entire  industrial  plant  under  its  con- 
trol. Socialists  believe  that  the  large  monopolies  which  have  grown  up 
in  the  last  few  years  are  but  the  pioneers  of  their  system  of  a  better 
economical  organization  of  industries,  whereby  products  will  be  cheap- 
ened, enabling  everyone  to  live  in  comfort.  The  trusts  say  they  do 
away  with  waste  and  with  reckless  competition,  and  the  socialists  are 
with  them  in  this.  But  those  who  are  watching  the  great  social  and 
political  movement  in  the  United  States  cannot  venture  to  predict  how 
huge  labor  unions  and  the  industrial  monopolies  are  going  to  find  com- 
mon ground  to  stand  on.  It  is  hardly  possible  that  they  can  work  out 
a  scheme  to  operate  in  harmony. 

Very  many  prominent  men  in  this  country  believe  that  a  great  change 
in  social  conditions  is  coming,  that  labor  will  have  to  be  given  a  larger 
share  in  the  profits  of  organized  industry  as  the  only  means  of  prevent- 
ing an  upheaval  of  society  by  the  accumulating  forces  of  discontent. 
Some  wealthy  men  seem  to  be  looking  forward  to  some  inevitable  re- 
adjustment of  conditions  and  are  striving  to  enlist  the  thinking  work- 
ingmen  with  them  in  the  development  of  a  plan  for  the  betterment  of 
the  condition  of  the  masses  of  the  people.' 

"  Near  the  window  by  which  I  write  a  great  bull  is  tethered  by  a  ring  in  his  nose. 
Grazing,  round  and  round,  he  has  wound  his  rope  about  the  stake  until  now  he  stands 
a  close  prisoner,  tantalized  by  rich  grass  he  cannot  reach,  unable  even  to  toss  his  head 
to  rid  himself  of  the  flies  that  cluster  on  his  shoulders.  Now  and  again  he  struggles 
vainly,  and  then,  after  pitiful  bellowings,  relapses  into  silent  misery.  This  bull,  a 
very  type  of  massive  strength,  who,  because  he  has  not  wit  enough  to  see  how  he  might 
be  free,  suffers  want  in  sight  of  plenty,  and  is  helplessly  preyed  upon  by  weaker 
creatures,  seems  to  me  no  unfit  emblem  of  the  working  masses.  In  all  lands  men 
whose  toil  creates  abounding  wealth  are  ])inched  with  poverty,  and,  while  advancing 
civilization  opens  wider  vistas  and  awakens  new  desires,  are  held  down  to  brutish  levels 
by  animal  needs.  Bitterly  conscious  of  injustice,  feeling  in  their  inmost  souls  that 
they  were  made  for  more  than  so  narrow  a  life,  they,  too.  spasmodically  struggle  and 
cry  out.  But  until  they  trace  effect  to  cause,  until  they  see  how  they  are  fettered  and 
may  be  freed,  their  struggles  and  outcries  are  as  vain  as  those  of  the  bull.  Nay,  they 
are  vainer.  I  shall  go  out  afid  drive  the  bull  in  the  way  that  will  untwist  his  rope. 
But  who  shall  drive  men  into  freedom  ?  Till  they  use  the  reason  with  which  they 
have  been  gifted  nothing  can  avail.  For  them  there  is  no  special  providence.  Under 
all  forms  of  government  the  ultimate  power  lies  with  the  masses.  It  is  not  kings  nor 
aristocracies  nor  landowners  nor  capitalists  that  anywhere  really  enslave  the  people. 
It  is  their  own  ignorance." 

'  An  article  in  Giniton's  Magazine  for  October,  1897,  on  what  workingmen  really 
need,  significant  as  coming  from  a  periodical  generally  supposed  to  receive  its  finan- 
cial support  from  some  of  the  millionaires  and  trust  magnates  who  are  seeking  to 
guide  the  opinion  of  the  laboring  men  of  the  country,  and  to  keep  them  from  drifting 
into  the  ranks  of  the  Socialists,  or  enlisting  under  the  single-tax  banner  of  Henry 
George,  is  an  argument  for  the  raising  of  the  condition  of  the  workingmen  by  means 


/IDejican  Xabor  is  not  ®raaui3et>.  541 

I  am  sure  that  any  ground  gained  or  any  change  obtained  by  the 
laboring  classes  of  the  United  States  will  react  in  Mexico,  and  that  the 
Mexican  laborer  will  finally  share  in  more  or  less  degree  the  same 
advantages  gained  here. 

Trade  unionism  has  been  carried  to  lengths  in  England  never 
known  in  any  other  country  in  modern  times,  and  employers  assert 
that  the  evils  promoted  by  it  have  now  become  intolerable,  and  that 
further  submission  to  its  exactions  means  the  destruction  of  the  manu- 
facturing interests  and  of  the  immense  foreign  trade  of  the  country. 

The  savings-banks  were  established  with  the  idea  of  assisting  work- 
ing people  and  encouraging  them  to  save  as  much  money  as  they 
could,  giving  them  the  opportunity  to  invest  it  profitably. 

The  evil  that  underlies  the  present  savings-banks  everywhere  is 
that  the  money  of  the  depositors  is  not  employed  lucratively.  Every- 
where is  a  glut  of  deposits  in  the  other  banks,  and  they  have  invaded 
the  domain  which  once  belonged  exclusively  to  the  savings-banks.  In 
Mexico  City  the  three  principal  banks  have  on  deposit  more  than  one 
hundred  million  dollars,  the  owners  of  which  wanted  to  lend  upon  first 
mortgage  to  any  amount  at  seven  per  cent.  The  National  Bank  alone 
has  from  ten  to  twelve  millions  in  specie  of  its  own  for  which  it  can 
find  no  use,  and  naturally  cannot  assist  its  depositors  in  their  search 

of  the  organization  of  labor  in  trades  unions,  the  only  form  of  "  trust  "  possible  for 
those  who  have  merely  their  skill  and  labor  to  sell  for  wages  : 

"  The  writer  says  :  '  The  great  fact  about  the  whole  matter  is  that  the  material 
progress  of  labor  can  be  achieved  only  as  wages  rise,  and  prices,  through  the  use  of 
improved  methods  of  production,  decline.  Nothing  can  be  of  real  service  to  labor 
which  does  not  promote  one  or  the  other  of  these  movements.  The  single  tax  will 
not  do  it.  Socialism  will  not  do  it.  Whatever  will  create  among  laborers  new  de- 
sires, habits,  and  tastes,  new  demands  for  comforts  and  refinements,  new  ambitions 
for  higher  individual  and  social  life,  strong  enough  to  make  them  organize  to  enforce 
these  demands,  will  do  it.  Starting  from  this  basis,  we  find  a  wide  range  of  benificent 
influences  which  can  be  utilized  to  our  end.  Clean  and  well-lighted  streets,  public 
parks  and  baths,  model  tenements  and  good  sanitation  will  promote  discontent  with 
vile  conditions  of  home  life.  Free  museums,  libraries,  and  art  galleries  will  instill  a 
higher  range  of  tastes  and  wants.  Kindergartens  and  ample  school  facilities  will  do 
the  same.  A  shorter  working  day  will  give  the  rest  and  leisure  necessary  for  an  ade- 
quate home  and  social  life." 

Continuing,  Mr.  Gunton  remarks:  "  Public  policies  which  encourage  the  increase 
of  manufacturing  industries  will  thereby  promote  the  growth  of  towns  and  cities,  and 
thus  give  the  environment  so  necessary  to  the  operation  of  high-wage  forces.  Trades 
unions  offer  the  medium  through  which  these  forces  can  be  centralized  and  brought 
to  bear  upon  the  industrial  situation  with  a  power  and  effectiveness  which  cannot  be 
resisted."     . 

Still  another  distinctively  Socialistic  device  is  adopted  by  Mr.  Gunton,  who  re- 
marks that  "  labor  insurance  will  remove  the  necessity  of  rigid  self-denial  and  parsi- 
mony through  all  the  years  when  men  should  be  enjoying  the  full  benefit  of  their 
earnings,  and  taking  advantage  of  those  opportunities  which  disappear  as  age  comes  on." 


h 


54-^  Xaboi*  an&  'CClaaci?  in  /iDcjico. 

for  a  form  of  investment  that  is  exceedingly  limited.  Of  course  these 
banks  offered  the  Monte  de  Piedad  '  all  the  money  it  could  use  at  three 
per  cent.,  and  the  depositors  in  its  own  savings-banks  suffered  accord- 
ingly. If  the  saving  habit  had  been  developed  in  the  Mexican  working 
man  this  would  have  been  a  terrible  blow,  but,  unfortunately,  he  has  not 
yet  arrived  at  that  point.  He  is  still  wasting  his  daily  dollar,  con- 
fident that  he  will  earn  another  to-morrow,  but  forgetting  that  he  will 
not  always  be  young  and  strong,  agile,  clear-sighted,  and  of  steady 
nerve. 

We  must  create  the  saving  habit  by  tempting  the  well-paid  Mexican 
workingman  to  save.  This  can  easily  be  done  by  inverting  the  action 
of  the  Monte  de  Piedad,  which  created  a  savings-bank  to  furnish  it  with 
cheap  capital  for  its  business.  What  is  wanted  is  a  universal  system 
of  savings-banks  throughout  the  Republic  of  Mexico,  whose  deposits 
will  be  used  for  lending  upon  pledges  at  the  French  and  Belgian  rates 
for  the  profit  of  the  depositors.  This  is  a  new  departure,  but  it  is  the 
old  wholesome  law  of  mutuality  which  has  proved  so  successful.  This 
system  is  known  in  Europe  as  the  Scotch  bank,  where  all  the  profits  of 
banking  above  expenses  and  working  capital  go  to  the  depositors. 

Feast  Days  in  Mexico. — The  Catholic  clergy  of  Mexico  encouraged 
the  custom  of  having  a  great  many  feast  days,  which  were,  besides,  very 
profitable  to  the  church.  Over  one-third  of  the  year,  not  counting  the 
Sabbath,  was  given  up  to  religious  festivals,  during  which  all  work  was 
stopped.  So  objectionable  were  the  results  of  this  system  that,  when, 
in  1S5S,  the  laws  of  reform  were  enacted  separating  the  church  from 
the  state,  the  feast  days  were  reduced  by  law  to  a  very  limited  number 
— about  six  only  in  the  year;  but,  as  happens  with  all  legislation  in 
conflict  with  the  actual  habits  of  the  people,  the  law  has  not  been 
faithfully  complied  with,  more  especially  because  it  does  not  provide 
any  punishment  for  the  offenders.  This  fact  makes  foreigners  in 
Mexico  consider  native  labor  unreliable. 

Immigration  from  the  United  States  into  Mexico. — It  has  been  also 
stated  that  the  condition  of  things  in  Mexico  would  not  warrant  the 
emigration  to  it  of  citizens  of  this  country.  To  be  sure,  I  would  not 
advise  anybody  without  capital  or  who  is  not  an  expert  workman  to  go 
there,  because  he  certainly  could  not  compete  with  native  labor;  but  to 
those  having  small  fortunes  and  willing  to  put  up  with  the  inconven- 
iences and  discomforts  of  a  new  and  foreign  country,  Mexico  offers  .i 
field  for  profitable  labor  and  investment  hardly  to  be  equalled  anywhere 
else. 

If  the  laborer  in  the  United  States  goes  to  Mexico  and  drawing  the 
same  pay  in  silver  as  he  did  in  gold,  goes  down  to  live  in  the  same  style 
and  on  the  same  food  as  the  native  laborer,  occupying  the  same  class  o\ 

'  A  national  establishment  to  loan  money  to  the  poor,  at  low  rate  of  interest. 


Conclusion.  543 

position  or  work,  he  will  find  it  cheaper  than  in  the  United  States,  but 
to  go  to  Mexico  to  eat  the  same  food,  to  wear  similar  clothes,  and  have 
the  same  comforts  as  in  the  States,  he  will  require  two  silver  dollars  for 
every  one  dollar  received  in  the  United  States,  and  then  be  worse  off 
in  that  he  has  no  society  and  no  pleasures. 

Not  to  repeat  what  I  have  stated  on  this  subject,  I  refer  the  reader 
who  would  like  to  know  more  fully  my  views  about  emigrating  to 
Mexico  to  the  chapter  on  "  Immigration  from  the  United  States,"  in 
the  paper  entitled  "  Geographical  and  Statistical  Notes  on  Mexico," 
pages  125  to  129. 

Conclusion. — I  should  be  very  glad  if  the  explanations  made  in  this 
article  result  in  dispelling  some  of  the  errors  prevailing  in  this  country 
in  regard  to  the  conditions  of  labor  in  Mexico;  and  I  hope  that,  in 
case  restrictions  against  Mexican  trade  are  discussed,  they  will  not  be 
urged  on  the  ground  that  our  articles  are  produced  with  peon  labor. 
I  sincerely  hope  that  both  countries,  instead  of  acting  in  a  manner 
contrary  to  the  ends  of  nature,  which  has  placed  the  one  beside  the 
other,  and  has  given  them  different  climates,  productions,  and  possibili- 
ties, will  co-operate  with  the  purpose  of  nature,  and  not  interpose 
other  obstacles  to  reciprocal  trade  than  those  that  are  absolutely  neces- 
sary for  their  mutual  well-being  and  progress. 


APPENDIX  No.  I. 


I.    WAGES. 


The  following  tables  of  wages  paid  in  Mexico  are  taken  from  Mr. 
Ransom's  report  on  Money  and  Prices  in  Mexico,  dated  at  the  City  of 
Mexico  on  September  26,  1896: 


WAGES    PAID    IN    THE    CITY    OF    MEXICO    IN    1896. 
[Per  day,  except  when  otherwise  stated.] 


Day  laborers  ' . . . .    

Blacksmiths  ' 

Carpenters  (ordinary) 

Carpenters  (foremen) 

Printers  : 

Pressmen 

Job  printers 

Compositors 

Engravers 

Masons 

Bricklayers 

Iron  workers 

Private  coachmen per  month.  . 

Public  coachmen do.  . . . 

Policemen do.  .  .  . 

Wagon  drivers 

Butchers 

Shoemakers 

Laborers  in  factories 

Skilled  mechanics 

Plumbers 

Miners 

Skilled  miners 

Furnace  men,  smelters 

Section  men  on  railroads 

Section   foremen 

Train  masters   per  month . . 

Tailors : 

Repairers 

Coat  makers per  coat. . 

Vest  makers per  vest. . 

Pants  makers per  pair. . 

Harness  and  saddle  makers 


MEXICAN   CURRENCY. 


25, 

$0.37  to 

$0.67 

75, 

1.25  to 

1.50 

1.25  to 

1.50 

2.50  to 

5.00 

1.50 

1.25 

1-43 

5.00  to 

10.00 

75. 

1. 00  to 

1.50 

1. 00  to 

1.50 

2.00  to 

2.50 

15.00  to 

25.00 
10.00 

30.00  to 

50.00 

1.25 
1.50 

1. 00  to 

1-25 

40, 

.63  to 

1. 00 
5.00 

2.00  to 

2.50 

40, 

.60  to 

1. 00 

1. 00  to 

1.50 

1. 00  to 

1.50 

.50  to 

.62 

1. 00  to 

1.50 

150.00  to 

175.00 

1. 00  to 

1-25 

5.00  to 

12.00 

1.35  to 

1.60 

1.75  to 

2.50 

.50  to 

2.00 

UNITED   STATES 
CURRENCY. 


.08,  $0.12^  to  $0.34 

.63     to        .76 

.62    to       .76 

1.27    to    2.25 


.76 

.62 

.72 

2.25 

to 

5.50 

•57 

to 

.76 

.51 

to 

.76 

1.02 

to 

1.28 

7.65 

to 

12.25 
5.50 

5.30 

to 

25.50 
.62 
.76 
.62 

•31 

to 

.51 
2.25 

1.02 

to 

1.27 

.31 

to 

.56 

.51 

to 

•  71 

.51 

to 

.76 

.26 

to 

.31 

•51 

to 

.76 

•  51 

to 

■63 

2.55 

to 

6,10 

.65 

to 

.82 

.qo 

to 

1.28 

.26 

to 

1.02 

*  Wages  of  laborers  range  from  25  to  67  cents  per  day  ;  wages  of  blacksmiths  range  from  75  cents 
to  $1.50  per  day. 


544 


appenMj. 


545 


WAGES   PER    DAY    PAID    IN    THE    REPUBLIC    OF    MEXICO    IN    1896. 


Carpenters 

Carpenters,  foremen 

Masons .  . 

Masons,  foremen 

Painters  ....    

Painters,  foremen 

Miners  : 

Ordinary 

Skilled 

Hatters 

Hatters,  skilled 

Shoemakers 

Shoemakers,  ordinary 

Blacksmiths  (mines) 

Carpenters  (mines) 

Machinists 

Head  miners   

Watchmen j 

Factories : 

Girls  and  boys |  $0. 18, 

Men 

Women 


MEXICAN  CURRENCY. 


?o.75  to  ! 
1.75  to 

.75  to 
1.25  to 

.75  to 
1. 00  to 

.62  to 
1.25  to 

•  75  to 
1.50  to 
1.25  to 

.75  to 
1.50  to 
1.50  to 
3.00  to 
2.00  to 

.75  to 


51.25 
3.00 

1-25 

300 

1. 00 
2.00 

1.50 
1.80 

1. 00 
2.50 
2.50 
1.25 

3-00 
3.00 
4.00 
2.50 
1. 00 


.25  to  .37 
.40  to  1. 00 
.18  to      .50 


UNITED  STATES 
CURRENCY. 

$0.38  to  $0.63 

.89  to  1.53 

.38  to   .63 

.89  to  1.53 

.38  to   .51 

.51  to  1.02 

.31  to   .76 

.89  to   .gi 

.38  to   .51 

.76  to  1.27 

.89  to  1.27 

.38  to   ,89 

.76  to  1,53 

.76  to  1.53 

1.53  to  2.04 

1.02  to  1.27 

.38  to   .51 

.09,      .13  to      .18J 

.20|  to        .51 

.09  to       .25^ 


to  i) 


WAGES  PER  DAY  PAID  IN  TEN  MEXICAN  COTTON  FACTORIES — ORDINARY 
FACTORY  HANDS — IN   1896,   MEXICAN  CURRENCY.' 


NAME  OF  FACTORY. 

TOTAL 
OPERA- 
TIVES. 

MEN. 

WOMEN. 

CHILDREN. 

Rio  Blanco 

1,220 
[      1,880 

500 

451 
500 
600 
600 
500 
150 

$0.45 
$0.50(0         .75 

.37 

.37  to     1. 00 

.65 

.50  to       .60 
.50  to       .60 

.65 

.50  to     2.50 

$0.45 

$0.37  to       .50 

.37 

.37  to       .50 

•  50 

.25  to       .50 
.25  to       .50 

.50 

.i;o  to       .7<; 

$0.20 

Hercules 

La  Priussima 

$0.t2^tO         .25 

San  Antonio 

Baron  y  La  Colimena 

San  Ildefonso 

•25 

.18    to       .25 

•25 

.20    to       .25 

.20     to         ,25 
.23 
.25 

.20    to       .25 

La  Reforma .  . 

La  Estrella 

Bella  Vista 

San  Fernando 

La  Amistad 

Industrie  Nacional 

.17  to       I.^O           .17  to          .^O 

Lowest  paid  men,  25  cents  ;  highest  paid  men,  $2.50;  lowest  paid  women,  12J 
cents;  highest  paid  women,  75  cents;  lowest  paid  children,  12J  cents;  hii^hest  paid 
children,  37  cents. 

'  These  rates  expressed  in  United  States  currency  will  be  about  one-half.  (The 
Mexican  dollar  equals  51  cents  in  United  States  currency.) 


546 


Xabor  an^  liaaGCS  in  /IDejico. 


WAGES  PER  DAY  PAID  TO  MEXICAN  COTTON  FACTORY  OPERATIVES 

ACCORDING  TO  THEIR  RESPECTIVE  OCCUPATIONS,  IN 

1896,  IN  MEXICAN  CURRENCY.' 


Aguascalicntes  . . 

Mexico 

Oaxaca 

Puebla 

San  Luis  Potosi. 

Sinaloa , 

Nuevo  Leon.  .  .  , 

Coahuila 

Chihuahua 

Durango 

Guanajuato 

Guerrero 

Hidalgo , 

Jalisco 

Michoacan 

Federal  district. 


FOREMEN. 


$1.50 

$t.oo  to  5.00 
1. 00  to  3.00 


2.00  to  3.00 
1. 00 

1. 00  to  2.00 
1. 00 

1. 00  to  3.00 

.62  to  3.00 

1. 00 

1. 12 

1. 00 
1. 00 

2.00  to  3.00 


SPINNERS. 


I0.50  to 
.50  to 
.50  to 

.62  to 

.50  to 
.50  to 
•  37  to 
.37  to 

.18  to 
.31  to 

.50  to 


CARDERS. 


10.50 

•  75 
2.00 
1. 12 

•  25 
i^50 

•  75 
1. 00 

•  75 
1. 00 
1. 00 

•  75 
.75 

1. 00 

•  50 
1. 00 


$0.50 
37  to  .50 
50  to  1. 00 
50  to  r.i2 

■  25 
62  to  1. 00 
37  to  I. 00 
50  to  1. 00 
50  to  .75 
37  to  1. 00 
37  to  1. 00 

•50 
18  to  .75 
25  to    .75 

•  50 
.50  to  1. 00 


WASHERS. 


$0.50 
D.37  to  .50 
.50  to    .75 

.50  to   1. 1  2 

.25 
.62 

•37  to    .75 

•75 

.50  to    .75 

.37  to  I.OHJ 

•37  to  .75 
•75 
.75 
■50 
•  37 
50  to  1. 00 


.18  to 
•  37  to 


STATE. 

WEAVERS. 

DYERS. 

MACHINISTS. 

FIREMEN. 

HANDS. 

Aguascalicntes . . 
Mexico 

$.50 

$0,37  to    .50 
.50  to    .75 
.37  to  1. 00 

•25 

.62  to  1. 00 

$0.50 

$0.50  to    .75 

1. 00  to  2.00 

.37  to  I. 00 

$1.00 

$0.50 

$0.25  to  $0.37 
.50  to      .75 

-50 
.25 
.62 

Oaxaca 

Puebla 

San  Luis  Potosi.. 

Sinaloa 

I.OQ  to  2.00 

$2.00  to  3.00 

$0.75  to  1. 00 

Nuevo  Leon.  . .  . 

.37  to      .50 
.37  to      .50 

•  37  to      .50 

•  37  to      .75 

•  37 
•50  to      .75 
.18  to      .50 
.25  to      .31 

.25 

Coahuila 

Chihuahua 

.50  to  1. 00 
•  50  to    .75 
.37  to  1. 00 

.50  to  2.00 
•  50  to    .75 
.37  to  r.oo 
.37  to  2.00 

.75 

.50  to    .75 

1.50 

.50 

•  50  to    .75 

Durango 

Guanajuato 

•  37 

Guerrero 

•75 
.18  to    .50 
.37  to  1. 00 

•  50 

.50  to  1. 00 

Hidalgo 

Jalisco 

Michoacan 

.75 

1. 00  to  1.50 

•  50 
.75  to  1. 00 

Federal  district.. 

2.00  to  3.00 

•  50  to      .75 

'  At  present  rate  of  exchange  these  rates,  expressed  in  American  currency,  are  about 
one-half  (51  cents  to  the  dollar). 

WAGES   OF    RAILWAY    EMPLOYEES    IN    1896. 
MEXICAN    INTERNATIONAL   RAILWAY. 


Passenger  conductors  ' per  month. 

Passenger  brakemen ' do 

Freight  conductors^ do 

Freight  brakemen ' do 

All  engineers  ' do 

All  firemen  * do 

Telegraphers do 

Section  men per  day . 


MEXICAN 
CURRENCY. 


$165.00 
60.00 

M85.00  to  220.00 

60.00  to  120.00 
190.00  to  210.00 
120.00  to  160.00 

60.00  to  125.00 
.50  to    .62^ 


UNITED  STATES 
CURRENCY. 


$83.00 

31.00 

^94. 00  to  113.00 

31.00  to     62.00 

96.00  to  108.00 

31.00  to    81.00 

31.00  to    65.00 

.26  to        .31J 


'  Three  thousand  miles  is  a  month's  run. 


*  Mileage. 


appen&lj. 


547 


WAGES    OF    RAILWAY    EMPLOYEES    IN 
MEXICAN    CENTRAL. 


1896. 


Passenger  conductors. 
Passenger  engineers.  . 
Freight  conductors. .  . 
Freight  engineers. . . . 

Brakemen 

Firemen 

Bill  clerks 

Clerks 

Telegraphers  : 

American 

Mexican 

Railroad  laborers. . .  . 


.per  month. 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 


.do 

.do 

per  day. 


MEXICAN 
CURRENCY. 


$225.00 

225.00 

150.00 

150.00 

60.00 

90.00 

75^00 
50.00 

100.00 

5o.oo  to     75.00 

.62  to       I.oo 


UNITED  STATES 
CURRENCY. 


$114.00 
114.00 
76.00 
76.00 
31-00 
45.00 
37.00 
26.00 

51.00 

$31.00  to     37.00 

.31  to         .51 


MEXICAN   NATIONAL. 


Passenger  conductors. 
Freight  conductors. . . 
Engineers,  full  time. . 

Section  foremen 

Firemen 

Telegraph  operators  : 

On  line  of  road. . . . 

Main  offices 

Bridge  carpenters  : 

Native 

American 

Section  men 

Laborers 


.per  month. 
,  ...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 


.do. 
.do. 


.per  day. 
...do... 
...do... 
...do.    . 


$150.00 

^140.00  to  180.00 

240.00 

90.00 

75.00  to  100.00 

60.00 
90.00  to   150.00 

I.oo  to       1.50 
2.75  to       4.15 
.50  to         .75 
.62i 


$76.00 

$71.00  to     91.00 

142.00 

4500 

37.00  to       57. GO 


45.00  to 


31-00 
76.00 


.51  to        .76 

1.38  to       2.08 

.26  to  .38 

•31 


WAGES    PER    DAY    PAID    TO    MINERS    IN    THE    DIFFERENT    STATES.' 
[In  Mexican  currency,  equal  in  United  St.ites  currency  to  about  one-half.] 


STATE. 

ORE  BREAKER. 

TIMBER  MAN. 

WATCHMAN. 

PEON. 

Coahuila 

$0.75 
1.50 

$0.50  to    1.50 
.18  to      .50 
•37 
-31  to      .75 
.50  to    I.oo 
-50  to      .75 
.50  to    I.oo 
■25  to      .75 

.50 

.25  to      .66 

I.oo  to    2.00 

.50  to    1.75 

$0.75 

$1.00  to    1.50 
.40  to    I.oo 

•50 

•37 
.31  to      .75 
•37  to      .75 

•50 
.75  to    I.oo 
.25  to      .50 

$0.75  to  $1.00 
I.OO  to    1.50 

.37  to      I.OO 

$0.50  to  $0.75 

I.oo  to    1.50 

.37  to    I.oo 

.18  to       .37 

•  37 
.25  to      .50 
•37  to      .75 
.25  to      .50 
.50  to      .75 
.25  to      .50 
.25  to      .37 
.25  to       .50 
.45  to    2.00 
.37  to      .50 

Chihuahua 

Durango 

Guanajuato 

Guerrero 

.37  to       .50 

.50  to      I.OO 

•25  to      .75 

•  50 

.75  to    I.oo 
.25  to      .31 

Hidalgo 

Michoacan 

Mexico 

Nuevo  Leon 

Oaxaca 

Queretaro 

San  Luis  Potosi 

.66 

I.oo  to    2.00 

.37  to      .72 

Sonora 

1.20 
.50  to    1.75 

Zacatecas 

'  From  Government  reports. 


548 


Xabor  anD  Maaes  in  /IDcjico* 


WAGES    PER    DAY    PAID    TO    MINERS    IN    THE    DIFFERENT    STATES. 


Coahuila 

Chihuahua 

Durango 

Guanajuato. . . . 

Guerrero 

Hidalgo 

Michoacan 

Mexico 

Nuevo  Leon  . . . 

Oaxaca 

Queretaro 

San  Luis  Potosi 

Sonora 

Zacatecas 


QUICKSILVKR 
MIXERS. 


$2.00  to  $3.00 
1. 00  to    2.00 


.50  to  1. 00 
2.00  to  3.00 
1. 00  to    2.00 

1-75 


1. 00  to 
1. 00  to 


3-00 
300 


DRILLERS  AND 
I'ICKMEN. 


$0.75 
•51 
.40 

.50 
•31 
.50 

.50 

.66 
•  25 
.50 
1. 00 
•45 
.70 


to  $1.00 

to     2.50 

to     1.50 

.50 

.75 

1. 00 

1. 00 

•  75 
1. 00 
1. 00 
1. 00 
1.60 
1. 00 
1. 00 


furnacemen 
(hornero). 


$0.75 

1.50 

^0.75  to     1. 00 


•  37 


.37  to    1. 00 

1. 00 

.75  to    1. 00 

•  50 


■  50 

1. 00  to    2.00 

.70  to    X.50 


TROWEL 

WORKERS 

(PLANILLERS). 


go.75  to: 
1.50  to 
I. CO  to 


.31  to 
.50  to 

•  75  to 

•  75  to 


•  75  to 
.66  to 


■li.oo 

2.00 

2.50 

.50 

.50 

1. 00 

1. 18 

1. 00 

1. 00 

1. 00 

.50 

1. 00 

2.00 

1.20 


DAILY    WAGES    OF    STREET-CAR    EMPLOYEES    IN    THE    CITY    OF    MEXICO 

IN    1896.' 

[Obtained  from  the  Compania  de  Ferrocarriles  del  Distrito  Federal  de  Mexico,  S.  A.] 


CHARACTER    OF   EMPLOYEE. 


Conductors  of  trains 

Ticket  sellers 

Ticket  collectors  on  urban  lines. . . 

Drivers 

Foremen  at  stations 

Stablemen 

Foremen  of  repair  gangs 

Peons 

Pavers 

Switchmen,  guards,  watchmen,  etc 

Carpenters 

Blacksmiths 

Mechanics 

Painters 

Harness  makers 

Engine  drivers  ' , 

Firemen 

Brakemen 


MEXICAN 
CURRENCY. 

AVERAGE 

HOURS 

OF  WORK. 

$t.50 

13 

1. 00 

13 

$1.25  to 

1-75 

13 

.75 

13 

1 .00  to 

1-75 

•  63 
1.50 

I. GO  to 

9 

•44 

9 

.69 

9 

,50  to 

•  94 

12 

.75  to 

2.00 

ID 

.75  to 

2.25 

ID 

.75  to 

1^75 

ID 

•  75  to 

2.25 

10 

.83  to 

2.00 

10 

100.00  to 

150.00 

13 

^25 

13 

1. 00 

13 

Per  month. 


'  All  these  are  paid  by  the  day,  except  engine  drivers.  Wages  are  paid  in  Mexi- 
can silver,  without  rations.  At  present  rate  of  exchange,  these  wages  in  American 
money  amount  to  one-half. 


appenMj, 


549 


II.    COST    OF    LIVING. 


The  following  statement  of  prices  and  cost  of  living  in  Mexico  is 
also  taken  from  Mr.  Ransom's  report,  above  quoted,  on  Money  and 
Prices  in  Mexico  : 

PRICKS    OF    AGRICULTURAL    AND  PASTORAL    PRODUCTS    EXPORTED 

IN    1896. 


ARTICLES. 


MEXICAN  CURRENCY. 


UNITED    STATES 
CURRENCY. 


Indigo per  pound 

Sugar,  fine do. . 

Sugar,  brown do .  . 

Cocoa do.  . 

Tobacco do. . 

Coffee do. . 

Flour do . . 

Beans do. , 

Wax every  25  pounds 

Honey every  100  pounds 

Hennequen per  ton 

Fiber  and  cordage per  pound 

Oil for  25  pounds 

Rubber per  pound 

Dyewoods 

Ixtle per  100  pounds 

Vanilla do. . 

Lemons per  100 

Oranges do.  . 

Bananas  .    do.  . 


75  cents  to  $1.25 

10  to  14  cents 

7  cents 

40  cents 

12,  20,  24,  to  28  cents 
25  to  35  cents 

4  to  6  cents 

5  cents 

16  to  20  cents  a  pound 

20  cents  a  pound 

$80,  gold 

6  cents 


38  to  62  cents. 

5  to  8  cents. 

3^  cents. 

21  cents. 

6,  II,  13,  to  14 J  cents. 

13  to  18  cents. 

2  to  3  cents. 

2f  cents. 

8  to  13  cents. 

10^  cents. 


25  cents 

$35  a  ton,  gold. 

$5 

$12  to  $16 

20  cents 

$1  to$i.5o 

60  cents 


3^  cents. 

$1.53. 
13  cents. 


.16. 


$2.55. 
$6. 10  to 
II  cents. 
51  to  77  cents 
31  cents. 


PRICES    OF    PRODUCTS   CONSUMED    IN    THE    COUNTRY    (mEXICO). 


PRODUCTS. 


MEXICAN    CUR- 
RENCY. 


UNITED  STATES 
CURRENCY. 


Wheat per  pound . 

Cotton do. . . 

Wool  (choice) do.  .  . 

Butter : 

Ordinary do.  .  . 

Choice do.  . . 

Beans do.  .  . 

Eggs per  dozen . 

Lard per  pound . 

Rice do.  .  . 

Cheese do.  .  . 

Chick  pease do .  .  . 

Soap,  common do .  . . 

Barley do.  . . 

Pepper do.  . . 

Sulphur do.  . . 

Grapes do.  .  . 

Beef: 

On  ranch do .  .  . 

Good,  in  cities do.  . . 

Best,  in  cities do.  .  . 

In  City  of  Mexico,  good do.  . . 


$0.02  to  $0.04 

.13  to      .18 

.60 


•50 
.75 
.06 

.25 
.24 
.08 
.50 
.03 
.08 

.16 

.10 

•  15 


.16  to 

.06  to 


.07  to 
.10  to 


.01    to 
.06^  to 


.08    to 
.03    to 


.03?  to 
.05    to 


.06 

.12 
.25 
.16 


$0.02^ 
.09 
■31 

.26 

.38 
.03 

.13 

.12 

.04 

.26 

.Olj 

.04} 

•      I 
.08J 

•03i 
.08 

•03 
.06 

•13 
.08 


55° 


Xabor  anO  'CClaaes  In  /IDejtco. 


comparative  table  setting  forth  the  current  prices  of  manu- 
factures and  merchandise  for  the  years  enumerated,  as 
published  by  the  board  of  commission  agents  (mexican 
currency). 


ARTICLES. 

MILLS. 

DKSCRIPTION. 

QUANTITY. 

PRICE  MAY   20, 
1886. 

PRICE  JUNE  28, 
1895. 

Per  vara  •.. 

do 

do 

$1.12 

80.94  to       i.oo 

.g4  to      I.oo 

1.00  to      1.25 

9.00 

4.50  to     10.00 

S0.88 

Flannel 

do 

Cash  price 

Do 

I.OO 

$1.00  to        1.25 

Per  dozen.. 
do 

do 

Knitted  Mexican... 

Knitted,       various 

classes 

4.00  to     «o.oo 

'  Vara  equals  33  inches. 


prices  of  goods   manufactured  in  mexico,   wholesale,  mexican 

currency. 


Carpeting per  33  inches . . 

Flannel do 

Socks per  dozen .  . 

Drawers do 

Undershirts,  woven  (cotton) do 

Cassimere ....    per  garment . . 

White  blankets  (cotton) each . . 

Bedspreads per  dozen .  . 

Prints,  33  inches  wide per  vara  ' .  . 

Blankets per  dozen . . 

Colored  wool  yarn  thread per  pound. . 

Cotton  thread do 

Colored  prints,  33  inches  wide per  vara.  . 

Mexican  stockings per  dozen.  . 

Gray  and  blue  cloth  (wool) per  vara.  . 

Plaids  of  Tulancingo do ...  . 

Ginghams,  26  inches  wide do. . .  . 


r.oo 

$1.00  to     1.25 

7.00 

4.00  to  10.00 

2.00 

2.50 

26.00  to  45.00 

.15  to      ,16 

16.00 

1.00 

.50 
.18 

1-37 

2.25 

.18 

.20 


0.34  to 
.15  to 

1.75  to 
.15  to 
.18  to 


•  Vara  equals  33  inches. 


WHOLESALE    PRICES    PER    POUND    IN    MEXICO    (FOURTEEN    STATES).' 


Michoacan 

Zacatecas 

Mexico 

Jalisco 

Chihuahua 

Oaxaca 

Guerrero 

Hidalgo 

Coahuila 

Aguascalientes. 

Durango 

Puebla 

Colima 

Veracruz 


White 
sugar. 


Brown 
sugar. 


Cents. 
7 


6i 


Coffee. 


Cents. 

2S 


36 


Beans. 


Cents. 
8 
7 

4 

3 

4 
12 

s 

34 

5 

4 

5 

ai 

6 


Flour. 


Cents. 
4 


Butter. 


Corn. 


Cents. 
4 

2 
4} 


Irish 
pota- 


Cents. 
4 


Wheat.    Rice. 


Cents. 

2i 


Cents. 

■■■'gi' 


2* 


43 


'  Taken  from  Government  Report,  May  and  September,  1896,  and  expressed  in 

Mexican  currency  ;  $r  equals  51  cents  United  States  currency. 


BppenDij. 


551 


TABLE    OF    PRICES    OF    COMMODITIES    IN    CERTAIN    CITIES. 


ARTICLES. 


Jerked  beef — per  pound.. 
Sale  fish do 


Salt  pork do 

Hams do 

Eggs per  dozen. . 

Ffour per  pound . . 

-Corn do 

Beans do 

Butter do 

Sugar do 

Salt do 

Tea: 

Ordinary do 

Choice do 

Coffee do 

Wood per  cord . . 

Kerosene  oil per  gall. . 

Soap,  common.. per  pound. . 

Lard do 

Fresh  beef do 

Irish  potatoes do 

Candles do 

Cheese do 


VERACRUZ. 


c  >■ 
rt  o 
u  c 

'5  Ji 

V   u 

S3 


w  >, 


'=  t 


$0.25 

•30 
•25 
.50 

•35 
.10 
.04 
.06 
•S5 
.10 
.05 

.30 
2.50 

•35 
7.50 

.60 


$0.13 
.16 

•'3 
.26 
.18 

•o5i 
.02 

•03i 

.28 

•osJ 


.16 
1.28 

.18 
3^83 

•31 

.05i 


$0.: 


.08 

.02I 

.06 

•75 

.10 

•05 

■50 
2  00 

•37 
4.00 

.60 


•25 
.10 
.10 


$0.06 
.16 


.26 

•2S 
.OlJ 

•03i 

.38 

•o5i 


.26 
1.02 

.18J 
2.04 

•31 


•05I 
•05  J 


DURANGO. 


80.18  to 


.38  to 


.15  to 


So.  40 
•25 
•45 
.60 
•05 
.02} 
.04 

.10 
.03) 

1. 00 
3.50 

•45 
S-50 
.80 
.12J 
.32 
•25 


^33 


CHIHUAHUA. 


K   b 

S3 


$0.10  to 


.19  to 


$0.21   I 

•'3  I 
.23 

•02i 
.O.J 


•osJ 
•oij 

•51 
1.27 

•23 
2.52 
.40 
.07 
.12 


$0.12 

'•25 


•13 


.16 


■25 

•25 

.03 

.01  i 

•03 

.40 


1.20 

*.25 

.80 


c  ^ 

53 


•13 
•13 

.O.J 

.oo'i 

•oii 

.21 

.05 

.ooi 


19 

••13 

.40 


'  Imported. 


'  Hundredweight. 


III.    PRICES    AND    WAGES. 

The  following  statement  of  prices  and  wages  in  several  cities  of 
Mexico  appears  in  Appendix  G  to  Mr.  Ransom's  report  on  Money 
and  Prices  in  Mexico  : 

prices  and  wages  at  various  points  in  mexico  (in  mexican 

currency). 

[Summary  of  reports  from  United  States  consuls  to  the  legation  in  Mexico.] 
DURANGO. 


PRICKS. 

PRICES. 

WAGBS    PER    DAV. 

Fresh  beef,  15  to  25c.  per 

lb. 

Brown  sugar,  7c.  per  lb. 

P.tinters,  75c.  to  $1. 

Salt  fish  (imported),  40c. 

per 

b. 

Salt  (tabled,  2  to  3c.  per  lb. 
Tea,  $1  to  $2.50  per  lb. 

Miscellaneous  laborers,  soc 

Fresh  fish,  i2}^c.  per  lb. 

Miners,  75c.  to  $1. 

Salt  pork,  2sc.  per  lb. 

■Coffee,  38  to  45c.  per  lb. 

Mine  blacksmiths,  $1  to  $1.50. 

Ham,  40  to  50C.  per  lb. 

Lard,  20  to  asc.  per  lb. 

Hoistcrs,  $1.25  to  i;^. 

Eggs,  iK  '0  4C.  each. 
Flour,  5  to  6c.  per  lb. 

Olive  oil,  30  to  40c.  per  pint. 

Pumpers,  $1.25  to  ;  ij. 

Soap  (laundry),  10  to  isc.  per  lb. 
Candles,  25  to  30c.  per  lb. 

Engineers,  75c.  to   ii. 

Corn,  i-X  to  2Jic.  per  lb. 

Firemen,  7sc.  to  $1. 

Wheat,  4  to  6c  per  lb. 

Dynamo  tenders,  $1  to  $1.50. 

Beans,  3  to  4c.  per  lb. 

WAGES    PER    DAV. 

American  machinists.  S5  to  $10. 

American  cheese,  50  to  ssc  per 

lb. 

Mexican  machinists.  $1  to  $3. 

Domestic  cheese,  25  to  75c 

.pel 

lb. 

Carpenters,  $1  to  Si  50. 

MolJers,  75c.  to  $2.50. 

White  sugar,  loc.  per  lb. 

Masons,  $1.25  to  $2. 

I 


552 


Xabor  ant)  Mages  in  /IDejico. 


MATAMOROS. 


PRICKS. 

PRICES. 

WAGES. 

Corn,  $1  per  bushel. 

Mutton,  1 20.  per  lb. 

Engineers,  $80  per  month. 

Coffee,  30  to  40c.  per  lb. 
Beans,  $2.18  per  bushel. 

Molasses,  $2  per  gallon. 
Rice,  7c.  per  lb. 

Carpenters,  75c.  per  day. 

Bricklayers,  75c.  per  dav. 

■Sugar,  10  to  15c.  per  lb. 

Salt,  z'/ic.  per  lb. 
All  these  products  are  Ameri- 

Painters, $1  per  day. 

Beef,  8  to  12c.  per  lb. 
Lard,  14c.  per  lb. 

Saddlers,  $1  to  $1.50  per  day. 

can     except     coffee,     beans. 

Blacksmiths,   75c.  per  day 

Flour,  4  to  7c.  per  lb. 

beef,  corn,  eggs,  and  chick- 

Farm hands,  37c.  per  day. 

Potatoes,  4  to  7c.  per  lb. 

ens  ;  sugar  is  from  Germany. 

Cooks,  $5  to  $7  per  month. 
Bakers,  75c.  to$i  per  day. 

Bacon,  25c.  per  lb. 

Candles,  24c.  per  lb. 

Waiters,  $5  to  $7  per  month. 

Cheese,  35c.  per  lb. 

Common  labor,  50c.  per  day. 
Wharf  hands,  $1  per  day. 
Car  drivers,  soc.  per  day. 

Ee;i;s,  30  to  36c.  per  dozen. 
Chickens,  25c.  per  lb. 

PIEDRAS   NEGRAS. 


Lard,  15c.  per  lb. 
Corn,  2C.  per  lb. 
Coffee,  35  to  40C.  per  lb. 
Kice,  8c.  per  lb. 
Potatoes,  5c.  per  lb. 


Pork  (salt),  25c.  per  lb. 
Ham,  30c.  per  lb. 
Eggs,  36c.  per  dozen. 
Flour,  4  to  6c.  per  lb. 
Meal,  3^  to  4c.  per  lb. 


Beans,  sc  per  lb. 
Butter,  60c.  per  lb. 
Sugar,  15c.  per  lb. 
Salt,  2c.  per  lb. 


PIEDRAS   NEGRAS  (FREE   ZONE 

). 

PRICES. 

PRICES. 

PRICES. 

Lard,  15c.  per  lb. 

Beans,  5c.  per  lb. 

Underwear  (imported),  $3.50  per 

Corn,  2C.  per  lb. 

Butter,  60C.  per  lb. 

suit. 

Coffee,  35  to  ^ac.  per  lb. 

Sugar,  15c.  per  lb.                / 

Underwear,  woollen  (importcdt. 

Rice,  8c.  per  lb. 

Salt,  2C.  per  lb. 

85.50  per  suit. 

Potatoes,  sc.  per  lb. 

Tea,  $1  per  lb. 

American    overshirts,    $1.50    to 

Salt  pork,  2SC.  per  lb. 

Douglas  shoes,  $4.50  to  $11.25  P^r 

$3.50  each. 

Ham,  38c.  per  lb. 

pair. 

Overshoes.  $1.75  per  pair. 
American  hats,  $2  to  $10  each. 

Eggs,  3c.  each. 

Ready-made  clothing,  $10.50  to 

Flour,  4  to  6c.  per  lb. 

$30  per  suit. 

Handkerchiefs,  $1  to  $g  i-er  doz. 

Meal,  3}^  to  4c.  per  lb. 

Half  hose,  $2.50  to  $10  per  doz. 

ZACATECAS. 


PRICES. 

PRICES. 

WGBS    PER    DAY. 

Corn,  $1.25  per  bushel. 

Common   wool   pants,   $4   to 

$8 

Firemen  : 

Wheat,  $4  per  100  lbs. 

per  pair. 

Skilled,  $1.50  to  $2. 

Oats,  9'jc.  per  bushel. 

Blouses,   common   cotton,   $1 

to 

Unskilled,  $1  to  $1.25. 

Beans,  S1.66  to  $2  per  bushel. 

$r. 50  each. 

Blacksmiths  : 

PoL-itoes  (Irish),  3  to  4c.  per  lb. 

Coats,  common  cotton,  $3  to 

$4 

Skilled,  $1.50  to  $2. 

Chilis,  Qoc.  per  bushel. 

each. 

Unskilled,  75c. 

Pork,  IOC.  per  lb. 

Carpenters  : 

Beef,  12C.  per  lb. 

Skilled,  $1.25  to  $1.50. 

Mutton,  IOC.  per  lb. 

WAGES    PER   DAY. 

Unskilled,  75c. 

Flour: 

Tinsmiths : 

First-class,  6c.  per  lb. 

Peons,  37I4  to  50c. 

Skilled,  $1  to  Si. 25. 

Second-class,  4c.  per  lb. 

Skilled! 

Unskilled,  75c.  to  $1. 

Hats,   straw  (common),  $i  to  $3 

Miners,  75c. 

Shoemakers: 

per  dozen. 

Head  miners,  $2  to  $2.50. 

Skilled,  $1.50  to  $2. 

Hats,  f.lt  (Mexican),  $12  to  $18 

Carpenters,  under  ground. 

$2 

Unskilled,  750.  to  $1. 

per  dozen. 

to  $2.50. 

Hatters  : 

Hats,  felt  (imported),  $48  to  $60 

Carpenters, above  ground,  $1 

.25 

Skilled,  $2  to  $2.50. 

per  dozen. 

to  $1.50. 

Unskilled,  75c.  to  $1. 

Shoes  (women's  common),  $6  to 

Blacksmiths,  $1.25  to  $1.50. 

Bakers  : 

$12  per  dozen. 

Machinists,  S3  to  $4. 

Skilled,  81.25  to  $1.50. 

Shoes  (women's  medium),  $t8  to 

Firemen,  $1  to  $1.50. 

Unskilled,  75c. 

$24  per  dozen. 

Ore  sorters,  75c. 

Masons  : 

Shoes  (women's  fine),  $30  to  $36 

Overseers,  $1.50  to  $1.75. 

Skilled.  $1.50  to  $2. 

per  dozen. 

Unskilled  : 

Unskilled,  75c. 

Sandals  (men's),  $2  to  $3  per  doz. 

Carpenters,  above  ground,  75c. 

House  painters : 

Commbn   shoes   (men's),   $24    to 

Blacksmiths,  75c. 

Skilled,  $1.50  to  82. 

$30  per  dozen. 

Watchmen,  75c. 

Unskilled,  750. 

Fine  shoes  (men's), $36  per  dozen. 

Labor  on  haciendas: 

Common   cotton    pants,    50c.    to 

Machinists  : 

$1.50  per  pair. 

Skilled,  $3  to  $5. 

BppenMj. 


553 


SAN   LUIS   POTOSI. 


PRICES. 

WAGES. 

WAGES. 

Corn,  2^c.  per  lb. 

Farm     hands,     table-lands      (no 

Foremen    painters,    $1    to  J 

1.30 

Beans,  15c.  per  lb. 

board),  18  to  25c.  per  day. 

per  day. 

Beef,  I2C.  per  lb. 

Farm      hands,      low-lands      (no 

Ordinary  painters,  37  to  75c. 

per 

Pork,  14c.  per  lb. 

board,  37  to  soc.  per  day. 

day. 

Lard,  26c.  per  lb. 

Foremen  carpenters,  $1.50  to  S2 

Coachmen,  $to  to  $15  per  month. 

-€orfce,  37}^  to  40c.  per  lb. 

per  day. 

Clerks  in  dry-goods  stores, 

$20 

White  sugar,  9  to  loc.  per  lb 

Ordinary  carpenters,   75c.  to  Si 

to  $50  per  month. 

Brown  sugar,  3  to  8c.  per  lb. 

per  day. 

Clerks    in   groceries,   $15  lo 

$io 

Shoes  for  laborers,  $1  per  pair. 

Foremen  masons,  f  1.50  to  S2  per 

per  month. 
Miners,  50  to  75c.  per  day. 

American  shoes   (good),  fs 

per 

day. 

P^"'-               .        ,      ^ 

Ordinary  masons,  75c.  to  $1  per 

Railroad  laborers,  37  to  75c. 

per 

Native  shoes  (good),  $2.50 

per 

day. 

day. 

pair. 

Foremen   blacksmiths,    Si-So  to 

Unbleached  domestic,  6  to 

I2C. 

$2.50  per  day. 

per  33  inches. 

Ordinary    blacksmiths,    50c.    to 

Native  cassimeres,  $1.75  to  $ 

2.25 

81.50  per  day. 

per  33  inches. 

MONTEREY. 


Men's  shoes,  75c.  to  $6  per  pair. 
Hats,  50c.  to  $10  each. 
Men's  suits,  .'$10  to  $50  each. 
Domestic,  24  inches,  12  to  i8c. 

per  yard. 
Calicoes,   22   inches,    12   to   iSc. 

per  yard. 
Ginghams,  12  to  15c.  per  yard. 
Shirtings,  22  to  24  inches,  10  to 

15c.  per  yard. 
Blankets,  $2  to  $8  per  pair. 


Men's  half  hose,  25c.  to  $1  pair. 
Ladies'    stockings,    50c.  to  $1.50 

per  pair. 
Flannels,  750.  to  $1.25  per  yard. 

WAGES. 

Machinists,  $6  per  day. 
Superintendent  mines,   5150  per 

month. 
Civil  engineers,  §150  per  month. 


Laborers,  63c   per  day. 
Skilled  carpenters,  $5  per  day. 
Unskilled   carpenters,   $1    to  $2 

per  day. 
Skilled  masons,  $6  per  day. 
Unskilled  masons,  $1  to  $3  per 

day. 
Painters,  skilled,  S3. 50  per  day. 
Pamters,   unskilled,    50c.    to    $2 

per  day. 
Farm  hands,  $12  per  month. 


PRICES. 

WAGES. 

WAGES. 

Sun-dried  beef,  12c   per  lb. 

Railroads: 

Farm  labor :  • 

Hani  (imported),  50c.  per  lb. 

Conductors,  $115  per  month. 

Laborers,  soc.  per  day. 

Bacon,  45c.  per  lb. 

Engineers,  $165  per  month. 

Laborers    (skilled),    7sc. 

per 

Lard,  25c.  per  lb. 

Firemen,  $45  per  month. 

day. 

Eggs,  two-thirds  of  a  cent  each  ; 

Brakemen,  $55  per  month. 

Foremen,  $1  per  da)'. 

now  4c.  each. 

Foremen      section,     $35     per 

Farm  hands  (no  rations). 

18  to 

Flour  (domestic),  6Jc.  per  lb. 

month. 

25c.  per  day. 

Corn,  2§c.  per  lb. 

Hands,  63c.  per  day. 

Carpenters,   masons,  etc.. 

38c. 

Beans,  6c.  per  lb. 

Mechanics  : 

per  day. 

Butter,  75c.  per  lb. 

Machinists,  $2.75  per  day. 
Metal  workers,  $1.37  per  day. 

Foremen,  50c.  per  day. 

-Sugar,  8^  to  loc.  per  lb. 

Field   hands   in   suburbs. 

21C. 

Coffee,  37c.  per  lb. 

Carpenters,  $1.50  per  day. 

per  day. 

Irish  potatoes,  loc.  per  lb. 

Masons,  $1.88  per  day. 

Onions,  7c.  per  lb. 

Painters,  $1.37  per  day. 

Rice,  8c.  per  lb. 

Stevedores,  $1.13  per  day. 

Beef  (wholesale),  loc  per  lb. 

Farm  hands,  37  to  soc.  per  day. 

Mutton,  15c.  per  lb. 

Pork,  20c.  per  lb. 

'  In  the  cofifee  districts  hands  will  take  7  pounds  of  corn  for  a  day's  labor. 
PASO   DEL   NORTE   (iN   THE   FREE   ZONE). 


; 


Flour,  $3.7S  per  100  lbs. 
Sugar,  IOC.  per  lb. 
Coffee,  40C.  per  lb. 
Rice,  i2ic.  per  lb. 
Butter,  6oc.  per  lb. 
Eggs,  375C.  per  dozen. 
Meal,  25C.  per  lb. 
Beans,  4c.  per  lb. 
Slippers,  $1  to  $3  per  pair. 
Heavy  brogans,  $1.50  to  $2  per 
pair. 


Men's  calf  shoes,  $3.50  to  S4.50 

per  pair. 
Men's  boots,  $3  to  $5  per  pair. 
Men's  overalls,  $1.20  to  $2.25  per 

pair. 
Jean  coats,  $2.25  to  $3.50  each. 
Cassimere  pants,  $3.50  to  $s  P^r 

pair. 
Cassimere    suits,   $10.50   to   $16 

each. 
Cassimere  suits,  fine,  $2i  to  $35 

each. 


Straw  hats,  40c.  to  $3  each. 

Wool  hats,  $1  to  *s. 

Wool  blankets,  3  lb.  weight,  50  by 

82  inches,  $3.75  each. 
Unbleached    muslin,    33    inches 

wide,  13JC.  per  33  inches. 
Calico,  28  inches  wide,  150.  per 

33  inches. 
Flannel,    48     inches,     common, 

$1.10  per  33  inches. 
Flannel,  54  inches,  fine,  $3  per 

33  inches. 


554 


Xabor  anD  Mages  in  /IDejico. 


CHIHUAHUA. 
Prices. 


WHOLESALE. 


I2C.  per  lb. 
25c.  per  lb. 
40c.  per  lb. 
25c.  per  lb. 
25c.  per  doz. 
$6  per  barrel. 
Wheat,  %\  per  bushel I  $1.15  per  bu. 


Jerked  beef,  8c.  per  lb 

Salt  fish,  20c.  per  lb 

Ham  (imported),  350.  per  lb.. 
Ham  (domestic),  i8c.  per  lb. 

Eggs,  i8c.  per  dozen 

Flour,  85  per  barrel. 


WHOLESALE. 


Corn,  5sc.  per  bushel 

Beans,  2c.  per  lb 

Butter,  3SC.  per  lb 

Salt,  75c.  per  cwt 

Tea  (domestic),  iBc.  perlb. 
Tea  (imported),  $i.io  per  lb. 
Coffee,  30C.  per  lb 


60c.  per  bu. 
3C.  per  lb. 

40c.  per  lb. 
01  per  cwt. 
25c.  per  lb. 
81.20  per  lb. 
38c.  per  lb. 


Sheeting,  unbleached,  33  inches  wide,  i2/^c.  per  53  inches. 
Sheeting,  bleached,  26  inches  wide,  i254c.  per  33  inches. 
Ginjjham,  28  inches  wide,  15c.  per  33  inches. 
Cassimere,  55  inches  wide,  fi.27  per  33  inches. 
Calicoes,  24  inches  wide,  i2}^c.  per  33  inches. 

CHIHUAHUA  {Continued). 
Wages  {City). 


AMERICAN. 


Heater  in  rolling  mills I  $5  per  day. 

Rollers  in  rolling  mills $20  per  day. 

Nail  makers ]         $15  per  day. 

Blacksmiths I  $6  per  day. 

Molders !  $5  per  day. 

Pattern  makers | 

Carpenters ' . 

Masons j 

Painters ' 

Railroad  laborers I 

Factory  employees  (boys  and  girls) 1 

House  servants  (with  food) | 

Miners 


$3  per  day. 


^3  per  day. 
83  per  day. 
54  per  day. 
>2.5o  to  $3  per  day. 
to  $2.50  per  day. 
J2  to  $2.50  per  day. 
$1  to  fi.50  per  day. 
25  to  50  cents  per  day. 
$8  to  $10  per  month. 
$1.50  to  $2  per  day. 


/oil 


APPENDIX  NO.   2. 

I  now  append  tlie  views  of  American  statesmen  on  the  subject  of 
the  rate  of  wages  that  I  referred  to  in  this  paper  (page  505),  namely, 
that  the  main  factor  of  the  rate  of  wages  is  the  amount  of  commodi- 
ties they  produce,  and  not  the  rate  of  import  duties  on  foreign  mer- 
chandise. 

I  could  cite  the  views  of  many  other  public  men  of  the  United 
States  bearing  on  the  same  subject,  but  as  that  would  take  a  great  deal 
more  space  than  I  have  at  my  command,  I  will  only  append  two  which 
I  consider  fully  sustain  my  views. 

The  Hon.  John  G.  Carlisle  expressed  the  views  just  referred  to 
with  his  usual  lucidity  in  the  following  extract  from  his  Annual  Re- 
port, as  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  of  December  15,  1896,  to  the 
House  of  Representatives,  on  the  state  of  the  finances  in  the  fiscal  year 
ended  June  30,  1896  : 

"  The  danger  of  a  large  foreign  competition  in  our  home  market,  and  the  alleged 
injurious  effects  of  such  competition  upon  the  interests  of  domestic  labor,  have  not 
only  been  greatly  exaggerated  in  the  past,  but  are  less  now  than  at  any  time  hereto- 
fore, and  must  continue  to  grow  less  hereafter. 

"  In  1886,  three  statisticians  and  economists  of  high  standing,  at  the  request  of 
one  of  my  predecessors,  Mr,  Secretary  Manning,  made  and  submitted  to  him  a  care- 
ful estimate  of  the  number  of  persons  engaged  in  gainful  occupations  in  the  United 
States,  who  could  be  subjected  to  foreign  competition,  and,  although  they  worked  by 
different  methods  and  conducted  their  investigations  independently  of  one  another, 
their  several  estimates  agreed  within  a  fraction  of  i  percent.  In  their  opinions,  about 
5  per  cent,  of  our  population  so  engaged  were  subject  to  competition  from  other  coun- 
tries, and  one  of  the  gentlemen  said  :  '  The  general  conclusion  that  if  trade  were  en- 
tirely free,  the  fraction  of  our  present  industrial  population  injuriously  subject  to 
foreign  competition  would  not  exceed  6  or  7  per  cent.,  seems  to  me  unquestionable.' 
Those  estimates  were  based  upon  the  census  of  1880  and  the  trade  of  1886.  Since 
that  time,  great  changes  have  taken  place  in  our  international  trade  and  in  the  cost  of 
production  and  subsistence  in  this  country,  and  it  cannot  be  doubted  that  the  princi- 
pal industries  in  the  United  States  are  relatively  and  actually  stronger  now  than  they 
were  then,  and,  therefore,  better  able  now  than  they  were  then  to  compete  with  for- 
eign products,  not  only  in  the  home  market,  but  in  the  markets  abroad,  where  no 
special  privileges  or  advantages  are  conferred  upon  their  rivals  by  treaties  or  differen- 
tial tariffs. 

"  The  number  of  our  people  engaged  in  gainful  occupations  increased  from  17,- 
392,099  in  i88oto  22,735,661  in  1890,  a  gain  of  5,343,562  ;  and,  while  the  increase  in 
all  such  occupations  during  the  ten  years  was  30.72  per  cent.,  the  increase  in  manu- 
facturing and  mechanical  industries,  which  are  supposed  to  he  most  subject  to  foreign 
competition,  was  49.13  per  cent.     A  further  and  most  gratifying  evidence  of  ourgrow- 

555 


556  Xabor  an^  'Maoes  in  /FDejfco, 

ing  industrial  power  is  to  be  found  in  the  greatly  increased  exports  of  the  products  of 
domestic  manufacture,  which  now  constitute,  for  the  first  time  in  our  history,  more 
than  one  fourth  the  total  value  of  all  our  sales  in  foreign  markets.  If  these  products 
were  not,  at  least,  equal  in  quality  to  similar  products  of  other  parts  of  the  world,  and 
if  the  prices  at  which  they  are  sold  were  not  as  low  as  the  prices  demanded  by  our 
foreign  competitors,  they  could  not  find  a  market  outside  the  limits  of  our  own  coun- 
try. The  exportation  of  manufactured  products  would  not  go  on  continuously  year 
after  year  at  an  increasing  rate,  unless  there  was  a  profit  for  our  people  in  the  ojiera- 
tion,  nor  unless  the  markets  in  which  they  are  sold  are  in  some  manner  benefited  by 
giving  a  preference  to  the  American  article  over  like  articles  produced  elsewhere.  The 
annual  increases  since  1892  in  the  quantities  and  values  of  exported  manufactures, 
notwithstanding  the  extremely  low  prices  which  have  prevailed  in  all  the  markets  of 
the  world,  are  without  a  parallel  in  our  commercial  history,  and  furnish  such  conclu- 
sive evidence  of  industrial  power  and  a  capacity  to  compete  successfully  with  the  out- 
side world  in  production  and  trade  as  ought  to  convince  our  people  that  protective 
duties  on  imported  goods  cannot  be  hereafter  justified  or  excused  upon  the  plea  that 
they  are  necessary  for  the  encouragement  of  capital  or  the  security  of  labor  in  this 
country.  With  a  healthy  internal  growth  and  a  constantly  increasing  export  trade, 
the  influence  of  foreign  competition  in  our  home  market  must  continue  to  diminish, 
and  there  is  no  reason  to  fear  that  our  domestic  industries  could  be  seriously  interfered 
with,  even  under  schedules  of  duties  much  lower  than  we  now  have. 

"  But  an  examination  of  the  various  gainful  pursuits  in  which  the  people  of  the 
United  States  were  engaged  in  i8go,  which  is  the  date  of  the  latest  official  returns 
upon  the  subject,  will  show  that,  even  if  we  are  not  more  independent  of  foreign  com- 
petition now  than  we  were  then,  the  number  of  those  who  can  be  adversely  affected 
by  the  importation  of  products  from  abroad  is  so  small,  in  comparison  with  our  total 
population,  that  it  would  be  both  impolitic  and  unjust  to  persist  in  a  system  of  taxa- 
tion designed  for  the  special  protection  of  their  interests  at  the  expense  of  all  others. 
Of  the  five  great  classes  or  groups  into  which  the  total  population  engaged  in  gainful 
occupations  (22,735,661)  is  divided,  three — professionals,  944,328,  domestic  and  per- 
sonal servants,  4,360,506,  and  persons  engaged  in  trade  and  transportation,  3,325,962 — 
may  be  excluded  at  the  outset  as  exempt  from  foreign  competition.  No  tariff  duties 
can  affect  these  classes,  except  by  increasing  the  cost  of  many  of  the  commodities 
which  they  are  compelled  to  buy  and  use. 

"Of  the  agricultural,  mining,  and  fishing  group,  numbering  9,013,669,  only  a 
very  small  percentage  can  be  subjected  to  direct  competition  with  the  foreigner,  and 
this  part  is  located  on  or  near  the  seacoast  or  other  borders  of  our  country.  In  some 
parts  of  New  England,  in  Northern  New  York,  and  in  a  few  other  localities  on  the 
border,  Canadian  competition  in  agricultural  products  must  sometimes  be  met  to  a 
certain  extent,  but  the  people  in  all  these  places  are  able  to  export  other  kinds  of 
products,  similar  to  those  of  their  Canadian  neighbors,  and  sell  them  at  a  profit  in  the 
Dominion  and  in  other  parts  of  the  world,  in  competition  with  all  others.  In  fact, 
the  traffic  in  agricultural  products  across  the  Canadian  line  includes  large  sales  by 
our  citizens  to  the  people  of  the  Dominion,  as  well  as  purchases  from  them,  and  the 
official  statistics  of  our  whole  trade  with  that  country  in  this  character  of  products 
show  that  we  annually  export  more  than  three  times  as  much  as  we  import,  our  exports 
last  year  being  $17,400,000,  and  our  imports  only  $5,500,000.  It  is  safe  to  say  that 
not  more  than  500,000  persons,  or  about  five  and  a  half  per  cent,  of  those  engaged  in 
agriculture,  mining,  and  fishing  in  this  country,  can  be  in  any  degree  adversely  affected 
by  competition  from  abroad,  and  all  these  are  wholly  or  partially  compensated  for  for- 
eign interference  in  their  home  market  by  the  increased  sales  which  international  trade 
secures  for  their  own  products  in  foreign  markets. 


HppenM£» 


557 


"  In  considering  the  manufacturing  and  mechanical  industries,  for  the  purpose  of 
ascertaining  to  what  extent  they  can  be  subject  to  foreign  competition,  the  following 
general  propositions  may,  I  think,  be  accepted  as  the  basis  for  just  conclusions  : 

"(i)  A  large  and  continuous  export  of  a  particular  class  of  articles  proves  an 
ability  to  manufacture  as  cheaply  as  any  foreign  competing  nation. 

"(2)  Natural  advantages,  such  as  the  proximity  or  cheapness  of  raw  materials, 
inventiveness,  special  aptitudes,  and  facilities  secured  by  an  extensive  use  of  superior 
machinery,  are  sufficient  in  most  cases  to  exclude  foreign  competition. 

"(3)  Many  occupations,  such  as  those  of  bakers,  blacksmiths,  carpenters,  masons, 
and  others,  are  necessarily  local  ;  the  work  must  be  done  at  a  particular  place,  and, 
consequently,  foreign  competition  is  impossible. 

"(4)  The  expenses  of  importation — the  cost  of  transportation,  insurance,  loss  of 
interest,  etc. — prevent  competition  from  abroad  in  many  kinds  of  manufacturing  and 
mechanical  products. 

"  Applying  these  propositions  in  the  investigation  of  the  industries  known  as 
'  manufacturing  and  mechanical,'  the  result  may  be  most  briefly  and  conveniently  stated 
in  the  form  of  a  table,  in  which  the  interests  subject  to  more  or  les^s  foreign  competition 
are  classified  as  nearly  as  possible  according  to  the  tariff  schedules  and  in  accordance 
with  an  extremely  liberal  view  of  the  question. 


INDUSTRIES. 


NUMBER 
OF  EMPLOYEES. 

WAGES. 

71,619 

589.048 

11.511 
19.474 
16,745 
160,555 
38,920 
79.707 

$35,786,320 
201,350,485 
7,840,510 
11,019,328 
10,395.436 
88,662,796 
12,087,501 
36,396,382 

987,573 

$403,538,752 

Clay  and  pottery,  etc 

Textiles 

Paints,  etc 

Chemicals 

Paper,  etc 

Metals 

Food 

Miscellaneous , 

Total 


"These  constitute  about  21  per  cent,  of  the  4,712,622  persons  engaged  in  all  our 
manufacturing  and  mechanical  industries,  and,  adding  to  them  the  500,000  employed  in 
agriculture,  mining,  and  fishing,  a  total  of  1,487,573  is  obtained,  which  is  about  6^  per 
cent,  of  the  total  population  engaged  in  all  gainful  occupations,  according  to  the  returns 
of  1890.  A  more  thorough  investigation  would  doubtless  show  that  considerable  de- 
ductidns  ought  to  be  made  from  this  total.  Geographical  position,  proximity  to  ma- 
terials or  markets,  or  the  existence  of  cheap  and  efficient  transportation  facilities, 
operate  as  a  strong  natural  protection  against  foreign  as  well  as  domestic  competition. 
There  is  a  constant  internal  movement  of  our  industries,  seeking  more  favorable  situa- 
tions, in  order  to  reduce  the  cost  of  production  and  secure  better  access  to  the  markets, 
and  every  such  change,  when  judiciously  made,  strengthens  our  industrial  system  and 
reduces  the  danger  of  possible  interference  by  the  introduction  of  foreign  products.  If 
the  full  effect  of  these  movements  could  be  ascertained,  it  would  be  found  that  they 
have  during  the  last  few  years  contributed  largely  to  the  independence  and  prosperity 
of  our  manufacturing  industries,  and  that  on  this  account  great  numbers  of  our  people 
who  were  formerly  subjected  to  more  or  less  foreign  competition  are  now  entirely  ex- 
empt from  it.  The  failures  of  many  of  our  industries  in  the  past  have  been  attributed 
to  insufficient  protection  against  competition  from  abroad,  when  the  real  causes  were 
unfavorable  locations  and  lack  of  skill  and  experience  on  the  part  of  their  managers,  or 
oversupply  of  products  by  domestic  establishments. 


558  Xabor  an^  HClaaes  in  /IDejico. 

"  In  view  of  the  comparatively  small  and  constantly  decreasing  part  of  our  laboring 
population  that  could  be  affected  even  by  a  repeal  of  all  duties,  a  movement  for  the  im- 
position of  higher  duties  upon  imported  goods  cannot  be  regarded  as  justifiable  upon 
any  of  the  grounds  usually  urged  in  support  of  such  measures  by  the  advocates  of  the 
protective  theory. 

"  The  cost  of  production  in  all  the  great  manufacturing  nations  has  been  so  nearly 
equalized  by  modern  inventions  and  economies,  that  movements  of  their  several  prod- 
ucts from  one  to  another  cannot  take  place  upon  a  large  scale,  or  for  any  considerable 
length  of  time,  if  these  products  are  burdened  in  the  markets  to  which  they  are  sent 
with  charges  to  which  they  are  not  subjected  in  the  countries  of  their  origin  ;  and  this 
tendency  toward  equalization  of  cost  is  still  going  on  and  must  continue.  A  very  small 
tax  or  charge  will  now  entirely  prevent  the  importation  of  many  articles  which  a  few 
years  ago  constituted  a  large  proportion  of  our  total  dutiable  merchandise  and  contrib- 
uted very  materially  to  our  public  revenues. 

"  Of  all  the  great  manufacturing  nations,  ours  is  the  only  one  which  annually  pro- 
duces a  surplus  of  food  and  raw  materials,  and,  unless  we  fail  to  utilize  our  resources, 
we  must  become  the  great  exporting  country  of  the  world.  No  very  considerable  pait 
of  our  natural  material  can  be  much  longer  profitably  carried  to  other  countries  and 
returned  to  us  in  the  form  of  manufactures,  but  it  will  be  converted  into  the  finished 
product  by  our  people  in  their  own  shops  and  factories,  and,  after  supplying  the  home 
demand,  the  surplus  will  go  abroad,  to  compete  successfully  with  like  products  of  other 
peoples  not  so  favorably  situated.  This  is  the  result  toward  which  we  have  been  rap- 
idly advancing  since  1892,  and,  unless  our  progress  is  seriously  checked  by  unusual 
adverse  influences,  the  time  can  not  be  very  far  distant  when  the  importation  of  manu- 
factured products  as  one  of  the  sources  of  revenue  must  be  substantially  excluded  from 
our  estimates." 

The  Minority  Report  of  the  Committee  on  Ways  and  Means  of  the 
House  of  Representatives  on  March  27,  1897,  expressed  the  same 
views  in  a  very  clear  and  concise  manner  in  the  following  extract  : 

"  The  labor  argument  of  the  protectionist  can  be  reduced  to  an  absurdity  which 
makes  it  amazing  that  it  should  ever  have  been  seriously  advanced.  To  say  in  one 
breath  that  the  welfare  of  labor  depends  upon  its  wages  and  that  its  wages  in  turn  de- 
pends upon  its  skill  and  intelligence,  and  in  the  next  breath  to  say  that  the  very  intel- 
ligent and  highly  skilled  laborers  of  this  country  cannot  successfully  compete  with  the 
ignorant  and  unskilled  laborers  of  the  Old  World,  is  equivalent  to  saying  that  skill  and 
intelligence  are  not  of  great  advantage  to  the  laborers  who  possess  them.  To  our 
minds,  it  involves  a  contradiction  in  history,  as  well  as  in  economic  theory,  to  hold  tiiat 
the  factory  labor  of  a  civilized  country  needs  protection  against  the  factory  labor  of  an 
uncivilized  country.  The  fact  that  the  unskilled  laborers  of  a  half-civilized  country 
live  more  cheaply  than  the  skilled  laborers  of  a  highly  civilized  country  is  more  than 
counterbalanced  by  the  greater  productiveness  of  the  skilled  and  intelligent  laborer.  If 
this  view  of  the  question  needed  further  support  than  the  mere  statement  of  it,  it  can 
be  found  in  those  excellent  works  which  assert  that  the  skill  and  intelligence  of  the 
American  laborer  are  such  that  he  is  able  to  produce  seven  times  as  much  as  the  less 
skilful  and  less  intelligent  laborer  of  Continental  Europe  and  fifteen  times  as  much  as 
the  ignorant  and  unskilled  laborers  of  Asia.  Surely  it  will  be  admitted  that  a  produc- 
tive capacity  seven  times  as  great  as  the  one  and  fifteen  times  as  great  as  the  other 
should  be  all  that  the  American  laborer  needs  to  protect  himself  against  the  competition 
of  European  drudges  and  Asiatic  serfs." 


t 


THE  SILVER  STANDARD   IN  MEXICO. 


559 


I 


^ 


fitp 


tece 


i 


THE  SILVER  STANDARD   IN  MEXICO. 

INTRODUCTION. 

I  published  in  the  North  American  Review  for  June,  1895,  a  paper 
entitled  "  The  Silver  Standard  in  Mexico,"  which  I  now  insert  here. 

In  the  preceding  papers  I  have  followed  the  system  of  revising  them 
carefully  and  adding  to  them  all  the  incidents  on  the  same  subject 
which  had  taken  place  after  each  was  written,  answering  such  objec- 
tions as  have  since  come  to  my  knowledge  and  were  not  consid- 
ered in  the  original  article.  I  have  embodied  all  these  additions  in  the 
revised  paper  and  preceded  it  by  a  short  introduction,  stating  only  how 
it  originated  and  what  were  the  reasons  which  induced  me  to  write 
it.  In  the  case  of  the  "Silver  Standard,"  however,  I  have  thought 
it  more  prudent  not  to  alter  what  I  originally  wrote  and  published  in 
the  North  American  Review.,  because  that  paper  had  the  sanction  of 
the  then  Secretary  of  State  of  the  United  States.  I  furthermore  de- 
termined to  embrace  in  the  form  of  an  introduction,  such  incidents 
connected  with  the  silver  standard  in  Mexico  as  have  occurred  since 
the  paper  was  originally  printed,  as  well  as  my  answers  to  such  objec- 
tions or  misstatements  as  have  since  come  to  my  knowledge.  The 
foregoing  explains  why  this  introduction  is  more  lengthy  than  those 
preceding  the  other  papers,  having  the  anomaly  of  being  longer  than 
the  paper  itself,  and  also  why  I  had  in  a  few  cases  to  speak  more  fully 
of  incidents  which  had  already  been  discussed  in  the  original  paper, 
making  unavoidable  repetitions,  as  in  the  cases  of  the  reasons  why  we 
have  adopted  the  silver  standard,  of  our  difficulties  in  the  way  of 
changing  it  for  the  gold  standard,  and  of  one  or  two  other  subjects. 

I  will  now  state  the  manner  in  which  my  article  on  this  subject 
originated. 

Senator  Morgans  Request  for  Inforjnation. — On  March  22,  1895, 
Senator  John  T.  Morgan  of  Alabama,  wrote  me  the  following  letter: 

"  United  States  Senate,  March  22,  i8gS- 
"  His  Excellency,  Matias  Romero,   Washington,  D.  C. 

"  My  dear  Mr.  Romero  : — So  much  has  been  said  recently  about  the  growth  of 
Mexico,  in  prosperity,  as  it  concerns  the  industries  of  your  people  and  their  freedom 

561 


■ 


562  Ubc  Silver  Stan&arD  In  /IDejico. 

from  embarrassment  of  domestic  indebtedness,  that  I  wish  to  ask  whether  this  matter 
is  real,  or  whether  it  is  overstated.  I  know  that  your  agriculture,  manufacture,  and 
mining  must  be  your  chief  reliance  for  prosperity,  since  you  have  not  the  advantages 
of  a  great  commerce  or  the  profits  of  an  economic  carrying-trade  ;  so  I  conclude  that 
if  your  people  are  prosperous  and  free  from  the  burdens  of  a  heavy  domestic  indebted- 
ness it  must  be  the  result  of  your  domestic  policy,  relating  to  finance,  taxation,  or  the 
economy  of  public  administration.  Yet  I  see  that  the  rate  of  exchange  between 
Mexico  and  the  United  States  and  the  European  countries  is  very  heavy,  to  the  appar- 
ent disadvantage  of  Mexico.  I  am  also  aware  that  you  must  use  a  heavy  percentage 
of  manufactures,  consumed  in  Mexico,  from  other  countries. 

"  I  suppose  it  is  true,  also,  that  very  large  sums  of  gold  coin  are  sent  abroad 
annually  to  pay  the  interest  of  your  national  debt  and  your  railroad  securities  and 
other  bonded  indebtedness,  guaranteed  or  otherwise. 

"  The  like  demands  upon  our  resources  produce  depression  and  stagnation  of 
business  in  the  United  States,  and  the  question  I  would  present  to  your  attention  is 
whether  the  same  causes,  operating  in  Mexico,  produce  the  same  results.  And,  if  they 
do  not  disturb  or  destroy  the  prosperity  of  your  people,  what  is  the  cause  of  the  differ- 
ence in  these  results  ?  I  will  very  highly  appreciate  the  answers  you  may  be  able  to 
give  to  these  suggestions,  knowing  that  that  they  will  be  sincere,  and  that  they  will 
come  from  an  able  and  enlightened  source. 

"  With  high  regard,  truly  yours, 

"  John  T.  Morgan." 


It  has  been  my  habit  during  my  official  residence  in  this  country  to 
refrain  from  writing,  or  even  saying,  anything  that  might  be  construed 
as  the  expression  of  an  opinion  on  any  political  question  being  agitated 
in  this  country,  and  more  especially  on  issues  which  assume  great  im- 
portance in  the  heated  canvass  that  precedes  Presidential  elections. 
For  this  reason,  when  Senator  Morgan,  an  earnest  friend  of  silver, 
addressed  to  me  the  letter  just  inserted,  I  hesitated  very  much  about 
answering  it,  because  I  knew  that  he  intended  to  use  my  answer  in  his 
campaign  in  Alabama  in  favor  of  the  free  coinage  of  silver,  and  al- 
though he  only  asked  for  facts — and  nobody  could  possibly  object  to 
my  giving  facts  regarding  the  actual  condition  of  things  in  Mexico, 
as  the  result  of  our  silver  standard — I  was  afraid  that  my  answer  might 
be  construed  as  an  attempt  on  my  part  to  interfere  in  the  political 
questions  of  this  country,  and  I  desire  to  be  entirely  free  from  such 
imputations.  But,  at  the  same  time,  as  Senator  Morgan  was  a  promi- 
nent member  of  the  Senate,  and  was  at  the  time  the  Chairman  of  the 
Committee  on  Foreign  Affairs  in  that  branch  of  the  legislative  power, 
and,  besides,  was  and  has  been  for  many  years  a  warm  personal  friend 
of  mine  and  a  sincere  friend  to  Mexico,  and  has  obliged  me  in  different 
ways,  I  was  very  reluctant  to  leave  his  letter  unanswered,  or  even  to 
give  him  verbally  the  information  that  he  desired.  To  satisfy  my  mind, 
however,  I  decided  to  consult  Judge  Gresham,  then  the  Secretary  of 
State  of  the  United  States,  as  to  whether  it  would  be  proper  for  me 
to  answer  in  writing  Senator  Morgan's  letter,  and  whether  my  answer 


IPaper  tor  tbe  "IRortb  Hmerican  IReview/*        563 

stating  such  facts  as  I  understood  to  be  the  results  produced  by  the 
silver  standard  in  Mexico,  would  be  liable  to  misconstruction. 

Secretary  Gresham  read  carefully  Senator  Morgan's  letter,  and  told 
me  that  he  saw  no  objection  to  my  replying  to  it,  as  it  referred  to  a 
matter  of  general  interest  which  had  no  connection  with  diplomatic 
affairs.  I  therefore  prepared  an  answer,  which  I  read  to  Mr.  Gresham 
before  sending  it  to  Senator  Morgan.  Secretary  Gresham  found  it 
adequate,  impartial,  and  safe,  and  consequently  I  sent  it  to  Senator 
Morgan,  who  forwarded  copies  of  his  letter  and  my  answer  to  the 
Daily  State^  a  newspaper  of  Birmingham,  Alabama,  in  which  they  were 
published  on  April  7,  1895. 

Paper  for  the  North  Americafi  Review. — General  Lloyd  Bryce, 
then  editor  of  the  North  American  Review,  had  requested  me,  several 
months  before  I  wrote  my  letter  to  Senator  Morgan,  to  prepare  an 
article  for  publication  in  his  paper  on  the  Silver  Standard  in  Mexico. 
Notwithstanding  my  desire  to  oblige  General  Bryce,  as  I  was  under 
obligations  to  him  for  his  kindness  and  promptness  in  publishing  my 
articles  in  his  paper,  I  thought  that  the  matter  was  a  very  delicate 
one,  and  that  it  was  better  for  me  not  to  discuss  it.  But  when  I  had 
already  written  a  letter  on  that  subject  which  had  been  published,  al- 
though by  a  local  paper  of  Alabama,  I  thought  that  it  was  becoming 
for  me  to  put  my  letter  in  the  shape  of  an  article  for  the  North 
American  Review,  to  comply  with  General  Bryce' s  request,  and  I 
consequently  did  so.  Besides,  as  my  letter  to  Senator  Morgan  con- 
tained information  which  I  thought  was  of  interest  to  all  citizens  of 
this  country,  I  thought  there  could  be  no  impropriety  in  putting  into 
the  shape  of  an  article  the  information  contained  in  my  letter.  My 
article  was  published  in  the  issue  of  the  North  American  Review  of 
June,  1895,  and  it  drew  many  comments  from  the  public  press  of  this 
country,  a  part  of  which  accused  me  of  interfering  in  a  question  of 
internal  policy  of  the  United  States,  notwithstanding  that  I  had  been 
very  careful  to  anticipate  such  a  charge.  Both  in  my  letter  to  Senator 
Morgan  and  in  my  article  in  the  North  American  Review,  I  had  stated 
that  the  conditions  of  the  two  countries  were  so  different  that  what 
was  good  for  Mexico  might  not  be  so  for  the  United  States,  and  I  had 
concluded  by  saying  that  the  restoration  of  silver  to  its  old  price  or 
ratio  with  gold  was  desirable  for  Mexico,  showing  in  this  way  that  I 
did  not  favor  a  depreciated  currency. 

President  Cleveland  had  long  before  taken  a  decided  attitude  on 
ithe  silver  question,  and  I  have  since  heard  that  some  of  his  friends 
'complained  that  my  article  had  been  written  in  the  interests  of  silver. 
Mr.  Gresham 's  unfortunate  demise,  which  took  place  only  two  or  three 
days  before  my  article  appeared  in  the  North  American  Revie^u,  de- 
prived me  of  my  chief  defence  before  the  Government  of  the  United 


564  Ube  Silver  StanOar&  in  /IDejico. 

States,  had  I  been  charged  with  having  taken  any  part  in  this  con- 
troversy, and  this  fact  confirmed  me  in  my  belief  that  it  is  dangerous 
for  a  diplomat  to  write  about  any  topic  which  is  a  matter  of  political 
discussion  in  the  country  to  which  he  is  accredited. 

In  preparing  my  article  for  the  North  American  Review  I  prefaced 
it  by  a  paragraph  stating  that  I  had  not  written  it  voluntarily,  but 
under  the  compulsion  of  having  to  answer  a  letter  of  Senator  Morgan's, 
but  the  editor  of  that  periodical,  desiring  it  to  appear  as  an  original 
contribution,  omitted  this  paragraph,  and,  for  want  of  space,  other  por- 
tions of  my  article,  especially  the  foot-notes  I  had  appended  to  it. 
These  will  all  be  included  in  the  present  edition. 

Senator  Aliens  Request  for  Information. — On  March  11,  1896, 
Senator  William  V.  Allen,  from  Nebraska,  asked  me  for  data  rela- 
tive to  the  development  of  Mexican  industries  within  the  last  few 
years  to  enable  him  to  demonstrate  that  Mexico  had  realized  great 
prosperity  in  her  material  development  withm  a  comparatively  short 
time,  especially  in  the  increase  of  railroads,  factories,  and  other 
industries.  I  was  somewhat  embarrassed  by  the  receipt  of  this  let- 
ter, because,  after  my  experience  in  answering  Senator  Morgan's 
letter,  even  with  the  advice  and  approval  of  the  Administration,  I  was 
not  willing  to  furnish  the  information  desired,  especially  when  it  was 
asked  for  the  purpose  of  using  it  in  debate  in  the  Senate;  but,  at  the 
same  time,  I  did  not  like  to  be  discourteous  to  the  Senator,  and  I 
thought,  besides,  that  the  mere  fact  of  furnishing  information  pub- 
lished by  the  Mexican  Government,  which  is  within  the  reach  of  every- 
body, could  in  no  way  be  taken  as  a  breach  of  courtesy  on  my  part.  I 
therefore,  after  consulting  with  Secretary  of  State  Olney,  answered 
Senator  Allen's  letter,  referring  him  to  the  paper  on  "  The  Silver  Stan- 
dard in  Mexico,"  published  in  the  North  American  Review  for  June, 

1895.' 

Hoiv  the  Paper  xvas  Quoted. — I  was  particularly  careful  to  state 
in  my  paper  all  the  advantages  and  disavantages  of  the  silver  standard 

'  The  following  is  the  text  of  Senator  Allen's  letter  to  me  and  of  my  reply  : 
"  Committee  on  Forest  Reservations  and  the  Protection  of  Game, 
"  United  States  Senate, 

"Washington,  D.  C,  March  11,  1896. 
"  Senor  Don  Matias  Romero, 

"  Envoy  Extraordinary  and  Alinister  Plenipotentiary, 

"  1 413  I  Street,  N.   W.,   Washington,  D.  C. 
"  Sir  : — I  have  the  honor  to  direct  your  attention  to  an  editorial  appearing  in  the 
Washington  Post,  March  7th  current,  entitled  "  The  Silver  Dollar  in  Mexico,"  and 
also  a  paper  in  the  current  March  number  of  the  Arena,  published  at  Boston,  Massa- 
chusetts, by  Mr.  Justice  Walter  Clark,  of  the  Supreme  Bench  of  North  Carolina. 

"  I  write  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  from  you  such  data  and  information  along 
the  lines  indicated  in  this  editorial  and  paper  as  you  may  feel  disposed  to  furnish  me. 
I  am  desirous  of  taking  up  and  considering  thoroughly  and  exhaustively  in  the  United 


Ibow  tbc  paper  was  Quoted.  565 

in  Mexico,  as  I  had  practically  studied  them  during  the  year  1892, 
when  I  was  in  the  City  of  Mexico  at  the  head  of  the  Treasury  depart- 
ment.    I  had  then  the  best  opportunities  to  see  practically  the  workings 

States  Senate  at  an  early  day,  the  silver  question  in  Mexico,  and  I  should  be  pleased 
to  be  placed  in  possession  of  such  views  as  you  may  possess  on  the  subject. 

"  You  no  doubt  understand  fully  the  argument  made  by  gold  monometallists  in 
this  country  and  illustrated  by  what  they  are  pleased  to  state  as  the  condition  in  Mexico 
resulting  from  silver  monometallism. 

"  I  should  be  pleased  to  be  furnished  with  such  data,  in  as  compact  form  as  pos- 
sible, as  may  be  in  your  possession,  relative  to  the  development  of  Mexican  industries 
within  the  last  few  years,  to  enable  me  to  demonstrate  that  Mexico  has  realized  great 
prosperity  in  her  material  development  within  a  comparatively  short  time.  Tlie  in- 
crease of  railroads,  factories,  and  other  industries  would  be  important. 
"  I  have  the  honor  to  be,  Very  truly  yours, 

"  W.  V.  Allen,  U.  S.  S." 
"Washington,  March  12,  1896. 
"'Hon.   William  V.Allen,  United  Sfatcs  Senator^  Washington,  D.  C. 

"  Sir, — I  have  received  your  letter  of  yesterday,  in  which  you  direct  my  attention 
to  an  editorial  which  appeared  in  the  Washington  Post  of  the  7th  instant,  entitled 
"  The  Silver  Dollar  in  Mexico,"  and  also  to  a  paper  in  the  current  number  of  the 
Arena  published  at  Boston,  Mass.,  by  Mr.  Justice  Walter  Clark  of  the  Supreme  Bench 
of  North  Carolina,  and  ask  me  for  such  information  as  I  may  have  on  the  lines  of 
those  articles,  as  you  wish  to  take  up  in  the  Senate,  at  an  early  date,  the  silver  question 
in  Mexico. 

"  I  do  not  think  it  would  be  proper  for  me  to  furnish  information  to  be  used  in 
the  discussion  before  the  United  States  Senate,  of  a  question  pending  in  this  country 
and  which  divides  its  political  parties  and  is  therefore  in  the  nature  of  a  domestic  con- 
cern, as  there  is  danger  that  any  information  furnished  by  me  for  such  purpose  might 
be  taken  as  a  desire  of  intruding  into  the  domestic  affairs  of  the  United  States.  As 
the  representative  of  a  foreign  country,  and  especially  of  one  which  is  a  friend  of  the 
United  States,  it  would  not  become  me  to  appear  meddling  in  the  domestic  affairs  of 
this  country. 

"  But,  at  the  same  time,  as  what  you  desire  are  facts,  and  as  the  facts  relating  to 
this  subject  have  already  been  stated  in  a  way  which  I  think  would  not  be  liable  to 
misconstruction,  I  beg  leave  to  refer  you  to  an  article  which  I  published  in  the  North 
American  Review  for  June,  1895,  which  states  in  a  conscientious  and  concise  manner, 
the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  the  silver  standard  in  Mexico. 

"  I  have  read  with  interest  Justice  Clark's  article  mentioned  by  you,  and  it  is  very 
interesting  for  me  to  see  how  the  same  facts  strike  so  differently  different  public  men 
of  the  United  States,  according  to  their  preconceived  ideas  on  the  money  question. 
The  friend  of  silver,  like  Justice  Clark,  finds  in  Mexico  an  example  of  the  remarkably 
favorable  results  of  the  silver  standard,  while  on  the  contrary,  the  friends  of  the  gold 
standard,  like  Mr.  W.  H.  Scott,  editor  of  the  Oregoniatt  of  Portland,  Oregon,  who 
published  in  his  paper  on  the  28th  ultimo  a  letter  dated  at  the  City  of  Mexico  on  the 
20th  of  the  same  month,  relating  his  experiences  and  impressions  of  Mexico  during 
his  visit  to  that  country,  find  in  Mexico  an  example  of  the  bad  results  and  terrible 
consequences  produced  by  the  silver  standard. 

"  It  will  afford  me  great  pleasure  to  know  that  the  facts,  as  presented  in  the 
North  American  Review,  will  fulfill  your  desire  for  information  contained  in  your 
letter  that  I  have  the  pleasure  to  answer.  "  I  am,  very  truly  yours. 

"  M.  ROMEIIO." 


566  Zbc  Silver  Stau^ar^  in  /IDejlco» 

of  the  silver  standard,  and,  if  anything,  I  was  over  conservative  in  my 
estimate  of  its  advantages.  It  would  have  been  foolish  in  me  to  have 
attempted  to  exaggerate  these  advantages,  because  it  could  very  easily 
be  shown  that  my  statements  were  incorrect,  and  this  would  have  placed 
me  in  a  very  disagreeable  position,  independently  of  my  desire  to  be 
always  honest  about  everything. 

As  my  paper  presented  in  a  very  just  and  impartial  manner  both 
the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  the  silver  standard  in  Mexico, 
in  the  United  States  the  friends  as  well  as  the  opi)onents  of  the  free 
coinage  of  silver  found  in  the  article  many  reasons  to  defend  their 
views,  by  exaggerating  the  advantages  and  underrating  the  disadvan- 
tages of  the  policy  that  they  preferred. 

My  article  was  often  quoted  by  several  newspapers  and  public 
men  in  this  country,  and  even  in  the  legislative  halls  of  the  Republic, 
although  mainly  by  the  advocates  of  the  free  coinage  of  silver.  In  the 
session  of  the  Senate  of  the  United  States  of  the  loth  of  January,  1896, 
Senator  Jones,  of  Arkansas,  read  several  extracts  from  the  same,  and 
I  have  received  frequent  requests  for  copies  of  it  from  distinguished 
quarters. 

President  Diaz' s  Views  on  Silver. — Since  that  time  General  Diaz, 
President  of  the  Mexican  Republic,  in  an  interview  published  in  the 
New  York  yournal,  of  September  11,  1896,  expressed  exactly  the  same 
views  as  those  put  forth  by  me  in  my  paper.' 

'  The  following  is  a  letter  from  Mr.  W.  E.  Lewis,  the  y^«r«a/ special  correspond- 
ent in  Mexico,  dated  at  the  City  of  Mexico  on  September  9,  1896,  and  addressed  to 
Mr.  W.  R.  Hearst,  editor  of  the  New  York  yournal,  and  enclosing  the  so-called  in- 
terview with  President  Diaz. 

"  City  of  Mexico,  September  g. 

"  What  President  Diaz  sends  herewith  on  the  effect  of  free  silver  coinage  in 
Mexico  is  given  double  importance  by  the  facts  that  Mexico  is  one  of  the  most  pros- 
perous of  the  silver-using  nations,  and  that  its  prosperity  has  been  attained  under  the 
statesman-like  administration  of  the  veteran  Executive  who  now  sends  this  personal 
message  to  the  yournal.  Shallow  observers  who  have  been  shaken  by  the  sight  of 
Mexican  dollars  selling  in  the  United  States  for  53  cents,  while  ignoring  the  fact  that 
in  Mexico  they  buy  as  much,  and  only  as  much,  wheat  now  as  in  i860,  will  learn  from 
the  President  of  the  Mexican  Republic  how  stimulating  upon  productive  industry  is  a 
dollar  which  it  does  not  pay  to  hoard,  but  to  spend  ;  which  keeps  ever  its  normal  value, 
and  so  doing  keeps  always  stable  the  prices  of  commodities  for  which  it  is  exchanged. 

"  VV.  E.  Lewis. 
"  The  '  yournal' s'  Special  Commissioner  to  Mexico." 

"  FROM    PORFIRIO    DIAZ. 

"City  of  Mexico,  September  g,  iSgb. 
''To  W.  R.  Hearst.  New  York  'yournal'  : 

"  I  do  not  care  to  discuss  the  effect  of  the  silver  coinage  on  the  material  interests 
of  Mexico  with  a  view  to  influencing  the  result  of  the  coming  national  election  in  the 
United  States.  Such  course  on  my  part  would  be  wholly  improper,  considering  the 
friendly  and  peaceful  relations  existing  between  the  United  States  and  Mexico.     The 


president  Diai's  IDievvs  on  Silver.  567 

When  I  called  President  Diaz's  attention  to  his  naessage  published  by 
the  New  York  yournal,  he  informed  nie  in  a  letter  dated  at  the  City 
of   Mexico   on    the    6th    of    October,    1896,    that  the    San    Francisco 

present  political  issue  in  the  former  country  is  the  question  of  the  money  standard,  and 
I  do  not  wish  to  be  regarded  as  in  any  wise  attempting  to  affect  the  outcome. 

"  I  can  give  the  facts  relative  to  existing  industries  and  the  establishment  of  new 
ones  in  Mexico  under  our  financial  system,  and  each  may  draw  his  own  conclusions  as 
to  the  causes  which  have  produced  such  awakening  in  commercial  and  industrial 
affairs.  Ocular  demonstrations  of  the  vast  development  may  be  found  by  visiting  the 
cotton  and  woollen  mills  in  our  various  cities.  Some  are  old,  others  recently  opened. 
Our  paper  mills  and  their  output  also  furnish  evidence  of  our  material  prosperity- 
Until  a  comparatively  recent  period  all  the  pulp  used  in  the  manufacture  of  paper  in 
this  country  was  imported,  and  the  paper  only  was  made  in  Mexico  ;  now  the  pulp  and 
everything  that  enters  into  the  composition  of  the  paper  is  made  here.  The  depart- 
ments of  the  government  will  furnish  the  exact  data  and  statistics  showing  the  growth 
of  domestic  manufactures  and  commerce. 

"  Growth  of  Mexico's  Commercial  Interests. — While  our  material  interests  have 
increased  steadily  and  healthfully  for  the  last  twenty  years,  since  the  close  of  the  Indian 
mints  and  the  repeal  of  the  Sherman  law,  so  called,  in  the  United  States,  the  growth 
of  Mexico's  commercial  and  industrial  interests  has  been  particularly  marked.  The 
consequent  appreciation  in  the  price  of  gold  and  the  increase  in  exchange  between 
Mexico  and  the  gold  standard  countries  at  once  operated  to  reduce  importations  and 
stimulate  home  manufactures. 

"  The  added  price  of  exchange  was  in  effect  an  addition  to  the  tariff.  The  im- 
porter added  to  the  original  cost  the  duty  and  cost  of  exchange.  Our  cotton  and  wool- 
len mills  already  in  operation  were  obliged  to  enlarge  their  capacity  and  new  ones  were 
established.     The  number  of  operatives  necessarily  had  to  be  greatly  increased. 

"  To  show  the  falling  off  in  the  consumption  of  foreign  merchandise,  it  may  be 
said  that  the  year  prior  to  the  increase  of  foreign  exchange  on  silver  our  customs  col- 
lections at  the  ports  of  entry  amounted  to  $22,000,000.  The  next  year  they  were 
$14,000,000.  In  the  fiscal  year  ending  in  1890  our  importations  exceeded  $52,000,000. 
In  the  fiscal  year  ending  in  1895  they  were  slightly  in  excess  of  $34,000,000.  On  the 
other  hand,  our  exportations  increased.  In  1890-91  they  amounted  to  $63,000,000, 
and  in  1894-95  to  $90,000,000.  There  was  nothing  in  the  nature  of  a  commercial 
panic  consequent  upon  the  sharp  advance  in  silver  exchange. 

'^  Bank  and  Business  Fai hires  Hare  in  Mexico. — Our  merchants  are  conservative 
and  careful,  and  bank  and  business  failures  are  happily  rare  in  Mexico  under  any  cir- 
cumstances. As  to  wages  and  the  condition  of  laboring  men,  considering  the  nature 
of  work  and  classes  of  industry,  they  compare  favorably  with  those  in  other  countries. 

"  The  demand  for  skilled  labor  has  grown  with  the  great  increase  in  the  number 
of  mills  and  manufactories.  This  demand  in  all  branches  of  labor  is  strong.  The 
added  exchange  has  not  impaired  the  value  of  our  dollar  as  applied  to  the  purchase  of 
articles  of  home  manufacture.  Its  buying  power  is  unchanged  in  this  respect,  and 
prices  for  domestic  merchandise  and  produce  vary  only  according  to  the  supply  and 
the  demand. 

"  Heavy  investments  of  foreign  capital  in  Mexican  enterprises  have  been  made 
since  the  appreciation  of  gold  elsewhere. 

"  There  is  another  point  of  view.  The  foreign  debt  of  the  country  is  payable  in 
gold.  The  duties  on  imported  merchandise  are  collected  in  silver,  or  on  that  basis. 
The  high  rates  of  exchange,  together  with  the  decrease  in  our  customs  collections 
before  alluded  to,  have  caused  a  considerable  shrinkage  in  this  source  of  revenue." 


568  XTbe  Silver  Stan&ar&  in  /IDejico. 

Examiner  had  asked,  by  cable,  his  views  on  the  silver  question  in 
Mexico,  and  that  he  had  sent  by  mail  in  answer  some  tables  and  other 
data  bearing  on  that  subject.  When,  some  time  later,  Mr.  Lewis  made 
a  similar  request,  the  President  answered  him  that,  these  questions  be- 
ing agitated  in  the  political  canvas  in  the  United  States,  in  which  he 
thought  it  would  not  be  proper  for  him  to  take  a  part,  he  declined 
giving  his  views.  This  was  the  extent  of  his  communication  with  the 
Journal,  but  from  such  data  the  telegram  was  made  up,  which  I  sup- 
pose was  substantially  correct. 

When  it  was  stated  by  the  public  press,  in  the  middle  of  1897,  that 
Mexico  was  going  to  adopt  the  gold  standard,  I  asked  President  Diaz, 
at  the  request  of  prominent  men  of  this  country,  whether  this  was  the 
case,  and  in  a  letter  from  him  dated  at  the  City  of  Mexico  on  August 
II,  1897,  he  answered  me  that  for  the  time  being  he  did  not  intend  to 
recommend  that  measure,  as  Mexico  was  waiting  for  the  result  of  the 
adoption  of  the  gold  standard  in  other  countries  before  deciding  whether 
or  not  to  make  that  move. 

The  Silver  Question  Became  the  Leading  Political  Question  in  the 
United  States. — Soon  after  the  publication  of  my  article  in  the  North 
American  Review,  the  silver  question  became  the  leading  question  in 
the  United  States,  on  account  of  the  National  Democratic  Convention, 
which  met  at  Chicago  on  the  7th  of  July,  1896,  having  accepted  a 
plank  in  its  platform  in  favor  of  the  free  and  unlimited  coinage  of  silver 
at  the  ratio  of  16  to  i ;  while  the  National  Republican  Convention, 
which  had  met  at  St.  Louis  a  few  days  before  declared  in  favor  of  the 
gold  standard. 

The  silver  question  became,  therefore,  the  leading  question  of  both 
parties  in  the  presidential  election  of  1896,  and  in  their  canvass  the 
spokesmen  of  both  mentioned  Mexico  as  an  instance  supporting  their 
respective  views;  some  of  the  Democratic  orators  tried  to  show  that 
the  prosperity  of  Mexico  was  due  solely  to  the  silver  standard,  and 
some  of  the  Republicans  to  demonstrate  that  the  many  disadvantages 
under  which  we  labor  in  Mexico,  as  compared  with  the  United  States, 
were  due  to  the  same  standard. 

Newspaper  Age  fits  Sent  to  Mexico  to  Study  the  Silver  Question. — 
Some  of  the  leading  newspapers  of  this  country  sent  special  represen- 
tatives to  Mexico  for  the  purpose  of  studying  on  the  spot  the  effect  of 
the  silver  standard  in  that  country,  and  although  these  were  men  of 
unquestionable  general  ability,  they  were  at  a  disadvantage  amidst 
strange  conditions,  and  among  a  people  with  whose  language,  history, 
and  genius  they  were  unfamiliar;  notwithstanding  which  they  ex- 
pected in  two  or  three  weeks'  stay  in  the  country  to  arrive  at  sound  or 
useful  conclusions  on  the  social  and  economical  questions  in  all  their 
aspects  which  they  had  been  sent  to  study.     Many  went  there,  besides, 


aoents  Sent  to  Stn^v  tbe  /IDejican  Silver  Question.    569 

already  prejudiced  in  favor  of  some  particular  view,  and  none  remained 
there  long  enough  to  form  just  opinions  on  those  complex  questions. 
The  result,  as  was  natural  to  expect,  was  that  each  side  made  a  great 
many  mistakes  and  that  the  good  name  of  Mexico  suffered  a  great  deal 
for  that  reason. 

The  unsatisfactory  result  of  the  missions  referred  to  was  increased 
by  the  fact  that  such  agents,  in  some  cases,  were  sent  to  Mexico  to 
seek  for  facts  in  support  of  conclusions  which  were  irrevocably  formed, 
so  that  their  minds  were  open  to  only  one  set  of  facts  and  observations, 
and  in  the  published  accounts  of  some  of  these  investigations  one  is 
not  impressed  by  their  sense  of  relevancy  to  the  facts  observed  or  to 
the  questions  under  discussion. 

The  same  thing  happened  in  their  case  as  in  that  of  my  paper,  that 
Mexico  was  presented  by  both  sides  as  supporting  their  respective 
theories,  that  is,  the  silver  men  exaggerated  the  advantages  of  the 
silver  standard,  as  they  are  developed  in  Mexico,  and  considered  that 
standard  as  the  sole  cause  of  the  prosperity  of  that  country;  while  the 
gold  men  exaggerated  the  disadvantages  of  the  silver  standard  and 
pointed  out  the  many  lines  in  which  Mexico  is  far  behind  the  United 
States,  attributing  these  drawbacks  to  the  silver  standard. 

It  was  stated  in  this  country,  and  with  great  etfect,  that  anybody 
going  to  Mexico  could  buy  with  an  American  silver  dollar  one  dollar's 
worth  of  goods,  or  pay  for  a  dinner  of  that  price,  and  have  besides  one 
Mexican  dollar  returned  in  exchange.  While  this  statement  may  be 
in  some  respects  substantially  correct,  as  a  matter  of  fact  it  was  not  so. 
It  may  have  happened  only  once  or  twice,  and  for  a  very  few  days  each 
time,  since  the  depreciation  of  silver  began,  that  the  Mexican  dollar 
has  been  worth  exactly  50  cents  in  gold,  when  exchanged  for  gold  or 
sold  for  the  silver  bullion  contained  in  the  same.  The  price  until 
recently,  and  not  considering  the  last  great  fall  of  that  metal,  was 
generally  from  53  to  58  cents  and  sometimes  higher,  and  therefore  it 
would  not  be  possible  to  pay  with  an  American  dollar,  worth  from 
$1.85  to  $1.90  in  Mexican  money,  for  the  value  of  one  Mexican  dol- 
lar and  have  another  Mexican  dollar  returned  in  exchange,  although 
that  operation  might  have  been  made  on  two  or  three  days  during  all 
that  time  when  the  price  of  the  silver  bullion  in  the  Mexican  dollar  was 
exactly  50  cents.  The  keepers  of  restaurants,  shops,  etc.,  are  not  in- 
formed about  the  price  of  silver  in  London,  which  varies  almost  every 
day,  and  they  would  not  attempt  to  exchange  a  foreign  coin  for  the 
exact  market  price  of  the  bullion  contained  in  the  same,  running 
the  risk  of  losing  by  the  operation.  If  anybody  should  offer  in  Mexico 
a  United  States  silver  dollar  in  payment  of  one  dollar's  worth  of  goods, 
the  shopkeeper  very  likely  would  not  receive  the  coin,  because  he 
would  not  be  aware  of  its  value;  or,  if  he  received  it,  knowing  that  it 


570  Ubc  Silver  StauDar^  in  /IDerico. 

was  worth  more  than  a  Mexican  dollar,  he  would  not  give  in  exchange 
the  full  value  of  the  gold  dollar  at  the  price  of  silver  bullion  on  that 
day  for  fear  of  losing  money.  But,  of  course,  any  one  having  a  United 
States  silver  dollar  could  go  to  an  exchange  office,  have  it  exchanged 
for,  say  190  cents,  pay  for  his  breakfast  or  his  goods  the  value  of  100 
Mexican  cents,  and  have  90  cents  in  change  left;  and  so  far  the  state- 
ment may  be  substantially  correct.  In  the  paper  published  by  the 
North  American  Review,  and  which  follows  this  introduction,  I  ex- 
plained why  this  happens,  namely,  that  the  United  States  silver  dollar 
is  the  representative  of  a  gold  dollar,  while  the  Mexican  dollar  is  not 
redeemed  in  gold. 

Comments  on  the  Silver  Standard  in  Mexico. — It  would  be  unfair  to 
consider  the  silver  standard  of  Mexico  as  the  only  factor  in  the  pro- 
gress of  that  country.  Its  present  prosperity  is  due  principally  to  the 
building  of  a  system  of  railways  which  makes  transportation  easy  and 
comparatively  cheap,  to  the  complete  peace  that  has  prevailed  there 
for  twenty  years,  to  the  investment  of  foreign  capital,  and  more  espec- 
ially to  the  unlimited  natural  resources  of  the  country.  The  silver 
standard  has  been,  too,  a  factor  in  the  prosperity  of  Mexico,  because 
without  sufficient  circulation  we  could  not  have  developed  our  resources 
to  the  extent  that  we  have  done,  as  is  shown  by  the  advantages  which 
have  accrued  to  Mexico  on  account  of  that  standard  as  stated  in  the 
accompanying  paper;  but  that  progress  is  not  due  solely  to  the  silver 
standard,  as  was  alleged  by  some  of  the  orators  and  newspaper  writers 
favoring  the  free  coinage  of  silver.'  The  other  side  made  a  similar 
mistake    in    attributing   to    the  silver  standard  all   the  disadvantages 

'  The  following  extract  from  a  book  published  in  1897  by  the  Mexican  Central 
Railway  Company  Bureau  of  Information,  under  Mr.  A.  V.  Temple,  entitled  Facts  and 
Figures  About  Mexico,  fully  confirms  these  views,  as  well  as  those  expressed  in  other 
portions  of  this  paper  : 

"  Causes  of  Prosperity. — While  Mexico's  prosperity  isunquestionably  due  to  a  large 
number  of  causes,  prominent  among  which  are  the  suppression  of  disorder,  the  exten- 
sion of  railroads,  and  the  liberal  policy  of  the  government  towards  foreign  capitalists 
and  emigrants,  it  is  very  evident  that  her  industrial  growth  has  been  powerfully  stimu- 
lated by  the  existing  monetary  standard. 

When  silver  and  gold,  as  valued  in  the  world's  commodities,  parted  company,  and 
Mexican  dollars  (which  were  being  exported  to  Europe)  were  sold  for  a  less  price  as 
measured  in  the  currency  of  the  gold  standard  countries,  a  rise  in  the  price  of  all  im- 
ported articles  began  in  Mexico.  From  this  time  dates  the  development  of  Mexico's 
cotton  and  woollen  industries,  as  well  as  the  increase  in  the  exportation  of  articles  other 
than  precious  metals.  The  demand  and  the  margin  of  profit  for  home-made  goods  in- 
creased as  Mexican  dollars  depreciated.  The  native  manufacturer  enlarged  his  opera- 
tions, introduced  improved  machinery,  and  began  to  compete  successfully  with  many 
grades  of  imported  goods. 

The  consumer  now  purchases  from  the  Mexican  manufacturer  at  the  same  price  in 
silver  as  when  silver  was  at  par  with  gold,  instead  of  being  exported  to  Europe,  as 


Comments  on  tbe  Silver  StanC>ar^  in  /IDejico.        571 

under  which  we  labor  in  Mexico.  It  is  true,  that  we  have  not  yet 
attained  the  same  degree  of  civilization,  wealth,  and  industrial  and 
mercantile  prosperity  that  this  country  has,  but  that  is  because  we 
have  difficult  problems  to  solve  which  are  well  known  here.  We  have 
been  without  means  of  communication  for  centuries;  we  have  a  heter- 
ogeneous population,  most  of  which  is,  so  far,  entirely  uneducated; 
and  above  all,  we  have  been  contending  with  long  and  disastrous  civil 


formerly.  Many  millions  of  dollars  have  thus  been  kept  at  home  and  added  to  the 
capital  of  the  country. 

Cotton  mills  have  been  constructed  in  all  parts  of  the  republic.  The  acreage  of 
cotton  is  constantly  increasing,  but  the  native  crop  is  not  yet  sufficient  to  supply  the 
demand,  and  large  quantities  of  cotton  are  imported  from  the  United  States. 

The  history  of  the  woollen  trade  has  been  almost  identical  with  that  of  cotton. 

The  Mexican  manufacturer  of  woollens  produces  now  a  very  good  article,  although 
he  cannot  yet  compete  with  the  finer  fabrics  of  France  and  England.  In  former  years 
there  was  a  considerable  exportation  of  wool  to  the  United  States  ;  now  there  is  a  con- 
siderable importation  of  it  from  the  United  States  into  Mexico. 

While  it  is  true  that  the  Mexican  dollar,  as  measured  in  francs,  marks,  or  pounds 
sterling,  has  decreased  in  value  nearly  50  per  cent.,  it  is  also  true  that  prices  of  almost 
every  class  of  foreign  goods  have  also  decreased  50  per  cent.  A  suit  of  clothes  made 
from  the  finest  quality  of  imported  goods  costs  only  the  same  number  of  Mexican  silver 
dollars  to-day  that  it  cost  twenty-five  years  ago. 

Note  also  the  effect  on  real  estate.  Coffee  plantations  have  risen  in  value  from 
$75  or  $80  an  acre,  the  price  when  gold  was  at  par  with  silver,  to  from  $200  to  $800  an 
acre.  The  annual  profits  of  these  plantations  have  risen  from  $10  or  $15  an  acre  to  from 
$50  to  $150  an  acre.     Similar  advances  are  true  also  in  sugar  and  tobacco  haciendas. 

The  premium  on  gold  has  been  the  cause  of  immense  internal  improvements 
throughout  the  country.  The  capital  kept  at  home  has  been  invested  in  irrigation 
schemes,  in  improving  large  tracts  of  fallow  land,  and  in  other  enterprises  of  a  like 
character.  The  premium  has  also  brought  much  foreign  capital  here,  which  has  been 
invested  in  various  branches  of  industry,  particularly  in  the  production  of  articles  for 
exportation. 

The  foreign  investor  doubles  his  capital  when  he  brings  it  to  Mexico.  He  gets 
the  advantage  of  cheap  and  docile  labor  for  silver,  and  sells  his  exported  product  for 
gold. 

This  great  stimulation  to  all  industrial  enterprises,  the  building  of  railroads,  the 
establishment  of  factories,  and  the  cultivation  of  thousands  of  acres  of  land — all  these 
have  had  a  notable  effect  upon  the  people.  The  great  demand  for  labor  has  benefited 
them  immensely,  and  has  promoted  peace  and  prosperity  throughout  the  country. 

The  resources  and  opportunities  of  Mexico  have  only  been  recently  revealed  to  her 
own  people,  as  well  as  to  foreigners.  It  is  much  easier  now  than  it  ever  was  before  to 
get  capital  here  at  a  relatively  low  rate  of  interest  for  any  legitimate  enterprise,  because, 
first,  there  is  more  money  in  the  country  than  when  we  were  importing  so  largely ; 
and  because,  second,  the  business  man  is  willing,  under  present  conditions,  to  take 
risks  which  would  be  considered  too  great  in  an  era  of  low  prices  and  a  contracted 
currency. 

The  native  producer  has  prospered  under  silver  at  the  expense  of  the  foreign  mer- 
chant and  of  the  importer.  Silver  in  Mexico  has  stimulated  exports  and  contracted 
imports." 


572  Zbc  Silver  Stan&ar^  in  /IDejico, 

wars,  from  which  this  country  has  been  almost  altogether  free — and 
these  factors  are  the  real  causes  of  our  present  economic  conditions. 

The  low  Mexican  wages  were  also  attributed  to  our  silver  standard. 
To  be  sure  the  wages  that  we  pay  our  laborers  are  not  quite  as  high  as 
those  paid  to  similar  laborers  in  this  country,  but  that  is  not  due  to  the 
silver  standard,  as  has  already  been  stated,  since  wages  were  no  higher 
when  silver  and  gold  were  at  par  at  the  ratio  of  i6  to  i,  but,  on  the 
contrary,  have  since  increased,  and  I  have  no  doubt  they  will  con- 
tinue to  increase  in  the  future.  In  a  paper  entitled  "  Labor  and 
Wages  in  Mexico,"  which  appears  in  this  book  (pages  495-543),  I  have 
dealt  fully  with  this  subject  and  I  have  also  tried  to  explain  the  con- 
dition of  our  wage-earning  classes  (pages  528-531). 

Pessimists  who  have  visited  Mexico  or  studied  its  present  condi- 
tions predict  that  our  prosperity  is  not  of  a  permanent  character,  as  they 
think  that  it  will  be  followed  by  a  tremendous  crash,  similar  to  that 
which  took  place  not  long  ago  in  Australia  and  later  in  the  Argentine 
Republic,  because  they  think  that  investments  in  Mexico  have  been 
overdone,  and  that  when  the  time  comes  to  liquidate  our  indebted- 
ness and  we  have  to  pay  them  in  gold,  we  will  not  be  able  to  do  so, 
and  then  we  shall  be  in  the  same  condition  as  those  countries  after  the 
crash.  I  do  not  entertain  any  such  view  of  the  situation.  I  think  in- 
vestments in  Mexico  so  far  have  been  prudently  made,  and  they  are 
sure  to  bring  a  reasonable  interest,  even  if  paid  in  gold.  Of  course  it 
would  have  been  better  if  we  could  have  accomplished  the  development 
of  our  country  with  our  own  riieans  and  without  using  any  foreign 
money  ;  but  there  was  not  capital  enough  in  Mexico  to  do  so,  and 
besides,  the  Mexicans  had  no  experience  and  therefore  no  confidence 
in  large  collective  enterprises,  and  would  not  invest  their  money  in 
them.  The  problem  for  us  was  therefore  to  decide  whether  we  would 
continue  in  the  unsettled  conditions  of  stagnation,  poverty,  and  danger 
in  which  we  had  been  for  many  years,  and  not  owe  anything  abroad,  or 
whether  we  should  build  railways,  enlarge  our  mining  interests,  build 
our  manufactories,  and  extend  our  agricultural  productions  with  the  aid 
of  foreign  capital.  The  United  States  afforded  a  very  encouraging 
example  to  us,  for  this  country  has  really  been  developed  by  European 
capital,  and  yet  nobody  doubts  the  wisdom  of  that  policy.  Besides, 
the  Mexican  people  are  getting  richer  by  the  development  of  their 
country  with  the  assistance  of  foreign  capital,  and  in  the  course  of  time 
they  will  be  able  to  buy  their  own  securities  now  in  foreign  markets,  and 
in  that  way  save  the  interest  or  tribute  which  now  they  pay  to  Europe 
and  to  the  United  States,  just  as  this  country  has  done  under  similar 
circumstances. 

I  hope  that  if  in  the  future  the  example  of  Mexico  is  again  brought 
into  the  internal  politics  of  this  country,  the  information  embraced  in 


/IDr.  lkennet>p's  /IDisstatement.  573 

this  paper,  and  in  some  of  the  others  contained  in  this  volume,  which 
is  entirely  reliable  and  impartial,  will  contribute  to  dispel  the  many 
mistakes  that  prevailed  in  the  presidential  canvass  of  1896. 

Mr.  Kennedy  s  Misstatement. — To  show  my  impartiality  in  this 
matter  I  will  state  that  when  my  attention  was  called,  during  the  last 
political  canvass,  to  an  affidavit  signed  by  J.  H.  Kennedy,'  who 
called  himself  a  resident  of  the  town  of  Sinaloa,  Mexico,  to  the 
effect  that  the  United  States  silver  dollar  could  not  be  exchanged 
for  two  Mexican  dollars  in  Mexico;  that  the  national  debt  of  Mexico 
was  not  paid  in  gold,  and  that  Mexico  could  redeem  her  debt  at 
once  without  any  difficulty,  I  had  no  hesitation  in  correcting  those 
misstatements,  as  appears  from  the  following  letter  that  I  addressed 
on  September  27,  1896,  to  Mr.  Arthur  E.  Fletcher,  of  Milwaukee, 
in  answer  to  an  inquiry  from  him   on    the    subject.       My  letter  was 

'  Mr.  Kennedy's  affidavit  is  the  following,  taken  from  the  Times  of  Minneapolis, 
Minn.,  of  October  12,  1896  : 

"  Silver  Dollars  in  Mexico. — J.  H.  Kennedy,  a  former  resident  of  Iowa,  has 
attacked  the  statement  so  generally  made  rej^arding  Mexico  and  silver  by  making  the 
following  affidavit  before  E.  II.  English,  a  notary  public  at  Valley  Junction  : 

"  I,  James  H.  Kennedy,  now  a  resident  of  the  town  of  Sinaloa,  Mexico,  do  sol- 
emnly swear  that  I  am  an  American  by  birth  ;  that  I  served  three  years  in  the  Seventh 
Iowa  during  the  late  Civil  War  ;  that  I  have  always  been  a  republican  ;  that  I  have 
resided  in  Mexico  for  twenty-five  years  ;  that  I  speak  the  Spanish  language  as  well  or 
better  than  1  now  do  the  English.  I  have  travelled  through  twenty-four  of  the 
twenty-seven  states  in  Mexico  in  an  official  capacity  and  as  an  interpreter  for  numer- 
ous syndicates.  I  have  had  access  to  almost  all  the  archives  of  that  country.  I  am  better 
acquainted  with  the  customs  and  usages  of  that  country  than  I  am  of  my  mother 
country.  I  left  Mexico  on  the  2d  day  of  March,  1896,  coming  to  this  country  to  visit 
my  friends,  relatives,  and  old  comrades.  During  the  last  month  in  Iowa  I  have  heard 
more  absurd  and  utterly  false  statements  made  in  regard  to  Mexico  than  I  ever  thought 
could  be  conjured  up  by  mortal  man,  all  to  deceive  the  voter. 

"  One  most  heard  is  that  you  can  take  one  American  silver  dollar  into  Mexico 
and  get  two  Mexican  silver  dollars  for  it,  or  that  you  can  get  a  50-cent  meal  and 
throw  down  an  American  dollar  and  they  will  give  you  back  in  change  a  Mexican 
dollar.  I  brand  this  as  utterly  false  in  every  respect,  a  lie  manufactured  out  of  whole 
cloth.  I  assert  that  a  Mexican  will  not  accept  an  American  dollar,  either  gold,  silver, 
or  paper,  for  any  amount,  but  will  refer  you  to  a  broker,  where  you  can  sell  your 
silver  dollars  as  bullion  for  Mexican  money  ;  then  they  will  trade  with  you.  The 
largest  hotel  in  the  City  of  Mexico  will  not  accept  American  money  under  any  cir- 
cumstances, but  will  invariably  refer  you  to  a  broker. 

"  By  paying  the  mintage  any  one  can  take  silver  bullion  to  either  of  the  mints  in 
Mexico  and  get  Mexican  silver  dollars  for  it,  and  for  two  hundred  and  fifty  years 
silver  bullion  has  never  fluctuated  to  exceed  two  cents. 

"  I  hear  it  asserted  that  the  national  debt  is  payable  in  gold.  I  brand  this  as 
utterly  false.  Every  dollar  of  the  debt,  $46,000,000,  is,  and  always  has  been,  payable 
in  the  lawful  money  of  that  country,  and  we  are  now  paying  our  debt  in  Mexican 
silver  dollars,  the  money  of  the  contract. 

"  I  assert  that  Mexico  in  the  present  decade  is  making  strides  in  advancement 


574  ^bc  Silver  5tan&ar&  in  ^ejico. 

published  by  the  Milwaukee  Sentinel  on  the  4th  of  the  following  Octo- 
ber, adding  to  my  name  the  prefix  of  "  Minister  of  the  Mexican 
Republic"  in  Washington,  an  official  designation  which  I  never  use 
and  which  is  not  correct,  because  the  official  name  of  Mexico  is  the 
"  United  States  of  Mexico,"  not  "  Mexican  Republic." 
The  following  is  a  copy  of  my  answer  to  Mr.  Fletcher: 

"  Washington,  D.  C,  September  zy,  tSgb. 
"  Mr.  Arthur  E.  Fletcher,  Plankim^ton  Bank,  Milwaukee,  Wis.  : 

"  Dear  Sir  : — I  am  in  receipt  of  your  letter  of  the  25th  instant  and  in  answer 
have  to  inform  you  that  the  President's  Message,  read  to  the  Mexican  Congress  on  the 
i6th  inst.,  explains  fully  the  case  you  mention.  Our  gold  debt,  or  foreign  debt,  as 
we  call  it,  because  all  of  it  is  held  in  Europe,  amounts  to  more  than  $100,000,000,  and 
is  payable  in  gold,  both  interest  and  principal,  and  our  silver  debt,  a  large  portion  of 
which  is  held  in  Europe  and  some  of  it  in  Mexico,  is  payable  in  silver,  both  interest 
and  principal. 

"  I  doubt  very  much  whether  Mexico  could  pay  her  whole  debt  even  in  silver, 
because  that  would  require  about  $200,000,000,  and  our  revenue  is  only  about  $50,- 
000,000  and  the  expenses  reach  about  the  same  amount,  but  it  might  be  redeemed  by 
issuing  new  bonds  with  less  interest,  and  that  is  very  likely  what  will  be  done  by 
Mexico  at  the  proper  time.  I  am,  very  truly  yours,  M.   Romero." 

Official  DeclaratioTis  of  Mexico  on  the  Monetary  Question. — One  of 
the  objects  for  which  the  International  American  Conference  that 
assembled  in  Washington  in  1889  and  1890  was  convened,  under 
Act  of  Congress  of  May  24,  1888,  was  (Section  6th)  "  the  adoption  of 
a  common  silver  coin  to  be  issued  by  the  different  Governments,  the 
same  to  be  legal  tender  in  all  commercial  transactions  between  the  citi- 
zens of  all  the  American  States."  A  committee  was  therefore  ap- 
pointed to  consider  the  subject  of  a  Monetary  Union,  and  not  being 
able  to  agree  upon  any  project  with  such  purpose  in  view,  because  the 
United  States  delegates  did  not  favor  any,  the  committee  decided  to 
recommend  the  convening  of  a  Special  Commission  of  the  American 
nations  for  the  purpose,  a  recommendation  which  was  finally  adopted, 
because  the  other  American  nations  considered  that  the  United  States 
being  the  largest  of  the  American  countries,  ought  to  take  the  lead, 
and  the  others  ought  not  to  act  in  opposition  to  its  wishes  and  policy. 

greater  than  any  other  nation  on  earth.  Twenty-five  years  ago  we  had  eighty  miles 
of  railroad,  now  we  have  near  eight  thousand  miles  of  railroad.  We  are  building 
factories  on  every  hand.  Twenty-eight  years  ago,  when  the  French  army  was  driven 
out,  the  Mexican  government  was  left  penniless — not  a  dollar  in  the  treasury.  We 
can  now  pay  our  entire  national  debt  any  day  a  demand  would  be  made  for  it. 

"  1  am  now  on  my  way  to  Mexico  to  spend  the  rest  of  my  life.  Any  one  can  find 
me  by  addressing  a  letter  to  James  H.  Kennedy,  Sinaloa,  Mexico. 

"  In  conclusion,  I  invite  an  honest  and  thorough  investigation  into  the  facts  of 
my  statement,  and  I  defy  successful  contradiction.  I  am  not  the  owner  of  mining 
stocks  and  no  personal  interest  has  caused  me  to  make  this  statement,  but  have  given 
it  by  request  of  an  old  comrade.  James  H.  Kennedy." 


©tRctal  Declarations  on  tbe  /IDonetar^  (S^uestion.     575 

During  the  discussion  of  that  report  I  suggested  the  adoption  of  a 
common  coin  by  all  the  American  nations,  to  be  legal  tender  in  payment 
of  all  debts,  and  the  coining  of  a  certain  amount  of  silver  dollars  of  the 
same  weight  and  fineness,  to  be  issued  in  proportion  to  their  popula- 
tion— for  instance,  $i  for  each  inhabitant  that  each  country  had, — such 
dollars  to  be  legal  tender  for  the  payment  of  all  debts  of  all  the  Ameri- 
can nations,  redeemable  on  presentation  in  gold  by  the  respective 
countries  and  stated  the  inconveniences  that  would  accrue  to  Mexico 
by  the  adoption  of  a  common  silver  coin.  ' 

When  the  Special  Commission  of  the  Monetary  Union  assembled  in 
Washington  from  January  7   to  April  4,    1891,   it  appeared  that  the 

'  I  expressed  on  that  occasion  the  willingness  of  Mexico  to  agree  to  a  common 
silver  coin  of  the  same  fineness  and  weight,  to  be  legal  tender  in  all  American  nations, 
if  they  all  should  accept  that  agreement,  notwithstanding  the  great  drawbacks  that 
Mexico  would  suffer  in  that  case.  In  the  remarks  that  I  made  before  the  Conference 
in  the  meeting  of  March  27,  1890,  when  the  Monetary  Union  recommendation  was  dis- 
cussed, I  said  on  the  subject  what  follows  : 

"It  would  be  difficult  for  the  American  nations  to  agree  that  the  international 
silver  dollar  should  have  the  same  fineness  and  weight  as  the  Mexican  dollar,  because 
in  that  case  they  would  create  a  coin  of  more  value  than  their  own.  And  this  would 
necessarily  have  to  be  depreciated  if  they  should  accept  the  same  fineness  and  weight 
as  that  of  the  dollar  of  the  United  States  of  America,  which  is  substantially  the  same 
as  that  of  several  other  of  the  American  States.  Then  we  should  have  in  Mexico  two 
silver  coins  ;  the  international  one,  with  the  weight  and  fineness  which  should  be 
agreed  upon,  and  the  Mexican  one  with  higher  weight  and  fineness.  This  difference 
in  weight  and  fineness  in  two  coins  of  the  same  nominal  value,  coined  in  the  same 
country,  could  not  but  cause  serious  embarrassments.  Notwithstanding  all  this, 
Mexico,  wishing  to  contribute  as  far  as  it  is  in  her  power,  and  even  at  the  expense  of 
any  reasonable  effort,  to  the  unifications  of  institutions  and  interests  with  all  the  other 
American  Republics,  has  been  disposed  to  accept  the  coinage  of  an  international  sil- 
ver coin,  without  undervaluing  the  fact  that  any  step  towards  increasing  the  value  of 
silver  will  finally  be  advantageous  to  us. 

My  opinion  on  the  rehabilitation  of  silver  by  the  United  States  was  expressed  in 
the  following  words  : 

"  This  gentleman  fears  that  if  an  international  silver  dollar  should  be  coined  by 
all  the  American  nations,  that  coin  would  come  to  the  United  States  to  be  exchanged 
for  gold,  and  that  in  that  way  all  the  gold  now  in  the  Treasury  should  be  lost  and  the 
United  States  be  obliged  to  give  up  their  gold  standard  and  become  monometallist. 
In  my  opinion  this  fear  is  ungrounded,  because  the  United  States  buy  from  the 
American  nations  to  the  amount  of  several  millions  of  dollars  in  raw  materials,  and 
the  difference  between  the  amount  bought  and  the  American  goods  exported  to  those 
countries,  which  is  paid  by  them  in  cash,  could  be  paid  in  international  silver  coin 
which  they  might  receive.  Besides,  we  could  agree,  as  the  Latin  Monetary  Union  did, 
that  each  American  nation  should  be  bound  to  redeem  in  gold  the  international  silver 
dollar  that  each  might  coin.  If  the  basis  for  coinage  should  be  as  the  minimum  one 
dollar  per  each  inhabitant  in  each  country,  there  should  be  a  demand  at  once  for 
i20,f)00,ooo  ounces  of  silver,  which  would  necessarily  increase  the  value  of  this  metal 
and  have  a  very  great  moral  influence  in  the  solution  of  this  problem  by  the  other 
commercial  nations  of  the  world." 


576  Tlbe  5ilv>er  5tan^a^^  in  ^ejlco. 

American  delegates  would  not  be  in  favor  of  any  Monetary  Union 
among  the  American  nations,  and  that  the  only  way  to  overcome  the 
difficulties  of  the  case  was  to  recommend  the  meeting  of  a  Monetary 
Conference,  where  all  the  nations  of  the  world  should  be  represented, 
which  motion  was  adopted,  and  led  to  the  meeting  of  the  Monetary 
Conference  which  assembled  at  Brussels  from  November  22d  to  De- 
cember 17th,  1892. 

At  the  fifth  meeting  of  the  American  International  Monetary  Com- 
mission, which  took  place  on  March  30,  1891,  I  delivered  an  address 
in  which  I  again  stated  the  position  of  Mexico  so  far  as  monetary 
matters  were  concerned,  and  foreshadowed  the  same  views  expressed 
in  my  answer  to  Senator  Morgan,  and  in  my  paper  published  in  the 
North  American  Review  for  June,  1895.  That  answer  will  be  found 
in  an  appendix  to  the  present  paper. 

The  American  countries  have  different  kinds  of  coin.  Venezuela 
for  instance,  has  as  a  monetary  unit,  the  Bolivar,  equal  to  a  franc,  and 
other  countries  have  two  kinds  of  dollars,  peso  duro,  and  one  of 
less  value  called  peso  feble,  and  in  each  country  the  dollar  has  dif- 
ferent names.  In  Ecuador  it  is  called  Sucre,  in  Peru,  Sol,  in  Bolivia, 
Boliviajio,  and  in  Brazil,  Milreis.  The  weight  and  fineness  of  the  sil- 
ver dollar  varies  in  almost  every  one  of  them  :  some  have  9/10  of  silver 
and  i/io  of  alloy  ;  others  have  less,  and  others,  like  Mexico,  more 
than  that  proportion,  and  it  would  be  of  great  advantage  if  the  coins 
of  all  American  nations,  by  having  the  same  fineness  and  weight, 
should  be  of  the  same  denomination  and  value. 

Mexican  Opitiion  Favorable  to  the  Silver  Standard. — Everybody  in 
Mexico,  that  is,  from  the  educated  to  the  ignorant,  from  the  rich  to 
the  poor,  from  the  natives  to  the  foreigners,  and  even  the  bankers  ' 
who  in  other  countries  are  decidedly  favorable  to  the  gold  standard, 


'  This  assertion  is  confirmed  by  the  following  extracts  from  an  editorial  of  the 
Mexican  Herald,  a  newspaper  published  in  English  in  the  City  of  Mexico  by  very  able 
American  editors,  in  its  issue  of  November  4,  1897. 

"  Mexican  Bankers  and  Silver. — Why  are  our  great  bankers  so  loyal  to  the  cause 
of  silver?  Why  are  they  not  gold  monometalists  as  are  the  bankers  of  England,  the 
United  States,  and  the  continent  of  Europe  ?  It  is  because  they  are  not  merely 
bankers  ;  they  are  heavy  investors  and  directors  in  new  manufacturing  industries  de- 
pendent for  their  prosperity  on  the  continued  use  of  silver  as  money  in  this  country. 
They  take  a  broader  view  of  the  currency  situation  than  do  bankers  abroad,  because 
they  are  factors  in  a  great  manufacturing  movement,  which  has  for  its  ultimate  purpose 
the  achieving  of  Mexico's  industrial  independence. 

"  Being  something  more  than  lenders  of  money,  they  are  liberal  in  their  ideas  and 
are  not  blinded  by  prejudice.  They  can  see  all  sides  of  the  currency  question.  There 
are  many  able  and  sagacious  men  among  the  bankers  of  Mexico  and  they  are,  with 
hardly  an  exception,  bimetallists.  They  are  not  trying  to  make  money  dear,  they  are 
not  wrecking  properties,  but  rather  are  creating  industries. 


/IDejican  ©pinion  ^favorable  to  tbc  Silver  5tan^ar^.    577 

are  all  in  favor  of  silver.  The  Government  holds  the  same  opinion. 
As  Mexico  is  now  prosperous  a  large  portion  of  the  people  attribute 
its  prosperity  to  the  silver  standard  and  are  therefore  decidedly  favor- 
able to  the  continuance  of  that  standard. 

It  is  not  strange  that  Mexicans  think  so  when  prominent  and  able 
foreigners  living  there  hold  the  same  opinion. 

Mr.  Lionel  E.  G.  Garden,  the  very  able  British  Consul  at  the  City 
of  Mexico,  who  has  been  in  Mexico  for  nearly  eighteen  years  and 
understands  the  country  well,  has  expressed  official  views  on  this 
subject  which  go  much  further  than  my  own.  He  holds  that,  while 
the  first  effects  of  the  depreciation  of  silver  on  the  Mexican  Govern- 
ment and  on  the  Mexican  railroads  were  unfavorable, the  ultimate  result 
will  be  beneficial  and  will  tend  to  increase  the  country's  agricultural 
resources  and  consequently  the  republic's  export  trade,  provided  that  a 
price  shall  be  arrived  at  not  subject  to  fluctuations;  and  that  the  greatest 
disadvantages  that  the  Mexican  Government  and  the  railways  suffer 
from  the  depreciation  are  therefore  the  constant  fluctuations  in  the 
market  price  of  silver.  Mr.  Garden's  views  appear  in  a  report  on  the 
effect  of  the  depreciation  of  silver  in  Mexico,  addressed  to  Lord 
Rosebery  on  August  4,  1893.' 

'  It  would  occupy  too  much  space  to  give  here  the  chief  portions  of  Mr.  Garden's 
report,  and  I  will  only  insert,  therefore  some  of  its  main  points  : 

"  A  low  price  of  silver,"  Mr.  Garden  says,  "  if  permanent,  would  not  only  not  be 
prejudicial  to  Mexico  as  a  whole,  but  would  conduce  to  its  ultimate  benefit  by  the 
stimulus  it  would  afford  to  the  development  of  its  immense  agricultural  resources." 
His  conclusions  are  that  "  the  losses  which  would  be  sustained  by  the  government  and 
the  railway  companies  are  essentially  limited  in  their  amount,  the  benefits  which 
would  accrue  to  certain  of  the  productive  industries  are  susceptible  of  indefinite  ex- 
tension," and  that  such  extension  would  "  at  once  make  itself  felt  in  an  increase  in  the 
revenues  of  the  government  as  well  as  of  the  railways." 

The  reasoning  by  which  these  interesting  conclusions  are  supported  is  somewhat 
too  extensive  for  full  quotation  here.  Mr.  Garden's  report  is  supplemented  by  ex- 
haustive tabulations  of  the  statistics  on  which  he  formed  his  views.  He  points  out 
that  the  fall  in  the  exchange  value  of  the  Mexican  silver  dollar  from  2>ld.  (its  average 
for  some  years)  to  about  33^/.  (the  present  level),  involved  an  additional  loss  to  the 
government  of  al)out  $2,000,000  in  meeting  the  gold  payment  on  its  external  debt, 
while  to  make  good  the  effect  of  the  silver  depreciation  on  the  indebtedness  of  the 
railroads  on  which  gold  must  be  paid,  the  lines  would  have  to  increase  their  earnings 
by  over  23  per  cent.  At  the  same  time  it  is  figured  out  that  an  increase  in  the  premium 
on  gold  from  30  per  cent,  to  50  per  cent,  produces,  all  other  things  being  equal,  a  loss 
of  10  per  cent,  in  customs  duties  to  the  Government. 

Goming  to  the  other  and  more  favorable  side  of  this  question,  Mr.  Garden  con- 
tends that  the  fall  in  silver  would  be  accompanied  by  an  increase  in  the  purchasing 
power  of  the  country.  The  amount  of  foreign  goods  imported  depends  chiefly,  he 
argues,  on  the  number  of  dollars  available  for  the  purchase  of  such  goods,  which,  in 
its  turn,  depends  upon  the  general  prosperity  of  the  country.  As  the  present  year, 
i8g3,  promises  well  for  the  agricultural  interests,  there  are  good  grounds  for  expecting 
that  the  consequent  increased  movement  of  trade  will  to  some  extent  compensate  the 


578  Zbc  Silver  Stan^ar^  In  /IDcrico. 

Mr.  Garden  in  a  later  report  to  the  Foreign  Office  on  the  trade 
of  Mexico  in  1895  attributes  to  the  depreciation  of  silver  the  expansion 
of  that  trade  and  of  the  general  prosperity  of  the  country,  as  follows: 

"  This  favorable  condition  of  things  must  he  attributed  in  great  measure  to  the 
stimulus  afforded  to  the  development  of  the  agricultural  resources  of  the  country  by 
the  depreciation  of  silver,  which,  far  from  being  prejudicial,  has  proved  to  be  of  the 
greatest  benefit  to  Mexico,  as  1  predicted  it  would  in  my  report  on  that  subject  of 
August,  1893." 

I  will  give  now  some  of  the  reasons  that  Mexico  has  to  be  so  far 
favorable  to  the  silver  standard  and  not  to  lose  all  hope  that  silver 
may  yet  be  reinstated  as  a  money  metal  by  the  great  commercial 
nations  of  the  world. 

T/ic  Natural  Ratio  and  the  World's  Production  of  Precious  Metals. 
— We  have  not  yet  lost  all  hope  of  the  rehabilitation  of  silver  as  one  of 
the  money  metals  of  the  world,  because,  although  modern  machinery 
and  improved  methods  have  cheapened  the  production  of  silver,  the 
same  causes,  and  especially  the  discovery  of  new  and  rich  gold  fields, 
like  South  Africa  and  the  Klondike,  have  increased  very  largely  the 
proportions  of  the  production  of  gold. 

I  will  enter  into  some  details  on  this  subject  to  show  that  the  position 
of  Mexico  is  not  entirely  destitute  of  foundation  and  sound  reason. 

loss  arising  from  the  fall  in  value  of  the  silver  dollar.  Supposing  this  fall  should  con- 
tinue— as  is  most  likely  to  be  the  case  when  the  Sherman  act  is  repealed — the  develop- 
ment of  agricultural  enterprise  and  the  increased  movement  of  trade  will  have  to  be 
considerable  to  ofTset  the  loss  in  revenue  of  the  government.  Mr.  Garden  thinks  that 
in  four  years  that  movement  may  increase  to  the  extent  of  from  10  per  cent,  to  15  per 
cent.  Then  there  has  been  a  notable  increase  in  the  exports,  not  only  in  amount,  but 
also  in  the  silver  value  of  these  articles,  the  selling  price  of  which,  being  in  gold,  is 
improved  by  a  rise  in  exchange.  Calculated  at  60  per  cent,  premium  as  regards  the 
gold  values  (t.^.,  taking  the  silver  dollar  at  30^/.),  the  exports  in  1891-92  would  show 
an  increase  of  $21,897,522  over  those  of  1889-90.  This  calculation  shows  that  what 
would  be  gained  by  the  increased  gold  value  of  the  exports  more  than  covers 
what  would  be  lost  in  connection  with  the  greater  silver  cost  of  the  imports  ;  that  is  to 
say,  the  increased  purchasing  power  of  $16,599,800,  which  a  gold  premium  of  60  per 
cent,  would  require,  would  be  met  by  an  increaseof  $21,897,522  in  thevalueof  the  ex- 
ports. As  stocks  of  merchandise  on  hand  were  then  considerably  reduced,  Mr.  Garden 
thought  the  commercial  classes  would  not  suffer  much  actual  loss  by  a  further  fall  of 
silver,  provided  it  were  fixed  and  permanent,  and  that  prices  would  soon  adapt  them- 
selves to  the  altered  condition  of  exchange.  The  railways,  he  thought,  would  find 
compensation  in  the  ordinary  development  of  their  traffic  and  by  the  opening  up  of  new 
traffic  for  export,  while,  as  for  the  silver  mining  enterprise,  which  is  an  important  factor 
in  Mexico,  the  profits  are  not  affected  by  a  reduction  in  the  gold  value  of  silver,  while 
the  increase  in  the  cost  of  supplies  imported  from  abroad  is  offset  by  the  very  general 
existence  of  a  small  proportion  of  gold  in  the  silver  ores.  On  the  other  hand,  a  de- 
preciation of  silver  would  greatly  stimulate  the  mining  of  gold,  copper,  and  the  base 
metals. 


IRatural  IRatio  an&  TKIlorl&'3  lPrc&uction  of  Silver.  579 

Among  the  advocates  of  gold  monometallism,  and  I  am  not  speak- 
ing of  the  intelligent  advocates  of  a  single  standard,  it  is  commonly 
said  that  the  reason  why  most  of  the  nations  of  civilization  have  de- 
monetized silver  is  its  excessive  production  of  late  years  as  compared 
with  gold.  They  always  declared  that  silver  is  mined  so  abundantly 
and  so  cheaply  by  modern  processes  that  it  has  become  useless  except 
as  token  money.  But  the  facts  regarding  production  do  not  bear  out 
this  assertion.  Silver,  as  I  will  show  by  unimpeachable  statistical 
authority,  is  not  produced  in  excess  at  the  present  time. 

It  used  to  be  affirmed  that,  to  preserve  the  parity  of  exchange  be- 
tween gold  and  silver,  the  production  of  the  latter  should  be  as  sixteen 
ounces  to  one  of  the  former.  But  since  the  discovery,  in  the  middle 
of  our  century,  of  the  Australian  and  Californian  gold-fields,  the 
output  of  the  yellow  metal  has  been  excessive,  and  that  of  silver,  as 
Mulhall,  the  statistician,  points  out,  relatively  short.  If,  he  urges, 
i\iQ  production  of  the  two  metals  determined  their  value,  silver  should 
be  worth  at  present  jj  />^r  cent,  more  than  in  iS^o,  for  from  1850  to 
the  close  of  1894  the  production  of  silver,  in  weight,  has  been,  ap- 
proximately, but  twelve  times  that  of  gold — 93,714  tons  of  silver  to 
8108  of  gold. 

But  the  depreciation  of  silver  has  been  more  than  50  per  cent.,  for 
it  sold  in  London  in  1850  at  do-^  pence  an  ounce,  and  to-day  it  ranges 
below  28  pence! 

The  silver  production  of  the  world  from  1850  to  the  beginning  of 
1895  was  as  follows: 


SILVER.  VALUE. 

Tons.  Millions  of  £. 

United  States 30,350  226 

Mexico 29,910  217 

South  America i3,4io  103 

Other  Countries 20,044  156 

Total    93.714  702 


The  annual  average  output  of  silver  at  the  present  time  is  5,000 
tons,  and  it  is  interesting  to  bear  in  mind  that,  in  twenty  years,  from 
1850  down  to  1870,  the  average  production  was  only  1050  tons  yearly. 
Taking  this  fact  in  connection  with  its  demonetization  and  the  decline 
of  silver  in  value  is  explained.  There  are  some  curious  facts  regarding 
the  precious  metals,  and  the  following  table  shows  that  the  world's 
stock  of  silver,  as  compared  with  gold,  was  in  1848  as  32  to  1,  whereas 
at  present  it  is  less  than  20  to  i.  The  world  has  taken  advantage  of 
the  increasing  supply  of  gold  to  employ  it  more  extensively  in  money. 


58o 


XTbe  Silver  Sta^^ar^  in  /IDejico, 


THE    WORLD  S    STOCK    OF    THE    MONEY    METALS. 


YKAK.  Coined. 

1800 908 

1848 1,125 

1894 5,840 

YEAR.  Coined. 

1800 42,000 

1848 45,200 

1894 92,000 


GOLl>.      TONS. 

Uncoined. 

Total. 

1,822 

2,730 

2,450 

3.575 

3,460 

9,300 

SILVER.      TONS. 

Uncoined. 

Total. 

46,000 

88,000 

67.800 

113,000 

89,000 

181,000 

These  figures  show  how,  relatively,  gold  has  outdistanced  silver  ; 
how  slight,  in  comparison,  has  been  the  increase  in  the  world's  stock 
of  silver  to  that  of  its  stock  of  gold. 

And  while  gold  is  being  mined  in  a  ratio  to  silver  far  beyond  the 
averages  of  former  years,  the  arts  are  taking  up  a  large  proportion  of 
the  product.  In  1894,  the  gold  mined  was  273  tons,  and  Soetbeer 
estimates,  on  a  carefully  ascertained  mass  of  data,  that  100  tons  are 
yearly  absorbed  in  the  arts.  Silver  is  being  mined  at  the  rate  of  5000 
tons  a  year,  and  500  tons  are  consumed  in  the  arts.  And,  although 
as  silver  declines  in  price  the  manufacturing  use  of  it  increases,  it  re- 
mains a  fact  that  a  vastly  greater  proportion  than  of  gold  is  available 
for  monetary  use. 

Mr.  Francis  B.  Forbes,  of  Boston,  a  careful  student  of  the  currency 
question,  has  taken  the  trouble  to  compile  a  series  of  tables  of  great 
value,  and,  incidentally,  he  confirms  Mulhall's  statistics,  which  I  have 
just  given,  demonstrating  indubitably  that  silver  is  not  being  produced 
in  excess  of  a  just  ratio  to  gold. 

TABLE  A. world's    PRODUCTION    OF    GOLD    AND    SILVER,    1493-1896. 


Total  production,  50  years,  1801-1850. , 
Total  production,  25  years,  1851-1875., 
Total  production,  21  years,  1876- 1896.. 

Total  production,  96  years,  1801-1896., 
Add  total  production    from   discovery  of 
America  by  Columbus  to  beginning 
of    this   century,    according   to   best 
estimates,  308  years,  1493-1800 4,633,583 


GOLD. 

SILVER. 

WEIGHT 

Kilograms. 

Kilograms. 

Ratio  of 
Silver. 

118,487 

3.272,345 

27.6 

4,775,625 

31,003,825 

6.5 

3.991,614 

70,841,365 

17.7 

8,885,726 

105,117,535 

II. 8 

Aggregate  production,  404  years,    1493- 

i8q6 13.519.309 


146,554.405  31.6 


251,671,940  18.6 


IRatural  IRatlo  ant)  Morl&'s  ipro^uction. 


581 


TABLE    B, WORLD  S     ANNUAL     PRODUCTION     OF  GOLD      AND  SILVER 

FOR    THE    ELEVEN    YEARS,    1 886-1 896. 

GOLD.  SILVER.  WEIGHT. 

Product.  Product.  Ratio  of 

YEARS.                                                                       Kilograms.  Kilograms.  Silver. 

18S6 159,735  2,901,826  18.2 

1887 159,150  2,989,732  18.8 

188S 165.803  3,384,865  20.4 

1889 185,803  3.739.004  20.1 

1890 178,821  3,921,935  21.9 

1891 196,577  4.226,427  21.5 

1892   220,899  4.763,479  21.6 

1893 236,662  5,165,961  21.8 

1894 271,768  5,217,608  19.2 

1895 301,544  5.235.096  17-3 

1896 316,158  5.008,874  15.8 

Total  production,  11  years,  1886-1896,    2,392,920  46,554,807  19.5 


The  remarkable  increase  in  gold  extraction  in  recent  years  has  not 
been  met  by  a  corresponding  increase  of  the  silver  output.  The  ratio  of 
silver  to  gold  mined  last  year  is  better  than  the  i6  to  i  proportion  over 
which  the  recent  presidential  campaign  in  the  United  States  was  fought. 

From  the  beginning  of  this  century  down  to  1850  the  total  product 
of  silver  weighed  27.6  times  as  much  as  the  gold  output;  then  came 
the  great  gold  discoveries  in  California  and  Australia,  and  the  next 
twenty-five  years  saw  the  relative  weight  of  the  world's  production  of 
silver  to  gold  reduced  to  6.5,  when  in  Europe  a  movement  began, 
headed  by  Michel  Chevalier  in  France,  to  demonetize  gold.  Luckily 
this  was  not  done,  and  the  great  flood  of  the  money  metal  enriched  the 
world  and  marvellously  stimulated  commerce,  manufacturing,  and 
colonization.  In  the  next  period,  1876-96,  silver  again  began  to  be 
mined  in  a  normal  ratio  to  the  gold  output,  but  the  hue  and  cry  against 
it  grew  louder  and  deeper,  resulting  in  the  general  demonetization  of 
silver  in  Europe.  The  fact  of  greatest  significance  is  that  during  the 
ninety-six  years  of  our  century  ended  December,  1896,  the  ratio  of  silver 
to  gold  was  only  11.8. 

Mulhall  puts  it  concisely,  saying,  "  If  the  production  of  the  two 
metals  determined  their  value,  silver  ought  to  be  now  worth  thirty- 
three  per  cent,  more  than  in  1850!"  And  another  fact  bearing  on  the 
great  controversy:  "  The  stock  of  silver  as  compared  to  gold  in  1848 
was  as  31  to  i,  whereas  at  present  it  is  less  than  20  to  i,  and  yet  silver 
has  fallen  fifty  per  cent,  in  price." 

Why,  then,  has  silver  been  so  discredited,  and  why  is  its  commercial 
value  so  low  at  present  ?  There  is  one  obvious  answer;  it  has  been 
legally   shorn,    that   is,    artificially,   of  its   value,   just  as  gold,   if  de- 


s82  XTbe  Silver  Stan&ar&  in  ^cjico. 

monetized,  would  be  accorded  a  lower  price  as  an    article    of   com- 
merce. 

Two  facts  have  been  made  clear  l)y  statistics,  one  that  silver  is 
not  extracted,  the  world  over,  out  of  i)roportion  to  gold,  and,  second, 
the  world's  stock  of  silver  is,  proportionally  to  gold,  less  than  it  was 
forty-nine  years  ago. 

The  old-school  political  economists  maintained  stoutly  that  a  mone- 
tary standard,  to  be  satisfactory,  must  have  a  stable  and  permanent 
value.  The  theory  is  a  very  dazzling  one  for  the  man  who  makes  up  a 
text-book  of  political  economy  and  an  outline  of  monetary  systems  in 
the  quiet  of  his  study,  aided  by  any  sound  author  on  logic;  but  when 
coming  to  real  life  it  does  not  look  well.  They  have  assumed  that 
gold  is  permanent  in  \alue  and  therefore  the  only  reliable  monetary 
yardstick.  Practical  and  accurate  observers  find  fault  with  the  theory 
that  gold  is  the  best  possible  standard  of  value  because  "  it  does  not 
fluctuate." 

It  has  been  shown  by  lal)orious  students  of  prices,  like  Mr.  Sauer- 
beck, that,  during  the  past  quarter  of  a  century,  gold  has  risen  in  value 
sixty  to  seventy  per  cent,  as  compared  with  commodities  in  general, 
while  silver  has  fallen  in  relation  to  staple  articles  twenty-five  to  thirty 
per  cent.  Gold  has  been  even  more  unsteady  than  silver.  One  great 
cause  of  the  rise  in  value  of  gold  is  the  demonetization  of  silver,  throw- 
ing more  of  the  world's  monetary  work  on  the  yellow  metal,  while,  for 
exactly  the  same  cause,  silver  has  been  discredited.  I  find  the  editor 
of  the  Statist,  of  London,  a  trustworthy  authority  and  an  advocate  of 
gold,  admitting  that  "  N'either  gold  nor  silver  has  a  stable  value  inde- 
pendent of  its  monetary  use,  and  neither,  therefore,  satisfies  the  condi- 
tion laid  down  by  the  older  economists."  But,  as  might  be  expected, 
the  editor  of  the  Statist  adds:  "  This  is  only  another  illustration  of 
the  numberless  blunders  into  which  the  older  economists  were  led  by 
the  deductive  method  to  which  they  adhered." 

Gold  makes  a  very  good  currency  basis  for  old  and  wealthy  nations, 
where  the  banking  system  is  highly  developed  and  credit  is  perfected, 
but  for  young  and  poor  nations,  busily  engaged  in  developing  their 
resources,  it  remains  to  be  seen  if  it  will  serve  their  purpose.  The 
gold  and  silver  question  is  not  one  to  be  studied  in  a  partisan  spirit. 
Perhaps,  some  day,  people  will  admit  that  both  metals  are  useful 
money  bases,  and  the  Statist  itself,  a  few  years  ago,  wanted  to  divide 
the  nations  into  gold-using  and  silver-using.  It  was  not  a  bad  idea, 
could  it  have  been  arranged  by  international  agreement. 

England  and  Silver. — Another  reason  why  Mexico  has  not  yet  given 
up  all  hope  that  silver  may  be  reinstated  as  a  money  metal,  is  the  belief 
that  the  manufacturing  interests  of  Great  Britain  would  suffer  so  much 
by  the  bounty  to  manufacturing  produced  by  the  depreciation  of  silver 


jEiujlauD  anD  Silver.  583 

in  silver  countries  that  she  would  have  to  co-operate  with  the  United 
States,  France,  and  other  nations  favoring  the  restoration  of  silver.  I 
do  not  myself  share  such  belief;  but  in  justice  to  Mexico  I  think  I 
ought  to  mention  this  fact. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  manufacturing  interests  of  England 
are  suffering  very  seriously  by  the  depreciation  of  silver.  In  the 
opinion  of  competent  observers  in  England  the  dulness  in  the  cotton 
textile  industry  is  due  largely  to  the  depreciation  of  silver  which  has 
stimulated  the  manufacture  of  cotton  goods  in  various  other  parts 
of  the  world.  Lancashire,  the  seat  of  Britain's  cotton  manufacturing 
industry,  had,  up  to  July,  1867,  1700  firms  engaged  in  the  business, 
the  total  spindles  being  62,000,000,  and  the  total  number  of  looms 
641,547.  In  this  great  centre  of  industry  there  has  been  witnessed 
the  extraordinary  spectacle  of  "  every  department  of  the  cotton  trade 
being  under  a  cloud.  The  balance  sheet  of  the  firms  are  bound  to 
show  serious  losses  save  in  a  few  exceptional  cases."  The  cotton  ex- 
portation to  India  has  fallen  off  heavily,  owing  to  the  famine,  the 
plague,  and  the  diminished  purchasing  power  of  silver,  and,  mean- 
time, most  of  the  machine  shops  of  the  North  of  England  have  been 
busy  in  turning  out  looms  and  spindles,  "  but  the  bulk  of  it  goes 
abroad  to  swell  the  volume  of  production,  and  to  furnish  grave  prob- 
lems for  the  textile  districts  of  the  North  to  solve  in  the  future."  This 
is  said  by  the  London  Daily  Chronicle,  which  remarks  that  there  is  a 
general  opinion  that  wages  must  come  down  quite  ten  per  cent. 

Another  English  paper  that  speaks  with  authority  on  this  subject 
is  the  Cotton  Factory  Times,  which  says: 

"  So  far  as  Continental  markets  are  concerned,  we  may  practically  give  them  up, 
except  in  such  classes  of  yarn  and  cloth  as  they  cannot  conveniently  produce  them- 
selves. But  in  Asia  and  in  the  South  American  Republics — which  are  also  mill-build- 
ing— there  is  yet  room  for  good  business  were  our  currency  put  on  a  right  footing. 
Here  we  have  all  the  Lancashire  authorities  wringing  their  hands  at  what  they  almost 
term  a  deadlock,  and  yet  it  is  only  now  and  again  that  they  whisper  to  themselves  the 
true  cause." 

And  then  the  same  journal  utters  the  following  sentiment: 

"  With  the  purchasing  power  of  the  money  of  our  leading  customers  reduced  by 
nearly  one-half,  as  compared  witli  little  over  twenty  years  ago,  is  it  any  wonder  that 
they  cannot  keep  increasing  their  purchases  of  our  goods,  and  run  after  producers 
whose  goods  are  produced  under  the  same  currency  conditions  as  their  own  ?  Twenty 
odd  years  ago  the  Asiatic  rupee  was  wortli  two  shillings,  and  ten  of  them  were  worth 
a  pound.  Now  ten  of  them  are  worth,  in  England,  little  more  than  half  a  sovereign, 
and  as  the  Hindoo  has  no  more  rupees  to  spend  than  before,  he  wants  the  same  quan- 
tity of  stuff  or  thereabouts  for  his  rupee,  or  he  won't  buy.  We  do  not  assert  that  had 
silver  not  been  demonetized  in  1873  we  could  have  gone  on  increasing  our  trade  at  the 
rate  we  had  previously  done,  but  there  can  be  no  doubt  we  should  have  done,  and 
could  now,  were  things  altered,  be  doing  a  steady  trade." 


584  Zbc  Silver  Stan^a^^  in  /IDcjico. 

Mexico  '  offers  a  clear  demonstration  of  the  truth  of  what  the 
Cotton  Factory  Times  said,  as  new  cotton  mills  are  built  equipped 
with  English  machinery,  the  inevitable  result  being  the  supplying  to  a 
still  greater  extent  by  domestic  mills  the  demand  for  cotton  goods. 
England  is  furnishing  the  weapons  wherewith  her  own  great  trade  is 
to  be  reduced  in  volume. 

It  would  seem  to  be  for  the  interest  of  England  to  do  something 
for  silver,  in  conjunction  with  the  United  States,  France,  and  Germany. 
Possibly,  as  Dr.  Karl  Peters,  the  distinguished  German  historian, 
says,  in  a  remarkable  article  published  in  1897  in  the  Zukunft,  of  Ber- 
lin, England  need  not  foster  her  manufactures  as  sedulously  as  for- 
merly, for  with  the  demonetization  of  silver  she  gains  in  the  volume  of 
imports  needed  to  pay  the  interest  due  her  on  capital  placed  abroad, 
and  so  is  becoming  an  enormously  wealthy  banker-nation  which  can 
live  on  her  world-wide  investments  regardless  of  losses  to  her  manu- 
facturers and  merchants. 

Dr.  Peters  is  so  strong  a  believer  in  the  eventual  preponderance  on 
this  planet  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  race  that  he  has  been  criticised  sharply 
for  his  anglomania  by  contemporary  German  writers. 

Dr.  Peters  sees  nothing  for  England  to  fear  in  becoming  less 
powerful  in  manufacturing;  she  is,  in  his  opinion,  destined  to  change 
into  a  purely  capitalist  country.      He  adds: 

"  The  time  is  approaching  when  Glasgow  and  Manchester  will  be  unable  to 
compete  with  foreign  rivals,  but  the  capital  heaped  together  in  the  city  of  London 
will  control  all  foreign  industry,  monopolizing  all  private  property.  Already  India. 
America,  Australia,  and  South  Africa  are  forced  to  send  their  produce  at  cheap  rates 
to  England,  in  \HLXi  payment  of  dividends  and  interest.  British  imperialism  is  not 
founded  on  cannons  ;  it  rests  upon  money  alone,  and  ancient  Rome  never  exploited 
her  provinces  in  a  more  relentless  manner  than  Great  Britain  her  possessions  or  any 
country  subject  to  the  influence  of  her  caj)ital." 

The  German  historian  reckons  up  the  "  tribute  money  "  yearly  paid 
in  London.  India  contributes  $100,000,000;  Australia  and  South 
Africa  at  present  $75,000,000,  and  the  United  States,  at  the  least  cal- 
culation, $250,000,000,  although  French  statisticians  estimate  the 
"  Yankee  tribute  "  at  $400,000,000  annually  I 

'  Mr.  Garden,  however,  expresses  the  opinion,  in  a  very  able  report  to  the  London 
Foreign  Office  on  Colton  Maintfactui  ing  Industry  in  Mexico,  dated  at  the  City  of 
Mexico  on  March  10,  i8g8  {British  Diplomatic  and  Consular  Reports,  No.  453,  Mis- 
cellaneous Series),  that  the  abundance  of  money  in  Mexico  seeking  investment,  and 
not  the  depreciation  of  silver,  is  the  cause  of  the  great  increase  of  the  cotton  industry 
in  that  country,  although  in  another  portion  of  his  report  he  says  that  the  Mexican 
cotton  industry,  favored  as  it  is  by  the  very  heavy  premium  on  gold,  has  practically 
nothing  to  fear  from  foreign  competition.  It  seems  obvious  that  the  abundance  of 
money  seeking  investment  in  Mexico  might  be  due  to  our  silver  standard,  which  has 
increased  so  much  our  exports  of  commodities,  leaving  our  coin  at  home. 


I 


XHniteO  States  auD  Silver  trom  a  /IDejican  Standpoint.    585 

It  seems  to  me  beyond  all  doubt  that  for  the  reason  assigned  by 
Dr.  Peters,  or  for  other  considerations,  England  will  not  consent, 
under  the  present  condition  of  things,  to  the  rehabilitation  of  silver. 

T/ie  United  States  and  Silver  from  a  Mexican  Standpoint. — I  will 
not  finish  this  introduction  without  stating  that  the  opinion  prevailing 
in  the  United  States  that  Mexico  desires  this  country  to  adopt  the 
silver  standard  for  the  purpose  of  being  helped  in  the  way  of  less 
fluctuations  and  a  material  increase  in  the  price  of  silver,  is  a  very 
mistaken  one.  A  great  many  think  that  should  the  United  States  adopt 
the  silver  standard,  the  large  profits  now  derived  by  selling  here  in 
gold  the  articles  produced  by  us  under  a  silver  basis  will  cease,  to  the 
great  detriment  of  Mexico,  and  they  are  therefore  averse  to  seeing  the 
United  States  under  the  silver  basis. 

I  am  sure  that  nobody  in  Mexico  would  like  to  see  the  United 
States  debase  its  currency  for  the  sake  of  their  keeping  company 
with  silver  standard  nations.  We  are  sure  that  the  great  importance 
of  the  United  States  as  a  commercial  and  industrial  nation  will  always 
make  its  money,  whether  gold  or  silver,  as  good  as  any  other  in  the 
world,  and  while  if  they  favor  silver  they  might  contribute  to  increase 
the  price  of  that  metal,  or  at  least  to  avoid  the  present  fluctuations, 
such  policy  will  hardly  bring  about  the  debasement  of  the  United 
States'  currency. 

The  Mexican  government  and  the  Mexican  people  at  large  would 
be  glad  of  course  if  the  United  States  Government,  with  its  command- 
ing position  among  the  great  commercial  nations  of  the  world,  would 
assist  in  the  restoration  of  the  price  of  silver,  or  at  least  in  preventing 
its  falling  any  lower;  but  many  would  rather  see  the  United  States 
adhere  to  the  gold  standard,  as  it  means  for  Mexico  exemption  from 
competition,  and  also  a  gold  premium  bounty  '  on  tropical  products. 

'  A  great  many  in  Mexico  consider  as  an  advantage  the  permanent  depreciation 
of  silver,  and  this  statement  is  borne  out  by  the  following  remarks  of  Mr.  William  J. 
Bryan  in  a  letter,  on  his  recent  visit  to  Mexico,  that  was  published  in  the  New  York 
World  oi  January  23,  1898,  in  which  he  says  : 

"  I  found  quite  a  number  of  Mexicans  who  went  so  far  as  to  express  the  hope  that 
the  United  States  would  continue  the  gold  standard  because  of  the  advantage  which 
Mexican  manufacturers  find  in  a  high  rate  of  exchange,  but  the  majority  of  the  people 
with  whom  I  talked  desire  the  restor.ation  of  bimetalism  in  the  United  States  in  onler 
that  stability  in  exchange  may  be  added  to  stability  in  prices 

My  statement  is  also  confirmed  by  the  following  extract  from  an  interview  which 
Captain  W.  G.  Raoul,  President  of  the  Mexican  National  R.  R.  Co.,  had  with  a 
New  Orleans  Times-Democrat  correspondent  published  in  the  issue  of  that  paper  of 
September  4,  1896  : 

"  Mexican  merchants  do  not  want  to  see  the  United  States  go  on  a  silver  basis. 
Mexico  has  a  good  thing  as  matters  are  now,  and  she  don't  want  to  share  the  silver 
pudding  with  the  peojilc  on  the  north  of  her.  Free  silver  is  a  blessing  to  any  com- 
munity or  country  .     ." 


5S6  Zbc  Silx>er  Stan^ar^  in  /IDerico. 

Mexico  and  the  Gold  Standard. — I  have  been  often  asked  why 
Mexico  does  not  adopt  the  gold  standard  and  place  herself  abreast 
with  the  great  commercial  nations  of  the  world.  On  this  account  I 
think  it  proper  to  present  some  views  on  the  subject. 

It  would  be  a  great  deal  more  difficult  for  Mexico  to  accept  the 
gold  standard  than  for  the  United  States  to  adopt  the  silver  standard, 
because,  the  silver  standard  having  been  in  operation  in  Mexico  for 
four  hundred  years,  to  abandon  it  and  come  to  the  gold  standard,  a 
higher  standard  of  value,  would  entail  untold  losses,  a  great  dis- 
turbance of  business,  many  failures,  and  almost  universal  ruin;  while 
the  adoption  of  the  silver  standard  in  the  United  States,  although  un- 
doubtedly it  would  be  accompanied  by  very  serious  disturbances  in  busi- 
ness and  by  heavy  losses,  might  ultimately  result,  considering  the  great 
importance  of  this  country  as  a  commercial  and  manufacturing  nation, 
in  the  restoration  of  silver  as  a  money  metal  by  the  other  commercial 
nations  of  the  world,  although  without  a  reasonable  certainty  that  such 
should  be  the  result,  a  certainty  not  easy  to  obtain,  it  would  not  be 
prudent  to  make  hastily  such  a  change. 

Although  we  have  suffered  so  far  all  the  drawbacks  of  the  silver 
standard  that  I  will  presently  mention,  we  are  satisfied  with  it,  be- 
cause it  has  not  been  an  unmitigated  evil,  as  it  has  brought  us  decided 
advantages.  We  are  willing,  therefore,  to  wait  and  see  what  is  the 
final  outcome  of  this  question,  and  watch  the  result  of  several  experi- 
ments in  adopting  the  gold  standard  which  are  now  being  made  by 
some  of  the  recent  silver  standard  nations,  like  Japan,  Chili,  and 
especially  India."  It  is  my  personal  opinion  that  the  commercial 
nations  of  the  world  will  finally  reinstate  silver  as  a  money  metal,  going 

'  I  think  it  would  be  interesting  to  state  what  has  been,  so  far,  the  result  of  the 
adoption  of  the  gold  standard  by  Chili  and  Japan,  and  of  the  closing  of  the  Indian 
mints  to  the  free  coinage  of  silver.  Perhaps  the  data  that  I  have  on  that  subject  is  not 
entirely  impartial,  as  in  every  country  where  the  silver  standard  prevails  public  opinion 
is  divided  on  that  question,  a  strong  party  advocating  the  adoption  of  the  gold  standard 
and  the  other  the  permanence  of  the  silver  or  paper  money  currency,  and  perhaps  the 
friends  of  the  old  system  exaggerate  the  inconveniences  of  the  change. 

The  adoption  of  the  gold  standard  may  necessarily  bring  about,  at  least  for 
some  time,  serious  disturbances  consequent  to  such  an  important  change  in  the  mone- 
tary system  of  the  country,  and  perhaps,  notwithstanding  the  disadvantages  stated  in 
the  information  that  I  have  received,  such  changes  would  in  the  end  be  beneficial  to 
the  nations  which  have  adopted  it,  but  that  would  only  appear  with  the  lapse  of  a 
reasonable  time.  In  the  case  of  Chili,  that  country,  like  Argentina  and  Brazil,  was 
really  under  a  paper  money  basis,  which,  as  compared  with  gold,  was  worth  a  great 
deal  less  than  silver,  and  therefore  the  change  that  Chili  has  made  may  ultimately  be 
beneficial  to  her,  because  it  is  an  advantage  to  change  from  a  paper  money  to  a  coin 
money. 

Japan  has  adopted  the  gold  standard  in  so  far  as  to  redeem  in  gold  her  silver  coins 
at  the  ratio  of  i  to  32,  and  Chili  has  done  the  same  at  the  ratio  of  i  to  42.     Both  in- 


/TOesico  anD  tbe  (Bol^  5tan^ar^.  587 

back  to  the  bimetallic  standard  which  long  prevailed  for  so  long,  but  if 
that  should  not  be  so,  and  all  the  nations  of  the  world  would  accept 
the  gold  standard,  and  if  silver  should  command  as  low  a  price  as  any  of 
the  base  metals,  like  lead  or  copper,  we  of  course  would  accept  the 
gold  standard,  especially  if  by  that  time  we  can  produce,  as  I  have 

tended  to  equal  the  legal  with  the  commercial  ratio  of  silver,  but  as  the  market  price 
of  silver  changes  so  often,  their  object  so  far  has  been  frustrated. 

In  the  case  of  India,  undoubtedly  the  Colonial  Government  has  saved,  by  closing 
the  mints  to  the  free  coinage  of  silver,  large  amounts  of  money  in  buying  exchange  on 
London  ;  but  whether  the  closing  of  tiie  mints  is  beneficial  to  the  country  at  large,  I 
think  cannot  yet  be  ascertained,  and  is  a  matter  subject  to  further  developments. 

The  following  is  the  information  referred  to  : 

Japan. — Some  newspapers  of  the  Mikado's  Empire  are  lamenting  that  the  gold 
standard  was  ever  thought  of.  In  recent  reviews  of  the  year  1897  appearing  in  the 
native  papers,  there  is  a  general  condemnation  of  the  gold  standard.  It  is  admitted 
that  the  financial  situation  in  Japan  is  worse  than  it  was  in  1896.  Public  securities 
have  fallen,  railway  and  industrial  shares  are  very  low,  and  many  new  undertakings 
have  stopped  for  lack  of  funds.  And  worse  than  all,  the  exportation  of  cotton  yarns 
to  silver-using  China  has  come  to  a  standstill.  The  Japanese  papers  ascribe  this  to 
the  gold  standard. 

The  Tiji  Shimpo,  an  important  paper,  says  : 

"  The  adoption  of  the  gold  standard  is  the  worst  mistake  ever  committed  by  the 
government  in  the  long  history  of  the  thirty  years  that  have  passed  since  the  present 
Meiji  era  began.  The  Matsukata  ministry,  however,  must  bear  the  full  responsibility 
for  it.  The  prospect  which  the  country  had  of  still  further  developing  her  industries 
owing  to  the  depreciation  of  silver  compared  with  gold  has  now  been  ruthlessly  thrown 
away.  Our  trade  with  silver-using  countries  has  already  been  greatly  injured.  In 
China,  Corea,  and  the  Strait  settlements,  where  at  one  time  Japanese  products  found 
a  good  market  and  were  rapidly  expelling  foreign  goods,  Japan  is  now  losing  ground 
and  is  likely  soon  to  have  little  footing  'eft.  Many  of  the  factories  in  the  western  part 
of  Japan  are  closing  or  only  running  on  half  time." 

And  Greater  Japan  remarks  in  the  same  tone  : 

"  We  can  speak  only  in  gloomy  terms  of  the  year  just  past.  Commercial  affairs 
and  political  affairs  reached  their  lowest  depths  of  depression  and  mismanagement. 
The  introduction  of  the  gold  standard  proved  a  complete  failure.  It  was  to  have 
opened  the  door  to  an  inflow  of  foreign  capital,  thus  succoring  the  distress  of  the  in- 
dustrial classes  and  producing  an  appreciation  in  the  price  of  public  securities.  But 
foreign  capital  has  not  come  in,  neither  have  public  securities  appreciated.  On  the 
contrary,  we  have  seen  an  ever-increasing  preponderance  on  the  side  of  imports,  a  cor- 
responding outflow  of  specie,  and  a  steady  fall  in  the  price  of  bonds.  Nor  is  this  all. 
The  effect  of  the  demonetization  of  silver  has  been  fatal  to  the  most  promising  of  all 
Japan's  industrial  enterprises — cotton  spinning.  Its  chief  market  has  been  closed 
against  it,  and  the  prosperity  that  distinguished  it  at  the  close  of  1896  was  replaced  by 
adversity  at  the  end  of  1897." 

The  gold  standard  is  not  probably  the  sole  cause  of  the  bad  times  in  Japan,  for 
the  people  there  have  become  imbued  with  a  speculative  spirit  and  the  rage  for  easily 
made  fortunes  is  to  be  noted  there  as  in  Europe  and  the  United  .States. 

Chili. — According  to  a  well-informed  financial  jiaper  of  Chili,  La  Tiibuita  de 
Valparaiso,  the  adoption  of  the  gold  standard  in  that  country,  some  two  years  ago, 
has  not  given  satisfactory  results.      In  point  of  fact,  it  is  asserted  that  since  the  former 


588  Z\K  Silver  5tan^av^  in  /IDejico. 

no  doubt  we  will,  a  large  amount  of  gold,  namely,  from  $20,000,000  to 
$25,000,000  a  year,  which  will  be  the  basis  of  our  gold  currency. 

Another  reason  which  makes  it  difficult  for  Mexico  to  adopt  the 
gold  standard,  is  that  we  are  very  large  producers  of  silver,  the  United 
States  only  being  ahead  of  us  ;  therefore  it  would  be  injurious  to  our 
interests   to  depreciate  that  metal  in  our  own  market,  such  being  the 

financial  policy  was  discarded  and  gold  has  become  the  only  circulating  medium,  pov- 
erty and  a  paralyzation  of  business  seems  to  have  fallen  to  the  lot  of  many  districts  that 
heretofoie  were  very  flourishing.  There  is  a  noticeable  scarcity  of  circulating  medium 
all  over  the  country,  public  and  private  securities  have  depreciated,  and  the  rate  of  in- 
terest which  some  years  ago  was  7  or  8  per  cent,  is  now  as  high  as  12  per  cent. 
Furthermore,  since  the  gold  standard  was  introduced,  five  banks,  with  an  aggregated 
capital  of  $3,300,000,  have  failed,  and  three,  with  capital  amounting  to  $12,300,000 
have  gone  into  liquidation.  Thus  it  is  said  that  25  per  cent,  of  the  money  invested  in 
banking  in  that  country  has  been  lost,  and  a  similar  result  has  obtained  with  regard  to 
many  mining  and  industrial  enterprises  which  heretofore  had  been  in  a  most  flourish- 
ing condition. 

India. — The  opinion  of  many  intelligent  bankers  and  merchants  of  India  seems  to 
be  favorable  to  silver.  The  Indian  Spectator,  reflecting  accurately  this  opinion,  said  re- 
cently :  "  The  attitude  of  the  government  of  India  is  indeed  too  plainly  one  of  a  pro- 
nouncedly uncompromising  character.  They  have  pinned  their  faith  on  the  great 
experiment  of  1S93,  believing  too  optimistically  that  the  day  is  come  when  it  will 
succeed,  and  we  shall  have  gold  brouglit  to  our  mints  at  \s.  ^d.  a.  rupee,  and  are  de- 
lighted at  the  prospect  of  having  the  Indian  currency  assimilated  with  the  English, 
which  indeed  it  would  do  if  we  had  gold  sovereigns  in  India  in  quantity  large  enough 
to  make  the  rupee  in  reality  a  mere  token  coin.  We  are  not  at  all  confident  that 
such  a  consummation  is  very  near  to  us  now.  Nor  can  we  pay  exclusive  attention  to 
our  trade  with  England  alone,  and  be  blind  to  the  fact  that  the  present  currency 
arrangements  have  told  very  injuriously  upon  our  growing  trade  with  the  silver-using 
East." 

And  confirming  the  views  of  Chairman  Yule  of  the  Bank  of  Calcutta,  one  of  the 
ablest  advocates  of  silver-coinage  resumption  in  all  India,  the  Indian  Spectator  goes  on 
to  say:  "The  unrestricted  inflow  of  silver  bullion  and  the  tightness  of  the  money 
market  are  other  effects  of  the  currency  legislation  of  1893  which  we  cannot  view  with 
equanimity.  We  cannot,  therefore,  approve  of  the  attitude  taken  by  our  government 
or  their  determination,  expressed  in  their  dispatch  in  so  many  words,  to  persist  in  their 
policy  of  introducing  a  gold  standard  in  the  country  and  not  to  go  back  and  be  a  party 
to  any  problematic  scheme  of  bi-metallism.  Nor  can  we  believe  that  we  would  be 
worse  off  if,  with  our  mints  open,  we  could  by  any  means  raise  silver  up  and  be  content 
with  a  purely  silver  currency." 

The  following  is  an  abstract  of  the  opinion  of  the  Anglo-Indian  press  on  the  pres- 
ent financial  conditions  in  the  second  week  of  February,  1898,  published  by  the  Lon- 
don  limes  : 

"  .Since  the  closure  of  the  Indian  mints  the  rupee  has  had  an  artificial  value  on  an 
intermediate  level  between  gold  and  silver.  It  has  been  a  scarcity  rupee,  not  repre- 
senting the  market  value  of  silver,  but  the  lack  of  an  adequate  supply  of  currency. 
The  Indian  government,  having  large  gold  payments  to  make  in  England  every  year, 
has  profited  by  an  artificial  scarcity  of  money.  If  the  rupee  had  been  on  a  par  with 
silver  in  its  downward  course  the  remittances  would  have  been  heavily  increased.  The 
Indian  government,  since  the  closing  of  the  mints  to  silver,  has  produced  a  money 


/IDejico  an&  tbe  0ol^  Stan^arD.  589 

necessary  consequence  of  our  accepting  the  gold  standard.  Now,  it 
has  not  been  depreciated  at  home,  for  it  has  the  same  purchasing 
power  that  it  had  when  silver  was  at  a  par  with  gold,  at  a  ratio  of  i6 
to  I  ;  silver  has  only  depreciated  in  foreign  markets,  but  should  we 
accept  a  gold  standard  we  necessarily  would  depreciate  it  in  our  own 
country,  which  is  our  largest  and  most  important  market. 

famine  for  the  sake  of  obtaining  more  favorable  rates  of  exchange  in  its  own  trans- 
actions with  London." 

The  results  of  this  policy  as  explained  by  financial  writers  in  India  have  been  dis- 
astrous to  all  classes.  The  average  rate  of  interest  has  risen  from  4^  in  1895  and  5| 
in  1896  to  Jj^  in  1897.  How  high  it  will  go  in  1898  no  expert  ventures  to  forecast. 
In  Calcutta  loans  have  been  negotiated  as  high  as  14  per  cent.,  while  in  Bombay,  ac- 
cording to  TAe  Times,  of  India,  even  "  24  per  cent,  would  not  bring  out  an  advance 
upon  the  most  solid  of  all  securities,  namely  gold  bars."  With  a  bank  rate  of  10  per 
cent,  merchants  have  been  embarrassed  in  selling  their  bills,  and  commercial  enter- 
prise has  been  paralyzed.  This  continuous  money  stringency,  while  fatal  to  economic 
progress,  has  also  affected  the  capacity  of  the  masses  for  purchasing  food  in  famine 
times.  Mr.  B.  M.  Malabari,  in  his  pamphlet  on  India  in  iSgy,  discusses  the  vital 
question  whether  the  famine  results  from  the  absence  of  foodstuffs  or  from  the  want  of 
means  of  buying  food.  The  London  Times  makes  this  weighty  summary  of  financial 
opinion  in  India : 

"  If  the  conviction  once  possesses  the  Indian  mind  that  the  artificial  enhance- 
ment of  the  rupee  is  a  contributory  cause  of  famine,  it  will  furnish  a  common  rallying 
cry  for  all  classes — peasant  and  townsman,  rich  and  poor — such  as  has  never  before 
been  raised.  Put  in  economic  terms,  the  contention  is  that  the  government,  in 
order  more  easily  to  discharge  its  own  gold  obligations,  has  subjected  India  to  an  arti- 
ficial currency  that  bears  down  the  producing  industries  on  which  the  present  and  the 
future  of  the  people  depend.  Thus  stated,  the  question  is  open  to  fair  argument. 
But  if  it  passes  from  the  Anglo-Indian  to  the  vernacular  press,  it  will  cease  to  be  stated 
in  economic  terms,  and  become  a  popular  cry  of  the  spoliation  of  the  peasant, — that 
cry  for  which  it  has  hitherto  been  our  endeavor  to  avoid  giving  any  just  cause." 

Financial  writers  in  Calcutta  and  Bombay  do  not  hesitate  to  say  that  there  is  im- 
minent danger  lest  the  idea  that  the  famine  in  food  as  connected  with  the  famine  in 
money  may  take  hold  of  the  Indian  mind. 

From  some  statements  made  by  Lord  George  Hamilton,  Secretary  of  State  for 
India,  in  a  debate  on  the  Indian  currency,  which  took  place  in  the  House  of  Commons 
of  the  British  Parliament  on  March  29,  1898,  it  appears  that  in  the  opinion  of  the 
Indian  Office  it  would  be  impossible  to  reopen  the  Indian  mints  without  some  interna- 
tional arrangement,  which  at  present  is  considered  out  of  the  question,  and  that  the 
British  Government  was  so  perfectly  satisfied  with  the  closing  of  the  Indian  mints  that 
the  attempt  to  reopen  them  was  qualified  as  an  act  of  lunacy.  The  Liberal  element 
in  the  House  of  Commons  seemed  to  be  entirely  satisfied  with  Lord  George  Hamilton's 
views,  as  Sir  William  Vernon  Harcourt,  Liberal  leader  in  the  House,  congratulated 
Lord  George  Hamilton  upon  his  speech  in  which  he  expressed  the  views  just  quoted, 
and  the  House  then  adopted  Lord  George  Hamilton's  motion,  appointing  a  committee 
which  will  have  practically  all  the  powers  of  a  royal  commission  to  inquire  into  the 
practicability  of  the  Indian  Government's  proposals  for  a  gold  standard.  At  the  same 
time,  during  the  discussion  of  the  budget  debate  in  the  Indian  Legislative  Council, 
Sir  James  Westland,  the  financial  member  of  the  Council,  announced  that  he  could 
declare  that  a  silver  standard  or  the  reopening  of  the  Indian  mints  was  now  impossible. 


>i° 


590  TLbc  Silver  Stan&ar^  in  /IDejico. 

It  would  seem  easy  for  Mexico  to  overcome  all  the  drawbacks  of  the 
silver  standard  by  decreeing  the  payment  in  gold  of  the  whole  or  of  a 
portion  of  its  import  duties;  but  such  a  scheme  would  establish  two 
different  kinds  of  currency  in  Mexico,  and,  gold  being  the  more  val- 
uable, would  tend  to  depreciate  within  the  limits  of  Mexico  our  silver 
currency,  with  disadvantages  to  all  the  interests  in  the  country.  There 
is  another  serious  objection  to  that  plan:  our  import  duties  are  already 
so  high  that  they  do  not  admit  of  any  further  increase.  If  we  collected 
them  in  gold,  we  should  have  to  reduce  them  to  about  fifty  per  cent,  of 
the  present  rates,  now  payable  in  silver,  and  then  we  should  have  gained 
nothing,  but  increased  the  disadvantage  of  the  fluctuations  in  the  price 
of  silver  bullion;  while  if  we  should  leave  the  import  duties  at  or  about 
their  present  rates,  and  make  them  payable  in  gold,  we  should  practically 
double  them,  and  they  would  become  so  burdensome  as  to  afford  great 
encouragement  to  smuggling,  and  so  reduce  very  considerably  their 
proceeds,  especially  considering  the  high  increase  in  the  value  of  for- 
eign commodities  caused  by  the  depreciation  of  silver.' 

'  In  this  regard,  I  think  it  interesting  to  insert  here  a  letter  from  Senor  Don  Jose  Yves 
Limantour,  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  of  Mexico,  addressed  on  August  18,  1897,  to 
Mr.  Ottoman  Haupt,  a  well  known  French  currency  authority  and  gold  monometallist, 
who  has  advocated  the  adoption  of  the  gold  standard  in  Mexico,  and  even  suggested  a 
practical  way  to  do  it,  in  which  letter  the  policy  of  the  Mexican  Government  on  the 
subject  is  clearly  outlined,  and  the  difficulties  of  adopting  the  gold  standard  ably 
presented. 

"  Mfxico  City,  August  18,  1897. 

"  D.  Ottoman  Haupt,  Esq.,  Paris  : 

"  My  dear  Sir  : — Your  esteemed  letter  of  July  21st  last  came  duly  to  hand,  and 
I  answer  the  same  with  pleasure,  anxious  to  meet  the  laudable  intentions  that  have  no 
doubt  prompted  you  to  communicate  to  me  your  opinions  in  regard  to  the  monetary 
question  in  Mexico. 

"  Let  me  begin  by  assuring  you  that  you  made  no  mistake  when  you  thought  that 
your  special  studies  upon  the  subject  were  known  to  me.  In  fact,  your  principal  works 
have  a  prominent  place  in  my  library,  and  I  always  read  the  same  with  interest  and 
frequently  consult  them. 

"  You  are  furthermore  right  when  you  assure  me  that  it  is  not  at  present  an  aca- 
demical discussion  upon  the  convenience  of  a  single  unit  or  a  double  unit,  but  of  an 
essentially  practical  problem  whose  solution  is  every  day  inore  urgently  needed.  Some 
time  has  already  elapsed  since  this  study  was  taken  up  by  the  Secretaryship  under  my 
charge,  and,  as  you  can  readily  understand,  the  Government  follows  closely  the  general 
phases  under  which  the  monetary  question  presents  itself,  as  well  as  it  tries  to  follow 
under  its  various  hues  the  consequences  that  are  likely  to  follow. 

"  There  is  no  doubt  that  on  account  of  this  subject  a  panic  reigns  the  world  over, 
under  which  influence  many  nations,  with  or  without  cause,  be  it  for  lucrative  purposes 
or  on  account  of  an  immitative  mania,  have  changed  their  monetary  system  and  have 
put  silver  in  the  shade. 

"  It  is  also  true  that  other  nations  such  as  India  and  China,  which  were  enormous 
consumers  of  the  white  metal,  have  diminished  or  stopped  buying  it,  and  the  fact  is 


/IDejtco  an&  tbe  IRatio.  591 

Mexico  and  the  Ratio. — I  think  it  is  beyond  all  question  that  the 
main,  if  not  the  only,  cause  of  the  depreciation  of  silver  is  the  fact  of 
its  having  been  demonetized,  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  should 
the  mints  of  the  world  be  again  open  to  the  free  coinage  of  silver,  as 
they  were  before  1872,  at  the  ratio  then  existing,  the  market  price  of 
that  metal  would  be  again  as  it  was  then  as  compared  with  gold,  in  the 
proportion  of  sixteen  to  one. 

I  am  sure  the  Mexican  Government  would  accept  any  ratio  that  the 
commercial  nations  of  the  world  should  be  willing  to  agree  upon,  even 
in  case  it  differs  from  the  old  one.  So  far  as  my  personal  views  are 
concerned  I  would  rather  stand  by  this  ratio,  because  it  is  the  natural 
ratio,  and  because  it  stood  for  four  hundred  years  with  almost  no  break 
or  difficulty,  but  serving  a  good  purpose.  Should  any  other  ratio, 
whether  eighteen,  twenty,  or  more,  to  one,  be  adopted,  it  would  be  an 
artificial  one,  having  to  stand  upon  only  the  statute  books  of  the  com- 
mercial nations  of  the  world  opening  their  mints  to  the  free  coinage 
of  silver  at  such  ratio. 

Important  Papers  on  Silver  Printed  by  the  United  States  Senate. — 
The  Senate  of  the  United  States  has  ordered,  on  motion  of  several  of 
its  members  holding  opposite  views,  the  printing  of  many  very  inter- 
also  true,  beyond  any  doubt,  that  its  production  has  constantly  increased  and  in  a  pro- 
gression most  rapid.  All  of  these  circumstances  combined  have  tended  to,  or  at  least 
hastened,  the  depreciation  of  silver. 

"  Is  this  question,  however,  settled  fatally  and  definitely,  or  does  it  not  admit  of 
any  remedy  or  relief?  You  seem  to  think  so,  but  I,  for  my  part,  am  not  yet  convinced 
of  it,  and  independently  of  any  opinion  that  may  be  had  on  this  important  subject, 
many  powerful  reasons  exist  why  Mexico  should  not  change  its  silver  monetary  unit, 
at  least  whilst  some  of  its  economic  peculiarities  remain. 

"  In  my  answer  to  Mr.  Jacoby,  which  you  read,  I  brought  forward  and  tried  to 
give  in  detail  the  two  sorts  of  difficulties  that  would  beset  us  in  order  to  exchange  the 
silver  for  the  gold  unit.  The  first  of  these  difficulties  involves  the  means  to  procure 
the  necessary  gold  for  our  circulation,  and  the  second  (and  evidently  the  most  serious) 
almost  borders  on  the  impossible,  for  it  means  no  less  than  the  necessity  for  keeping 
the  gold  in  the  country  and  suppressing  its  exportation. 

"  Mexico's  commercial  balance  is  very  unfavorable,  its  exportations  far  exceeding 
its  importations,  and  besides  the  value  of  these  latter  it  has  to  pay  in  gold  the  service 
of  its  foreign  debt,  the  interest  on  its  bonds,  its  railroad  dividends,  and  those  of  many 
other  industrial  and  mining  enterprises,  which  have  been  established  or  are  worked 
with  foreign  capital.  In  favorable  years  this  unequilibrium  is  partially  neutralized 
with  the  new  European  capital  coming  to  seek  investment  in  the  country,  but  this  com- 
pensating factor  disappears  completely  in  feverish  times,  and,  moreover,  when  silver  is 
suffering  continual  depreciations. 

"  Well,  taking  altogether  the  exportations  necessary  to  pay  up  these  various  sums  : 
silver  represents  from  55  to  60  per  cent.,  and  the  remaining  45  or  40  per  cent,  other 
products  ;  in  other  words,  65,000,000  of  silver  against  45,000,000  or  50,000,000  of  all 
other  export  articles  put  together. 

"  Under  these  conditions,  what  expedient  must  we  resort  to  in  order  to  retain  the 
necessary  gold  bought,  and  not  to  suffer  the  deception,  which  other  nations  have  had 


59a  Zbc  Silver  Stan^ar^  in  /IDcjico. 

esting  papers  bearing  on  bimetallism  and  specially  on  the  silver  question 
and  on  the  effects  of  the  depreciation  of  silver  in  the  Eastern  nations, 
which  form  now  a  very  instructive  collection,  containing  a  great  deal 
of  very  useful  information  on  that  subject.  On  motion  of  Senator 
Chandler,  presented  on  June  6,  1898,  a  list  of  such  papers  has  just  been 
published  (55th  Congress,  2d  Session.  Senate.  Doc.  No.  286),  and 
for  the  benefit  of  the  readers  who  desire  a  source  of  information,  I 
append  that  list  to  this  paper.  Special  mention  is  due  to  two  of  these 
papers,  namely  :  A  summary  of  the  results  of  the  injuries  whicli  the 
world  has  suffered  by  the  depreciation  of  silver,  presented  in  a  very  con- 
cise manner  by  Baron  de  Courcel,  French  Ambassador  at  London,  at  a 
meeting  held  at  the  Foreign  Office  on  July  15,  1897,  where  the  three 
American  commissioners  sent  to  Europe  to  negotiate  an  international 
bimetallic  agreement  were  present,  besides  Ambassador  Hay,  Lord 
Salisbury,  and  several  other  members  of  the  British  Cabinet,  which 
appears  in  the  Minutes  of  that  meeting,  published  among  the  i)apers 
presented  to  Parliament  in  October,  1897,  and  which  the  Senate  of  the 
United  States  ordered  to  be  printed  on  January  17,  1898,  on  motion  of 
Senator  Chandler  (55th  Congress,  2d  Session.  Senate.  Doc.  No.  69)  ; 
and  an  extract  from  tbe  speech  of  Monsieur  Meline,  President  of  the 
Council  and  Minister  of  Agriculture,  delivered  in  the  French  Chamber 
of  Deputies  on  the  20th  of  November,  1897,  which  shows  very  clearly 
the  evils  resulting  to  the  world  at  large  from  the  depreciation  of  silver, 
and  that  such  depreciation  is  not  due  to  the  increased  production  of 
that   metal  (55th   Congress,   2d  Session.     Senate.     Doc.  No.  26). 

T/ie  Paper  as  Published  in  the  North  American  Review. — After 
having  made  the  foregoing  statements  and  explanations  in  this  rather 
lengthy  introduction,  it  is  time  to  insert  the  paper  as  it  appeared  in  the 
North  American  Revieiv  for  June,  1895. 

that  have  adopted  the  gold  unit,  of  seeing,  powerless  to  avoid  it,  the  exodus  of  their 
gold  to  foreign  nations? 

"  Truly,  I  have  been  unable  to  satisfactorily  answer  to  myself  this  question.  As 
long  as  silver  remains  in  circulation,  it  is  well  known  by  Gresham's  law  that  gold  is 
invariably  exported,  and  to  limit  the  circulation  of  silver  is  not  to  be  thought  of  in  a 
country  that  produces  it,  perhaps,  in  more  abundance  than  any  other  in  the  world. 

"  To  issue  gold  certificates  to  keep  the  metal  on  hand  is  not  in  my  opinion  practi- 
cal, because  if  such  certificates  are  not  redeemable  at  the  will  of  the  bearer  it  entails  a 
very  delicate  question  of  credit,  and  would  expose  us  to  unfavorable  unforseen  disas- 
ters and  contingencies,  and  if  it  were  otherwise  the  certificates  would  at  once  be  con- 
verted into  gold  and  immediately  exported. 

"I  finish  this  letter  assuring  you  that  it  will  always  be  a  pleasure  to  me  to  hear 
your  opinion  upon  subjects  that  to  you  are  so  familiar  and  that  you  cultivate  and 
elucidate  with  such  a  recognized  ability. 

■'  Believe  me,  yours  sincerely. 

J.  Y.   LiMANTOUR." 


THE  SILVER  STANDARD  IN  MEXICO. 

The  editor  of  the  North  American  Review  asked  me  some  time  ago 
for  an  article  about  the  industrial,  agricultural,  and  commercial  con- 
ditions of  Mexico,  as  compared  with  the  same  conditions  in  the  United 
States,  in  connection  with  the  monetary  systems  existing  in  both  coun- 
tries. I  was  very  reluctant  to  write  on  that  subject,  fearing  that  my 
remarks  might  be  construed  as  showing  a  desire  on  my  part  to  meddle 
in  the  important  currency  questions  then  pending  in  this  country,  or 
as  an  attempt  to  institute  a  comparison  between  Mexico  and  the  United 
States,  in  which  Mexico  should  appear  in  an  advantageous  position,' 
nothing  being  further  from  my  mind  than  either  of  these  purposes. 
Senator  Morgan  from  Alabama  subsequently  made  some  inquiries  of  me 
on  the  same  subject,  and  I  could  not  refuse  to  give  him  the  informa- 
tion he  desired;  after  which  I  saw  no  objection  to  furnishing  it  to  the 
North  American  Review,  and  I  used  in  the  preparation  of  this  article 
everything  that  I  said  to  Senator  Morgan  in  answer  to  his  inquiry: 

No  Possible  Comparison  Bet^ceeti  Mexico  and  the  United  States. — I 
must  begin,  however,  by  saying  that  it  would  be  neither  desirable  nor 
proper  for  me  to  enter  into  a  comparison  between  Mexico  and  the 
United  States.  This  country  is  so  far  in  advance  of  Mexico  in  material 
progress,  commerce,  manufactures,  improved  methods  of  agriculture, 
high  wages,  public  education,  accumulation  of  wealth,  banking  and 
banking  facilities,  and  so  many  other  things,  that  such  a  comparison 
would  be  unfair,  although  in  some  respects  Mexico  has  suffered  less 
than  this  country  during  the  present  financial  crisis.  I  shall,  there- 
fore, confine  myself  to  stating  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  pro- 
duced in  Mexico  by  the  silver  standard  prevailing  there,  without 
drawing  any  conclusions  from  the  facts  presented,  so  that  every  reader 
can  draw  his  own. 

'  This  article  was  written  and  published  at  the  time  when  the  financial  crisis  of 
1893  was  producing  its  direst  effects  in  the  United  States,  that  is,  when  prices  had 
come  down,  factories  were  closed,  operatives  dismissed,  wages  reduced,  strikes  occur- 
ring everywhere,  business  depressed,  many  men  were  without  employment,  and  in 
consequence  of  all  that  a  very  unsatisfactory  condition  of  things  prevailed  all  over 
the  country.  It  is  to  that  condition  of  things  tluit  the  article  refers  in  stating  that 
Mexico  had  not  suffered  so  much  as  the  United  States  during  that  period. 

593 


594  ^b^  Silver  StauDar&  in  /IDcjico. 

But  in  doing  so,  I  must  disclaim  all  purpose  of  commenting  in  any 
manner,  even  by  implication,  on  the  monetary  question  in  the  United 
States.  My  position  here,  both  as  an  alien  and  more  especially  as  the 
official  representative  of  a  friendly  foreign  country,  precludes  me  from 
meddling  in  any  way  in  a  public  f[uestion  pending  in  the  United 
States.  Besides  the  conditions  of  the  two  countries  are  so  widely 
different,  that  they  can  hardly  be  comi)ared  with  each  other,  and 
what  is  advantageous  to  one  might  be  inconvenient,  or  even  hurtful, 
to  the  other.  My  statements  have  therefore  reference  to  Mexico  alone 
and  in  no  way  to  the  United  States. 

/Reasons  ivhy  Mexico  //as  the  Silver  Standard. — Mexico  is  legally  a 
bimetallic  country,  because  we  have  free  coinage  of  both  gold  and  sil- 
ver at  the  ratio  of  i6  to  i  ;  but  practically  we  are  a  silver  monometal- 
lic country,  because  under  the  operation  of  the  Gresham  Law  all  the 
gold  bullion  and  the  gold  coin  existing  in  Mexico  is  exported  as  mer- 
chandise, having  a  much  greater  market  value  than  its  legal  value  in 
Mexico,  and  silver  is  therefore  the  only  metallic  money  used  there  in 
payment  of  debts  or  for  any  other  purpose.  The  silver  standard 
prevailing  in  Mexico  was  not  adopted  from  choice.  Mexico  being  the 
largest  silver-producing  country,  over  two  thirds  of  the  whole  silver 
stock  of  the  world  having  come  out  of  its  mines,  silver  has  been  our  only 
currency  for  nearly  four  hundred  years.  We  have  kept  so  far  our 
monetary  standard,  because,  as  will  be  seen  farther  on,  it  has  not  been 
an  unmitigated  evil  for  Mexico,  because  we  have  hoped  that  the  com- 
mercial nations  of  the  world  would  find  it  to  their  interest  to  rehabili- 
tate silver  in  some  way,  and  also  because  we  have  been  anxious  to 
avoid  the  derangements  and  disadvantages  consequent  to  a  change  of 
monetary  standard  which  would  be  also  felt,  although  not  in  such  a 
degree,  by  the  United  States,  should  they  attempt  to  change  their  pres- 
ent gold  standard  for  a  silver  one.  A  change  from  the  silver  to  the 
gold  standard  would  cause  in  Mexico  general  ruin,  as  we  do  not  yet 
l)roduce  gold  enough  to  base  our  currency  on  that  metal,  and  as  our 
exports  of  commodities  are  not  yet  sufficiently  large  to  allow  us  to  buy 
all  the  gold  we  need  for  that  purpose.  The  high  price  of  gold  is  a 
great  incentive  to  gold-mining,  and  if  gold  continues  at  the  present 
high  price  for  some  time,  I  am  sure  Mexico  will  before  long  be  a  large 
producer  of  that  metal. 

We  never  had  any  paper  currency,  either  national,  state,  or 
issued  by  banks.  Two  or  three  banks,  indeed,  have  now  issued 
notes,  but  they  are  not  legal  tender.  They  are  convertible  into 
silver  coin  at  the  holder's  pleasure,  and  while  they  circulate  freely  in 
the  large  cities  and  for  convenience'  sake  are  preferred  to  the  hard 
dollar,  they  are  almost  unknown  in  the  small  towns  and  in  the  country. 
The  bank  issues  special  notes  for  each  place,  which  are  redeemable 


I 


a&v>antaoes  of  tbe  Silver  Stan^ar^  to  /Cejico.     595 

only  in  that  i)lace,  thus  keeping  up  in  effect  the  old  system  of  charging 
a  high  premium  for  the  exchange  of  money  from  one  place  to  another, 
the  item  of  profit  to  the  banks  corresponding  with  what  used  to  be  the 
charge  for  transporting  silver  money. 

Advantages  of  the  Silver  Standard  to  Mexico. — The  advantages  to 
Mexico  of  the  silver  basis  are  the  following,  most  of  which  could  not 
be  applicable  to  the  United  States  on  account  of  the  different  condi- 
tions prevailing  in  each  country  :  ' 

'  The  effects  of  the  silver  standard  for  all  countries,  and  without  taking  into  con- 
sideration the  peculiar  conditions  of  any  one,  are  very  clearly  stated  in  the  Report  of 
the  Committee  appointed  by  the  Japanese  Government  to  study  the  question  of  stand- 
ard, previous  to  their  adoption  of  the  gold  standard,  which  was  printed  by  order  of 
the  Senate  of  July  7,  1897,  as  Senate  Document  No.  176,  55th  Congress,  ist  Session. 
I  take  from  that  report  the  following  heads  on  the  subject  of  such  advantages,  without 
giving  in  detail  the  explanations  and  reasons  of  the  report  to  sustain  its  views. 

The  effects  of  the  silver  standard  are  ; 

1.  Increase  of  exports. 

2.  Rise  in  prices  of  commodities. 

3.  Light  burden  of  debtors  and  taxpayers. 

4.  Good  condition  of  agriculture. 

5.  Development  of  commerce  and  industry. 

6.  Increase  in  revenue  from  taxes  and  other  sources. 

7.  Increase  in  demand  for  labor. 

8.  Increase  of  national  expenditure. 

9.  Distress  of  those  who  receive  fixed  wages. 

10.  Disadvantages  to  creditors. 

11.  Growth  of  speculative  enterprise. 

12.  Rise  in  prices  of  commodities  imported  from  gold  countries  and  decrease  in 
imports. 

The  effects  of  the  gold  standard  as  enumerated  in  that  report  are  the  following  : 

1.  Profits  to  creditors. 

2.  Fall  in  prices  of  commodities  imported  from  silver  countries. 

3.  Decrease  of  national  expenditure. 

4.  Depreciation  of  prices  of  coiniiiodities. 

5.  Loss  to  debtors  and  taxpayers. 

6.  Depression  of  commerce  and  industry. 

7.  Decline  of  rate  of  interest. 

8.  Distress  of  farmers. 

9.  Decrease  in  revenue. 

10.  Distress  of  employers. 

11.  Decrease  in  demand  of  labor. 

12.  Increase  of  imports  from  silver  countries. 

The  report  concludes  by  enumerating  the  effects  in  Japan  of  the  recent  change  of 
ratio  between  gold  and  silver. 

1.  Radical  change  in  the  relative  prices  of  gold  and  silver. 

2.  Gold  appreciated  more  than  silver  depreciated. 

3.  The  chief  cause  of  change  in  the  ratio  of  gold  and  silver  is  the  incre.iscd  de- 
mand for  gold  in  several  countries. 

4.  The  change  in  the  ratio  of  gold  and  silver  gives  advantages  to  the  silver  coun- 
tries and  disadvantages  to  the  gold  countries. 


596  Zbc  Silrer  Stan&art)  in  /IDei:tco. 

ist.  The  silver  standard  encourages  very  materially,  so  long  as 
other  leading  commercial  nations  have  the  single  gold  standard,  the 
increase  of  exports  of  domestic  products,  because  the  expenses  of 
producing  them,  land,  wages,  rent,  taxes,  etc.,  are  paid  in  silver,  and 
therefore  their  cost,  as  compared  with  their  market  value,  is  consider- 
ably less  than  that  of  similar  articles  produced  or  raised  in  single  gold 
standard  countries.  When  sold  in  gold  markets,  therefore,  they  bring 
very  profitable  prices,  as  they  are  converted  into  silver,  at  a  high  rate 
of  exchange.  These  conditions  have  caused  a  great  development  in 
the  exportation  of  some  of  our  agricultural  products,  because  they 
yield  very  large  profits;  coffee,  for  instance,  which  costs  on  an  average 
about  ten  cents  a  pound  to  produce  it,  all  expenses  included,  has 
been  sold  at  about  twenty  cents  in  gold  in  foreign  markets.  The  ex- 
port of  other  agricultural  products  which  did  not  pay  when  gold  and 
silver  were  at  par,  that  is,  at  the  ratio  of  one  to  sixteen,  is  now  re- 
munerative, because  there  is  returned  to  us  in  exchange  more  than  we 
lose  in  the  gold  price  of  the  article. 

The  same  is  the  result  of  some  agricultural  products  that  we  could 
not  export  before  because  their  price  in  foreign  markets  was  not  remu- 
nerative. Such  is  the  case,  for  instance,  with  beans,  which  at  eight 
cents  would  not  pay  when  silver  and  gold  were  at  par,  but  now  that 
eight  cents  in  gold  make  about  sixteen  cents  in  silver,  it  is  a  profita- 
ble price.     Our  exports  for  several  years  preceding  1869  were  about,  a 

year $20,000,000  00 

1872-73   31,594,005   14 

1888-89 60,158,423  02 

1891-92   75,467,714  95 

1892-93 87,509,207  00  ' 

The  Statistical  Bureau  of  the  Mexican  Government  quotes  the  price  of 
our  exports  in  silver,  and  therefore  to  find  them  in  gold  they  have  to 
be  reduced  to  the  market  price  of  silver,  but,  even  reduced  to  one-half, 
the  increase  is  very  remarkable. 

Formerly  we  used  to  export  only  silver  and  gold  ;  because  of  their 

5.  Ja]5an  has  made  great  economic  progress. 

6.  Increase  of  national  expenditures. 

7.  Distress  of  those  who  receive  fixed  wages. 

8.  Loss  of  creditors. 

g.  Prevalence  of  speculative  enterprise. 

10.  Rise  in  prices  of  goods  imported  from  gold  countries. 

11.  Tendency  to  luxury. 

12.  The  opening  of  the  mint  invites  the  import  of  silver. 

13.  Stagnation  in  commercial  dealings  with  Japan  and  gold  countries. 

14.  Decrease  of  capital  investments  from  gold  countries. 

"For  the  last  two  fiscal  years  our  exports  were:  1895-96,  $105,016,902.00; 
1896-97,  $111,346,494.00. 


U^vantaQcs  of  tbe  Silver  Stant)arO  to  /iDejico.     597 

small  weight  and  bulk  relatively  to  their  value,  they  were  the  only 
articles  that  paid  for  transportation.  But  the  proportion  of  other 
commodities  has  been  increased  recently  to  fifteen,  twenty,  thirty,  and 
forty  per  cent,  of  the  export  of  our  precious  metals,  and  during  the 
fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1896,  the  proportion  was  sixty-one  per 
cent.,  as  the  exports  of  precious  metals  amounted  to  $64,838,596,  and 
the  exports  of  commodities  to  $40,178,306. 

2d.  The  silver  standard  is  a  great  stimulus  to  the  development  of 
home  manufactures,  because  foreign  commodities  have  to  be  paid  for 
in  gold,  and,  owing  to  the  high  rate  of  exchange,  their  prices  are  so 
high  that  it  pays  well  to  manufacture  some  of  them  at  home,  our  low 
wages  also  contributing  to  this  result.' 

For  these  reasons  we  are  increasing  considerably  our  manufacturing 
plants,  especially  our  cotton  mills,  smelters,  etc.,  and  we  begin  now  to 
manufacture  several  articles  that  formerly  we  used  to  buy  from  foreign 
countries,  and  all  this,  notwithstanding  that  the  mountainous  charac- 
ter of  our  country,  the  want  of  interior  navigable  watercourses,  and 
the  scarcity  of  fuel,  make  manufacturing  very  expensive  in  Mexico. 
But  we  are  finding  abundant  coal  deposits,  and,  when  our  railroads  tap 
our  coal-fields,  that  objection  will  be  considerably  diminished.  One 
of  our  railroads,  the  International,  built  by  Mr.  C.  P.  Huntington  and 
his  associates,  has  already  reached  a  very  large  coal-field  at  Salinas, 
near  Piedras  Negras,  which  is  now  supplying  with  coal  a  part  of  the 
country,  and  even  some  sections  of  the  Southern  Pacific  system  of  this 
country,  but  of  course  it  cannot  supply  the  whole  of  Mexico.  When 
that  need  is  satisfied,  we  shall  have  to  contend  only  with  the  increased 
expenses  of  transporting  the  raw  material   to   the  factories   and   the 

'  Mr.  Ransom,  United  States  Minister  in  the  City  of  Mexico,  confirms  this  state- 
ment in  the  following  paragraph  from  his  report  on  the  Currency,  Prices,  and  Condition 
of  Labor  in  Mexico,  dated  at  the  City  of  Mexico,  September  26,  1896,  and  published 
in  Vol.  XIII.,  Part  I.,  of  the  Special  Consular  Reports  : 

"  Manufacturing  in  Mexico  has  been  developed  to  a  considerable  extent,  especially 
in  the  manufacture  of  the  coarser  grades  of  cotton  and  woollen  goods,  ordinary  bleach- 
ings,  goods  for  shawls,  prints,  and  calicoes,  woollen  cloth  ;  also  in  the  manufacture  of 
the  products  of  sugar-cane,  alcohol,  paper,  cigars,  and  cigarettes.  Many  well-informed 
persons  believe  that  the  depreciation  of  the  price  of  silver  has  been  the  main  cause  of 
the  development  of  these  industries.  To  some  extent  this  is  doubtless  true  ;  the  large 
discount  on  silver  has  had  its  influence  in  depressing  foreign  importation  and  stimulat- 
ing domestic  production.  But  other  powerful  causes  have  had  their  effect  in  this 
direction — an  able,  wise,  and  just  administration  of  the  government  during  the  presi- 
dency of  General  Diaz,  the  confidence  of  the  Mexican  people  and  foreigners  in  the 
stability  of  the  government,  the  building  of  railroads  (all  but  the  one  from  Veracruz  to 
the  City  of  Mexico  having  been  completed  since  1883),  the  improvement  of  coast 
harbors,  the  enlargement  of  commerce,  the  liberal  action  of  the  government  toward 
new  industries  ;  in  fact,  the  general  influences  of  law,  liberty,  peace,  and  commerce, 
have  all  contributed  to  this  result." 


598  Ube  Silver  Stan^ar^  in  /iDejtco. 

manufactured  goods  to  the  place  of  consumption  over  a  mountainous 
country  with  high  grades  and  many  sharp  curves,  unless  some  new 
means  of  transportation  may  be  hereafter  devised  which  shall  over- 
come those  obstacles.  Eventually  Mexico  will  utilize  for  manufac- 
turing the  many  streams,  almost  torrents,  which  come  down  the  steep 
mountains,  and  which  constitute  a  very  large  water-power. 

One  of  the  leading  directors  of  the  Mexican  Central  Railroad,  has 
informed  me  that  about  ten  years  ago  the  supplies  imported  to  operate 
that  road  amounted  to  sixty  per  cent,  of  all  the  material  used,  and 
that  to  save  the  loss  on  exchange,  the  company  has  been  following  the 
system  of  manufacturing  in  Mexico  all  that  they  possibly  can,  and 
that  the  proportion  of  foreign  supplies  imported  during  the  last  year 
has  been  reduced  now  to  twenty  per  cent.,  and  that  they  have  decided 
to  use  Mexican  rails,  as  soon  as  they  can  be  manufactued  in  Mexico, 
which  will  still  further  considerably  reduce  that  percentage. 

As  it  is  now,  some  manufacturing  plants  of  the  United  States  are 
being  taken  to  Mexico,  as  appears  in  the  following  extract  from  the 
annual  report  of  Mr.  W.  G.  Raoul,  President  of  the  Mexican  National 
Railroad  Company,  for  the  year  1894  ': 

"  The  most  extensive  and  best  equipped  shops  owned  by  the  company  are  on  the 
north  side  of  the  Rio  Grande,  in  the  United  States,  but  the  greater  expense  of  operat- 
ing them  has  caused  the  withdrawal  of  much  of  the  work  from  them  to  the  shops  of 
Mexico.  Our  shops  in  Mexico  are  not  adequate  for  the  entire  work  of  the  road,  and 
the  removal  of  the  Texas  plant  into  Mexico  becomes  an  economic  necessity,  if  the 
peculiar  trade  and  the  industrial  conditions  now  existing  respectively  in  the  two  coun- 
tries are  to  continue." 

A  like  result  has  been  obtained  in  other  countries  which  are  or  were 
on  a  silver  basis,  such  as  Japan,  China,  and  India,  the  depreciation  of 
silver,  or  the  high  rates  of  exchange  having  forced  those  countries  to 
manufacture  staple  goods  for  home  consumption  and  in  some  cases  even 
for  export,  and  this  fact  begins  to  be  sorely  felt  in  England  and  other 
old  manufacturing  countries.* 

The  development  of  manufactures  in  Mexico  has  also  brought 
about  an  increase  in  the  production  of  raw  materials  consumed  in  our 

'  In  i8q6  the  Mexican  National  Railroad  had  continued  the  same  policy,  as  is 
shown  by  the  following  extract  from  an  interview  which  Mr.  Raoul  had  with  a  New 
Orleans  Times-Democrat  correspondent,  and  which  appears  in  the  issue  of  that  paper 
of  September  4,  1896  : 

"  We  find  it  to  the  interest  of  our  company  to  do  all  our  repairing  and  building 
of  cars  in  Mexico.  Our  shops  are  located  at  Laredo,  Texas,  but  they  are  practically 
closed,  and  we  do  nearly  everything  at  the  City  of  Mexico  and  other  points.  In  this 
way  free  silver  benefits  a  community,  gives  its  citizens  plenty  of  work,  draws  it  away 
from  gold-standard  countries,  and  thus  furnishes  a  continual  stream  of  prosperity." 

'  The  following  remarks  contained  in  a  paper  read  at  a  recent  session  (1897)  of  the 
Royal  Colonial  Institute  in  London,  by  the  Hon.  T.  H.  Whitehead,  of  Hong  Kong, 
China,  which  deals  with  the  effects  of  the  depreciation  in  the  value  of  silver,  on  the  trade 
of  Great  Britain  with  the  Orient,  confirms  my  statement  about  the  great  stimulus  that  the 


HDvantaaes  ot  tbe  Silver  Stant)arC)  to  /©ejico.     599 

manufactories,  and  which  before  we  used  to  buy  from  foreign  coun- 
tries, as  is  the  case  with  cotton.  The  price  of  such  articles  in  gold 
makes  them  so  high  that  it  is  cheaper  to  raise  them  at  home. 

low  price  of  silver  is  to  manufacturing  in  silver  countries,  and  he  presents  the  case  v/ith 
such  clearness  that  I  think  it  worth  while  to  insert  his  remarks  lierc. 

"In  Oriental  countries  we  are  witnessing  remarkaljle  industrial  progress,  and 
unequalled  prosperity  among  their  people,  when  simultaneously  serious  losses  are 
attending  similar  industries  in  England  ;  while  under  the  present  system  it  is  highly 
probable  that  there  will  be  a  further  fall  in  the  present  very  low  level  of  gold  prices, 
which  will  still  more  prejudice  the  position  of  the  British  manufactures.  What  is  also 
of  unquestionable  great  concern  in  the  Empire,  is  that  it  may  lead  to  the  transference 
of  a  large  part  of  our  principal  industries  to  silver-using  countries.  So  long  as  the 
gold  value  of  silver  continues  to  be  as  it  is  now,  liable  to  violent  fluctuations,  the 
more  perilous  must  become  the  conditions  of  the  principal  British  industries,  and  the 
more  possible  must  it  be  to  prevent  disaster  from  overtaking  them.  British  labor  and 
gold  capital  can  no  longer  compete  on  equal  terms  with  Asiatic  labor  and  silver  capi- 
tal, and  the  position  of  British  industries  is  growing  more  critical  every  day, 

"  Turning  to  the  jute  manufacture,  we  find  that  about  thirty  years  ago  nearly  the 
whole  of  it  centered  in  Dundee,  whereas  now  about  one  third  is  conducted  on  the  banks 
of  the  Iloogly,  near  Calcutta.  The  removal  of  this  trade  from  our  shores  has  been 
most  detrimental  to  British  interests.  Its  transfer  is  unquestionably  due  in  very  great 
measure  to  the  fall  in  the  gold  price  of  silver,  and  to  the  sulitle  advantages  arising 
therefrom  in  favor  of  the  manufacturer  in  silver  countries.  On  a  falling  exchange, 
i.  if.,  when  the  gold  price  of  silver  is  declining,  and  it  has  been  doing  so  for  upwards 
of  twenty  years,  the  Dundee  manufacturer  is  placed  at  a  relative  disadvantage  com- 
pared with  the  Calcutta  manufacturer.  To  clearly  explain  how  this  arises  is  not  very 
easy.  However,  take  one  example,  and  let  it  be  supposed  that  both  manufacturers 
buy  the  raw  jute  at  the  same  slver  price,  and  that  the  cost  of  manufacturing  it  in  both 
countries  is  similar.  The  cost  includes  (i)  jute  ;  (2)  wages  ;  and  (3)  locally  produced 
stores  for  the  mills,  and  taxes,  etc.  If  each  manufacturer  realizes  the  same  gold  price 
for  his  product,  the  Dundee  manufacturer  closes  the  transaction  at  once.  Before  the 
Dundee  product  arrives  in  Australia  or  New  York,  an^  before  payment  can  be  made 
therefor  in  those  countries,  the  gold  value  of  silver  falls,  and  the  Calcutta  manufac- 
turer consequently  thereby  receives  more  silver  for  the  gold  price  of  his  product.  To 
that  extent  does  he  derive  an  advantage  for,  though  he  received  a  large  number  of 
rupees,  he  pays  away  no  more  for  wages,  locally  produced  stores,  and  taxes.  For  in- 
stance, say  a  ton  of  manufactures  produced  in  Calcutta  is  sold  for  50;^,  and  that 
exchange  on  the  day  of  sale  is  is.  4^/.  per  rupee  ;  the  equivalent  would  be  Rs.  750,  of 
which  Rs.  500  would  be  required  to  defray  the  cost  of  manufacturing,  including  profit, 
and  that  Rs.  250  would  represent  wages,  mill  stores  and  taxes,  all  payable  in  rupees  ; 
but  before  the  Calcutta  manufacturer  is  paid  in  New  York  or  Australia,  and  before  he 
is  able  to  convert  the  gold  price,  50;^,  he  obtained  for  his  goods,  exchange,  or  the  gold 
price  of  silver,  falls,  say  to  is.  2d.  per  rupee.  This  would  give  him  for  his  50;^,  Rs. 
857.14,  instead  of  Rs.  750  ;  the  surplus  of  Rs.,  107.14,  equal  to  (:>£,  5^-.,  would  be  a 
further  profit  and  additional  to  what  the  Dundee  manufacturer  would  receive.  To 
that  extent,  viz.,  12  per  cent.,  does  the  silver-using  country  derive  an  unequal  advant- 
age. The  more  the  gold  price  of  silver  falls  after  the  sale  of  the  product  is  effected  in 
sterling,  and  previous  to  converting  gold  into  silver,  the  greater  will  be  his  advantage 
over  the  British  manufacturer,  and  there  are  other  and  more  subtle  benefits  favorable 
to  the  Oriental  and  detrimental  to  the  home  industries,  of  sufficient  importance  to 
explain  the  transfer  of  so  much  of  the  trade  from  Dundee  to  Calcutta." 


6oo  XL\K  Silver  Stan&ar^  in  /tDejico. 

3d.  While  the  fall  of  silver  and  free  coinage  in  Mexico  have  not 
given  to  the  Mexican  silver  coins,  when  converted  into  foreign  ex- 
change or  sold  for  gold,  any  value  other  than  that  of  the  silver  bullion 
contained  in  the  same,  nevertheless  the  purchasing  power  of  the  silver 
dollar  is  now,  on  the  whole,  as  great  as  it  ever  was  in  Mexico,  and  it 
has  only  been  reduced  in  the  case  of  foreign  articles,  so  that  one  can  buy 
now  almost  the  same  amount  of  home  commodities  for  the  same  number 
of  dollars  that  they  cost  when  gold  and  silver  were  at  par,'  that  is,  at 

'  The  paper  already  mentioned,  "  Labor  and  Wages  in  Mexico"  (pages  536  to 
53S),  contains  sufficient  evidence  to  show  the  correctness  of  my  statement,  namely, 
that  the  silver  dollar  has  not  any  less  purchasing  power  in  Mexico  than  it  had 
when  silver  and  gold  were  at  par,  at  the  ratio  of  16  to  i,  and  that  only  foreign  com- 
modities have  increased  in  price,  although  in  many  cases  they  are  sold  at  a  much  lower 
price  than  they  had  in  1872,  before  the  demonetization  of  silver  took  place,  because  by 
the  use  of  machinery  and  owing  to  other  causes  said  commodities  are  manufactured  now 
much  cheaper  that  they  were  twenty-five  years  ago,  and  here  I  will  only  add  the 
following  article  taken  from  TAe  Trader  of  Mexico  vol.  vii.,  No.  4,  of  April,  1898, 
which  confirms  fully  my  assertion  to  the  effect  that  the  Mexican  silver  dollar  has  not 
lost  any  of  its  purchasing  power  notwithstanding  the  depreciation  of  silver. 

"  Labor  and  Products. — In  reply  to  the  statements  that  are  frequently  put  forth  by 
the  American  Press — and  particularly  that  portion  of  it  which  represents  the  commer- 
cial interests — that  the  food  products  and  manufactured  articles  generally  consumed  by 
the  common  people  in  this  country  have  risen  in  price  in  the  same  proportion  as  the 
exchange  has  risen,  we  give  the  following  table,  representing  the  prices  for  the  first 
quarter  of  1893  as  compared  with  those  of  the  first  quarter  of  1898.  These  figures  are 
taken  from  The  Trader  for  the  periods  mentioned,  and  correspond  with  the  official 
returns  for  the  articles  quoted.  Prior  to  1893  The  Trader  published  no  market 
reports,  and  as  there  are  no  other  reliable  sources  at  hand  from  which  to  quote  we  are 
necessarily  compelled  to  confine  ourselves  to  the  dates  above  mentioned  : 

First  quarter  of 
Articles.  1893.  1898.      Percentages. 

Corn,     300  lbs $7.00  $4-75  31 

Beans,      "     " 17.00  9.00  47 

Wheat,    "     " 10.25  10.25 

Rice,     100  lbs 7.50  7.50 

Coffee,    "     "  30.50  17.00  44 

Lard,       25  lbs 6.12  4.00  34 

Tallow,   •'    " 4.00  2.37  40 

Sugar,      "    " 2.25  2.00  10 

Cotton  Cloth,  ]>er  piece 3.50  2.08  20 

Prints,  "        "     2.31  2,75  14 

Woollens,  per  metre 2.25  2.00  11 

Average  decrease  over  20  per  cent. 
It  will  be  observed  that  in  the  eleven  articles  quoted,  only  one — prints — has  in- 
creased in  price,  while  in  the  ten  remaining  articles  the  average  decrease  was  over  20 
per  cent.  The  absolute  necessities,  therefore,  regardless  of  the  fluctuations  in  ex- 
change, have  varied  but  little  in  price  in  the  past  five  years.  While  the  price  of  gold  has 
more  than  doubled  in  the  same  length  of  time,  the  Mexican  dollar  has  not  decreased 
in  value  when  measured  by  the  amount  of  home  products  it  will  exchange  for,  and 
which  are  the  staple  articles  of  10,000,000  of  the  13,000,000  population  of  Mexico." 


HDvantatjes  ot  tbc  Silver  Stan^arO  to  /TOejico.     6oi 

the  ratio  of  i  to  i6,  excepting  such  Mexican  commodities  as  have  their 
price  fixed  in  foreign  gold  markets.' 

It  is  not  a  little  puzzling  to  some  travellers  who  go  from  this 
country  to  Mexico  to  see  a  United  States  silver  dollar  containing  less 
silver  bullion  than  a  Mexican  silver  dollar,  exchanged  there  for  two 
Mexican  silver  dollars  when  silver  is  at  about  fifty-six  cents  an  ounces 
but  they  do  not  bear  in  mind  that  in  making  such  an  exchange,  the 
Mexican  silver  dollar  is  sold  for  the  market  price  of  the  silver  bullion  it 
contains,  just  as  if  it  was  not  coined,  while  the  United  States  silver 
dollar  is  the  representative  of  a  gold  dollar,  received  as  such  in  this 
country,  and  is  therefore  an  article  of  merchandise  bought  to  pay 
debts  in  the  United  States  or  Europe;  but  notwithstanding  that  fact, 
the  Mexican  silver  dollar  has  not  lost  any  of  its  purchasing  power  in 
Mexico. 

4th.  The  fact  that  foreign  commodities  have  to  be  paid  for  in  gold 
makes  them  so  high  that  this  operates  as  a  protective  duty  against 
them,  equal  to  the  price  of  exchange,  or  the  difference  between  the 
market  value  of  the  gold  and  silver  bullion.  Protectionists  would 
count  this  as  a  very  important  advantage,  although  I  myself  do  not 

'  The  following  statement  of  remarks  of  Mr.  Maitland,  delivered  on  March  last 
before  a  meeting  of  the  China  Mutual  Steamship  Co.,  confirms  fully  what  I  have 
slated  here  : 

"  Mr.  Maitland  remarked  that  the  working  expenses  of  the  China  Mutual  Steam- 
ship Co.  had  been  considerably  reduced,  almost  entirely  by  the  great  fall  in  the  gold 
price  of  silver,  which,  however,  was  not  altogether  an  unmixed  good,  as  the  very  same 
causes  had  brought  about  an  enormous  falling  off  in  the  British  export  trade  to  the  far 
East.  For  the  repairs  of  their  steamers  very  large  amounts  of  money  were  annually 
needed,  and  they  had  already  commenced  to  make  the  repairs  in  Singapore,  China, 
and  Japan.  With  the  dollar  at  2s. ,  the  skilled  Asiatic  will  work  for  a  month  for  less 
than  a  skilled  British  subject  will  work  for  a  week.  The  labor  leaders  in  this  country 
are  rapidly  becoming  aware  of  the  danger  to  labor  caused  by  a  currency  system  which 
is  driving  work  from  this  country  to  the  extent  of  millions  of  pounds  sterling  per  an- 
num, which  must  seriously  reduce  wages  and  increase  the  already  large  numbers  of  un- 
employed persons,  and  they  are  beginning  to  favor  a  policy  of  monetary  reform. 

"  Let  me  explain  that  silver  will  still  employ  the  same  quantity  of  Oriental  labor 
as  it  did  twenty  or  thirty  years  ago.  The  inadequacy  of  our  monetary  standard,  there- 
fore, allows  the  Eastern  countries  to  now  employ  lOO  per  cent,  more  labor  for  a  given 
amount  of  gold  than  they  could  do  twenty-five  years  ago.  To  make  this  important 
statement  quite  clear  allow  me  to  give  the  following  example  :  In  1870  ten  rupees 
were  the  equivalent  of  one  sovereign  under  the  joint  standard  of  gold  and  silver,  and 
employed  twenty  men  for  one  day.  To-day  twenty  rupees  are  about  the  equivalent  of 
one  sovereign  ;  so  that  for  twenty  rupees  forty  men  can  be  engaged  for  one  day,  in- 
stead of  twenty  men  as  in  1870.  Against  such  a  disability,  British  labor  cannot  possibly 
compete.  On  the  other  hand,  the  effect  of  this  disability  is  that  gold  prices  of  com- 
modities have  fallen  to  nearly  one-half  of  their  former  level,  while  in  Oriental  countries 
silver  prices  are  still  practically  in  most  cases  on  their  old  level.  Therefore,  the  more 
gold  appreciates,  the  greater  will  be  the  tendency  to  still  further  lower  gold  prices. 

"  In  connection  with  the  decline  in  the  value  of  China's  foreign  import  trade,  it 


6o2  XTbe  Silver  Stan^arD  in  iflDcjico. 

attach  much  importance  to  it  in  that  sense,  as  I  believe  in  low  duties, 
unless  in  certain  cases  and  for  certain  reasons,  high  duties  are  rendered 
necessary. 

5th.  Our  silver  standard  encourages  the  investment  in  Mexico  of 
capital  from  rich  countries  having  the  gold  standard,  since  every  gold 
dollar  when  sent  to  Mexico  is  converted  into  two  silver  dollars,  at  the 
present  rate  of  exchange,  and,  when  invested  in  lands,  wages,  and 
other  expenses  for  the  raising  of  agricultural  products  which  are  sold 
for  gold  in  foreign  markets,  like  coffee,  the  proceeds  are  so  large  that 
they  constitute  a  very  great  inducement  for  the  investment  of  capital. 
Besides,  if  at  any  time  in  the  future  silver  should  he  reinstated  as  a 
money  metal  by  the  leading  commercial  nations  of  the  world,  and  rise 
in  price,  the  capital  invested  in  a  silver  country  would  be  actually  du- 
plicated in  gold. 

6th.  The  development  of  the  country  has  increased  considerably  the 
local  traffic  of  our  railroads,  and  that  increase  is  very  encouraging, 
and  goes  far  to  compensate  the  companies  owning  them  for  the 
losses  which  the  depreciation  of  silver  entailed  on  them  in  the  pay- 
ment   of    interest    on    their    bonded    debts.' 

may  not  be  out  of  place  to  remark  that,  to  the  observer  in  the  East,  it  seems  inexpli- 
cable that  the  gold-currency  countries,  while  striving  to  extend  their  trade,  should  reso- 
lutely ignore  the  fact,  so  clearly  demonstrated  by  the  decline  in  the  demand  for  piece 
goods,  that  to  the  millions  in  China  the  tael,  or  ounce  of  silver,  is  still  a  tael  of  un- 
diminished purchasing  power,  whether  the  sterling  value  be  6s.  or  3s.  ;  and  that  so 
soon  as  the  discredited  tael  fails  to  buy  the  same  quantity  of  foreign  goods  as  hereto- 
fore, the  consumer  ceases  to  be  a  customer,  and  will  supply  his  own  wants  by  manufac- 
turing textiles  from  home-grown  materials.  Indications  are  not  warcing  that  the 
erection  of  cotton  mills  at  ports  extending  from  the  Gulf  of  Tonking  to  Chungking 
(some  900  miles  up  the  Vangtse)  is  contemplated,  and  there  is  abundant  evidence  of 
great  local  activity  in  that  direction.  A  nation  whose  inexhaustible  supply  of  laborers 
excites  such  alarm  among  Western  people  and  governments,  is  not  likely  to  prove 
less  formidable  when  it  brings  similar  forces  of  cheap,  silver-paid  skilled  operatives 
into  competition  with  the  textile  industries  of  the  gold  wage-earning  classes  of  Europe 
and  America,  and  the  effect  will  be  felt  more  acutely  and  cause  greater  consternation 
than  the  presence  of  Chinese  labor  abroad  whenever  it  comes  into  rivalry  with  the 
handicrafts  of  Occidental  races.  The  condition  of  Indian  finance  is  known  to  be  pre- 
carious, owing  chiefly  to  the  increasing  cost  in  silver  of  India's  gold  obligations,  to- 
gether with  the  perilous  growth  of  Indian  State  expenditure.  On  the  latter  subject, 
Sir  David  Barbour  spoke  at  the  Mansion  House  last  May  in  very  positive  terms, 
while  another  ex-finance  member  of  the  Viceroy's  Council  in  India  (Sir  Auchland 
Colcin)  wrote  to  the  same  effect  in  the  AHneteenth  Century  of  October  last.  The 
masses  of  the  population  are  poor,  and  they  have  been  impoverished  by  additional 
taxation  to  provide  for  the  increasing  burdens  caused  by  the  falling  exchange.  Fur- 
ther new  taxes  may  lead  to  serious  discontent  among  the  people,  for  it  is  generally  be- 
lieved that  the  extreme  limit  of  taxation  has  been  reached." 

'  In  the  chapter  on  the  railways  in  Mexico,  pages  193-220  of  the  first  paper  of 
this  volume,  entitled  "  Geographical  and  .Statistical  Notes  on  Mexico,"  I  give  the  full 
details  of  the  increased  earnings  of  the  Mexican  railroads.     In  foot  notes  to  the  Silver 


B^vantaoe6  of  tbe  Stiver  Staut)arC)  to  /IDejtco.     603 


7th.  There  is  another  very  great  advantage  that  Mexico  has  de- 
rived from  the  silver  standard,  although  this  may  be  peculiar  to  us. 
Before  our  railroads  were  built  the  only  articles  which  we  could  export 
were  silver  and  gold  dollars — coinage  being  then  made  compulsory  by 
law — because  no  other  product  could  pay  the  very  high  expense  of 
transportation.  The  result  was  that  to  pay  for  our  imports  we  had  to 
export  almost  all  of  our  annual  output  of  silver,  so  that  very  little  was 
left  for  our  home  circulation.  Thus  we  were  almost  constantly  suffer- 
ing from  a  contraction  of  currency,  money  became  very  dear,  while 
the  price  of  labor  was  very  low.  But  now  the  conditions  are  reversed- 
The  low  price  of  silver  abroad  makes  it  unprofitable  to  export  it,  and 
its  value  at  home  makes  it  useful  in  all  industries,  and  we  send  out  our 
agricultural  i)roducts  to  pay  for  our  imports  and  for  our  gold  obliga- 
tions, keeping  at  home  our  silver  and  thus  increasing  our  circulation. 

Standard  paper  which  I  prepared  for  the  A'orth  Americati  Revie-o,  I  inserted  a  state- 
ment of  the  earnings  of  the  Mexican  International  and  Mexican  Northern  Railways 
for  the  year  1892,  which  the  editor  of  the  North  AfnericaH  Review  did  not  publish, 
and  which  will  be  found  in  the  present  edition  of  the  paper. 

I  now  give  a  statement  of  the  earnings  in  1897  of  the  Mexican  Central,  National 
and  International  Railroads,  taken  from  the  respective  reports  and  not  embraced  in 
the  data  above  mentioned. 

Mexican  Central  Railroad. — The  following  table,  taken  from  the  report  of  the 
company  for  1897,  shows  the  gross  earnings  for  each  of  the  last  thirteen  years,  both 
with  and  without  the  amount  derived  from  the  carriage  of  construction  material,  and 
also  states  the  average  mileage  operated  each  year  on  which  the  earnings  were  based, 
and  the  earnings  per  mile. 


YEAR. 

AVERAGE 
MILEAGE. 

GROSS 
EARNINGS. 

LESS  CON- 
STRUCTION 
MATERIAL. 

GROSS 
COMMERCIAL. 

1885 

1235.90 
1235.90 
1235.90 
1316.40 
1461.85 
1527.20 
1665. II 
1824.83 
1846.64 
1S59.S3 
1859.83 
1860.60 
1955-66 

$3,559,560 
3,857,705 
4,886,578 
5,774,331 
6,337,225 
6,425,694 
7,374.538 
7,963.253 
7,981,768 
8,426,025 
9,495,865 
10,208,020 
12,845,819 

$26,741 
none 
301,317 
471,831 
475.451 
303,020 

431,798 
397,376 
none 
none 
68,256 
200,442 
31,198 

$3,532,819 
3,857,705 
4-585,261 
5,302,500 

5,861,774 
6,122,674 
6,942,740 

7.565.877 
7,981,768 
8,426,025 
9,427.609 
10,007,578 
12,814,621 

$2,858 
1   121 

1886 

1887 

3,710 
4,028 
4.009 
4,009 
4,169 
4.146 
4,322 
4-530 
5,069 
5,352 
6,552 

1888 

1889 

1 890 

i8<ji 

1892 

180-; 

I  Soj. 

iSqi; 

1S96 

i8q7 

It  will  be  observed  that  over  the  gains  in  all  the  previous  years  there  was  in  1897 
a  further  increase  in  amount  of  over  $2,807,043,  or  about  28  per  cent.  The  gross 
earnings  per  mile  rose  from  $5352  in  1S96  to  $6552  in  1S97,  the  .iddition  in  this  case 
being  nearly  22i  per  cent.,  which  is  the  most  striking  evidence  of  the  growth  that  has 
been  going  on  and  is  still  in  ]irogress.     The  report  well  says  the  showing  is  a  most  re- 


6o4 


XTbe  Stiver  Stan^ar^  in  /IDcjico. 


so  that  we  now  have  an  ample  supply  of  money  in  our  banks.  That 
fact,  of  course,  stimulates  industry,  keeps  up  prices,  and  increases  the 
demand  for  labor. 

8th.  Most  of  our  millionaires,  and  many  rich  Mexicans  having  large 
fixed  incomes,  preferred  formerly  to  live  in  Europe,  and  used  to  spend 
their  money  there,  but  the  higher  rate  of  exchange  has  reduced  their 
incomes  so  materially  that  a  great  many  of  them  are  returning  home, 
and  now  spend  their  incomes  in  Mexico. 

Disadvantiiges  of  the  Silver  Standard  to  Mexico. — The  disadvantages 
brought  to  Mexico  by  the  silver  standard  are  the  following: 

I  St.  Importations  are  considerably  reduced,  because  foreign  com- 
modities almost  double  their  price  when  sold  for  silver,  and  they  are 
therefore  beyond  the  reach  of  the  middle  classes  with  limited  means, 
while  the  poorer  classes  have  never  used  them. 

While  the  amount  of  import  duties  in  Mexico  has  not  decreased,  it 
has  not  increased  in  the  same  proportion  as  the  other  taxes,  especially 
the  internal  revenue.  They  formerly  amounted  to  from  seventy-five  to 
eighty  per  cent,  of  the  Federal  revenue  of  Mexico  and  are  now  re- 
duced to  about  forty  per  cent.,  the  internal  revenue  having  increased 
greatly.     The  through  freight  going  to  Mexico  from  the  United  States 

markable  one,  indicating  great  industrial  activity  and  development  in  Mexico.  The 
report  also  states  that  all  classes  of  commercial  traffic,  and  traffic  in  both  directions 
on  all  parts  of  the  system,  record  substantial  and  gratifying  increases. 

Mexican  A'ational  Railway. — The  following  table  shows  the  earnings,  gross  and 
net,  year  by  year,  since  1889. 


18S9 
1890 
1S91 
1892 

1893 
1S94 
1895 
1896 
1S97 


GROSS  EARNINGS. 


^3,660, 

3J54, 
4,206, 

4,756, 

4,224, 

4,329, 
4-513, 
5,299, 

6,080, 


124.24 
966.36 

422.74 
029.94 

804.  n 

078.65 
205.91 

025.77 

663. 28 


NET  EARNINGS. 


3,692.70 
827,004.47 
1,159,021.18 
1,700,613.39 
1,638,437.66 
1,891,962.24 
2,071,408.50 

2,525,957.71 
2,986,237.92 


It  will  be  observed  that  there  was  a  further  increase  in  the  gross  earnings  in  the  year 
1897  of  $781,638  (nearly  15  per  cent.)  and  a  further  increase  of  $460,280  (over  18  per 
cent.)  in  the  net.  Since  1889  the  gross  earnings  have  risen  from  $3,660, 124  to  $6,080,663 
and  the  net  earnings  from  $666,693  to  $2,986,238.  In  this  last  instance  the  total  for 
1897  is  about  four  and  a  half  times  what  it  was  in  1889.  While  the  receipts  have  in- 
creased, there  has  been  also  economy  and  efficiency  in  the  operation  of  the  road.  In 
1889  the  ratio  of  expenses  to  earnings  was  81.78  percent.  ;  in  1897  it  was  only  50.89  per 
cent.  In  other  words,  while  in  1889  it  took  over  eighty-one  cents  to  earn  a  dollar,  in 
1897  the  expenditure  of  money  to  earn  a  dollar  was  but  little  in  excess  of  fifty  cents. 
It  actually  cost  only  $101,000  more  money  to  earn  6  million  dollars  in  1897  than  it 


Disadvantages  ot  tbe  Silpcr  5tan&arO  to  /IDeyico.    605 


is  decreasing  on  all  the  roads,  while  tlie  local  traffic  is  increasing  con- 
siderably, the  difference  being  such  as  to  result  in  increased  yearly 
earnings  of  all  the  Mexican  roads. 

2d.  The  constant  fluctuations  in  the  market  price  of  silver  is  another 
drawback  of  the  silver  standard,  greater  than  the  depreciation  of  that 
metal,  and  it  has  contributed  still  more  than  the  low  price  of  that  metal 
to  reduce  the  importations  of  foreign  commodities  in  Mexico  during 
recent  years,  because  there  has  been  no  safe  basis  for  any  calculation.' 

A  Mexican  merchant,  for  instance,  buys  foreign  goods,  at  six 
months'    credit,  when   silver   is   at   thirty  pence  per  ounce,  and  sells 

did  to  earn  3|  million  dollars  in  1889.  In  exact  figures,  with  gross  of  $3,660,124  in 
1889,  expenses  were  $2,993,432,  and  with  gross  earnings  of  $6,080,663  in  1897,  ex- 
penses were  $3,094,425. 

Mexican  International  Railway. — This  road  shows  also  a  large  increase  in  its 
earnings  during  1897.  This  fact,  as  well  as  the  steady  rising  year  by  year  of  the  gross 
and  net  earnings  of  the  road,  appears  from  the  following  table  : 


1884, 
1885. 
1886. 
1887, 
1888. 
18S9. 
1890, 
1891, 
1892. 
1893. 
1894. 
1895. 
1896. 
1897. 


AVERAGE 
KILOMETERS 
OPERATED. 


245—0 
273-58 
273  58 
273-58 

573-97 
636.34 
637-38 
65S.30 

746-37 
922.19 
922. 19 

947-23 
1,011 .02 
1,060.60 


GROSS  EARNINGS. 


$103, 

153. 

185, 

237. 

656, 

911, 

1,126, 

1,197, 

2,095, 

2,050. 

2,169, 

2,664, 

2,900, 

3,034, 


307  98 
916  18 
150  25 

394  13 

781  41 
698  51 
366  41 

856  55 
726  14 
934  01 
121  47 
126  08 

925  33 
126  04 


AVERAGE 

EARNINGS 

PER 

KILOMETER. 


$421  49 

562  59 

676  76 

867  73 

1,144  28 

1,432  73 

1,745  64 

1,819  69 

2,107  89 

2,226  15 

2,352  14 

2,Sl2  54 

2,869  30 
2,S6o  76 


AVERAGE 
EARNINGS 
PER  MILE. 


$612   37 

905  39 
1,098  II 

1,396  43 
1,841  47 
2,305  64 
2,839  77 
2,924  02 
4,518  67 
3,579  04 
3,785  29 
4,526  28 
4,617  69 
4,603  88 


It  will  be  seen  that  there  has  been  but  one  year  when  the  upward  movement  was 
interrupted.  The  further  increase  in  the  last  year,  though  small,  is  certainly  worthy 
of  note. 

P>om  the  report  of  this  road  in  1S97,  for  the  year  ending  December  31,  1897,  it 
appears  that  the  aggregate  freight  tonnage  in  1897  was  561,636  tons,  and  it  is  inter- 
esting to  note  that  71  per  cent,  of  this  total  was  composed  of  products  of  mines,  the 
two  largest  items  being  258,428  tons  coal  and  coke,  and  122,084  tons  silver  ore.  Some 
of  the  items  of  the  agricultural  tonnage  are  also  showing  expansion,  though  the  agri- 
cultural tonnage  as  a  whole  fell  off  in  1897,  owing  to  the  diminished  importations  of 
corn  into  Mexico.  The  cotton  tonnage  furnishes  an  illustration.  Across  the  United 
States  frontier  there  were  shipped  to  the  interior  of  Mexico  5197  bales,  against  1573 
bales  the  year  before;  while  from  the  Laguna  region  the  shipments  were  24,133 
bales,  against  21,209  bales. 

The  following  table  shows  how  great  were  these  fluctuations  during  a  recent 
period.     From  the  end  of  December,  1896,  to  the  end  of  March,  1898,  the  prices  and 


6o6  Ubc  Silver  StanOarC)  In  ^ejtco. 

them,  charging  duties,  freight,  insurance,  etc.,  at  a  certain  price, 
which  includes  his  profit;  but  when  the  time  comes  to  pay  his  debt 
silver  has  fallen  to  twenty-seven  pence,  say,  and  he  finds  that  instead 
of  having  made  any  profit  he  has  sustained  a  heavy  loss.  For  this 
reason,  and  to  prevent  any  serious  loss,  importing  merchants  have 
to  charge  very  high  prices  to  cover  all  contingencies,  keeping  always  a 
very  reduced  stock  of  goods,  and  this  is  another  serious  obstacle  to 
the  development  of  foreign  trade.' 

inde.x  numbers  of  silver  were  as  follows  (60.84^.  per  ounce  being  the  parity  of  1  gold 
to  15^  silver  =  100). 


End  December,  1896, 
"  August,  1897. .  . . 
"  December,  1897. 
"  January,  1898. . . 
"     March,  189S 


AVERAGE. 

2g  13— i6d^. ,  equal  to  49.0 

23  7-80'.,       "     "  39.2 

26  5-  8./.,        "      "  43.8 

26  3-160'.,        "     "  43.0 

25  Il-i6f/.,        "      "  42.2 


'  Mr.  Maitland's  remarks  on  this  subject,  already  quoted,  confirm  the  correctness 
of  my  statement,  although  they  are  meant  to  show  the  drawbacks  suffered  by  gold 
countries  through  the  great  and  constant  fluctuations  in  the  market  price  of  silver. 

These  views  are  also  confirmed  and  other  drawbacks  resulting  from  the  contraction 
in  the  price  of  silver  are  made  apparent  by  the  remarks  of  Mr.  Jamieson,  British  Consul 
at  Sl'.anghai,  China,  at  a  meeting  of  the  British  Bimetallic  League  held  in  London  in 
1897,  where,  discussing  the  growth  of  cotton  manufacturing  in  China  and  Japan,  he 
points  out  that  when  one  observes  the  amount  of  cotton  spinning  and  weaving  machin- 
ery that  is  now  being  exported  to  silver-using  countries,  a  conviction  forces  itself  on 
the  mind  that  a  change  is  going  on  which  will  in  the  end  have  grave  consequences. 
This  class  of  machinery  exportation  from  Great  Britain  has  risen,  since  1893,  some  86 
per  cent.  By  the  end  of  this  year  (1897)  there  will  be  running  in  China  and  Japan 
close  on  to  2,000,000  cotton  spindles.  This  activity  in  cotton  manufacturing  in  these 
countries,  Mr.  Jamieson  says,  would  never  have  come,  if  it  had  not  been  for  the  fall 
in  silver.  Great  Britain  is  exporting  cotton  machinery,  but  at  the  ultimate  cost  of  her 
own  export  trade. 

Mr.  Jamieson  also  says  that  in  the  Chinese  ports  the  middlemen,  the  old-fashioned 
merchants,  bear  the  brunt  of  the  petty  and  incessant  fluctuations  of  silver.  They 
have  been  forced  into  the  position  of  mere  commission  agents,  and  he  adds  : 

"  Much  of  the  business  now  is  done  in  that  way,  viz.,  by  selling  to  China  and 
buying  in  Manchester  simultaneously,  and  at  the  same  time  settling  exchange  forward 
through  one  of  the  banks.  In  this  way  the  merchant  runs  no  risk  at  all  ;  but,  ])er 
contra,  he  gets  little  profit.  As  it  requires  little  or  no  capital  to  do  that  sort  of  busi- 
ness, a  crowd  of  small  men  have  come  forward  who  have  cut  down  commissions  almost 
to  the  vanishing  point.  Now,  some  of  you  manufacturers  may  say  that  is  all  the  better 
for  us — the  cheaper  they  do  business  out  there  the  more  will  they  want  to  buy.  But 
there  is  another  side  to  the  question.  The  extension  of  your  business  into  new  fields 
depends  solely  on  those  whom  I  may  term  your  agents,  the  merchants  out  in  foreign 
parts.  The  manufacturer  sits  at  his  door  till  somebody  comes  to  buy.  The  middle- 
man goes  out  into  the  world  seeking  new  outlets  for  British  products.  They  are  the 
people  who  conquer  the  world  for  you,  whose  energy  and  push  have  made  British  trade 
what  it  is.  But  they  won't  do  that  for  nothing.  If  you  starve  them  they  wont  work. 
Now,  that  is  largely  the  position  that  the  destruction  of  the  par  of  exchange  has 


Bisa^vantaaes  of  tbe  Stiver  Stan&ar&  to  /IDejico.   607 

3d.  The  reduction  of  imports  referred  to  diminishes  pro{)ortion- 
ately  the  import  duties,  which,  until  very  recently,  were  in  Mexico  the 
chief  source  of  the  federal  revenue. 

4th.  The  national  expenses  are  considerably  increased  by  the  pay- 
ment in  gold  of  the  interest  of  the  national  debt  held  abroad,  and  other 
expenses  of  minor  account,  such  as  salaries  of  diplomatic  and  consular 
officials.  As  we  have  to  buy  exchange  to  pay  that  interest  it  is,  at  the 
present  rate  of  exchange,  actually  increased  from  six  to  twelve  per 
cent,  when  paid  in  gold.  But  we  can  now  purchase  exchange  from 
our  own  people,  drawn  against  their  own  agricultural  exports,  and  they 
make  some  of  the  profit.' 

5th.  To  meet  the  reduction  in  the  import  duties  and  the  increased 
expenses  of  the  gold  obligations,  it  is  indispensable  to  increase  the 
burden  of  direct  taxation  to  make  up  for  both  losses. 

6th.  Our  railroads  are  similarly  affected.  They  collect  their 
freights  in  silver,  but  pay  in  gold  the  interest  on  their  securities,  and 
for  the  foreign  articles  needed  for  their  roads. 

7th.  The  transportation  of  foreign  commodities  by  railroads  is 
much  reduced,  but  the  local  traffic  has  increased  in  such  a  way  as  not 
only  to  make  up  for  that  loss,  but  to  leave  a  large  surplus. 

8th.    While  the  prices  of  the  necessaries  of  life  for  the  poorer  classes 

brought  our  merchants  to.  The  uncertainty  of  the  trade  has  chilled  their  energies. 
They  work  on  the  lines  to  make  bread  and  butter,  hardly  venturing  to  initiate  any 
new.  They  hesitate  to  invest  their  money  in  new  enterprises,  not  knowing  how  it  will 
come  back  to  them.  This,  though  it  may  seem  a  small  matter  and  rather  savoring  of 
personality,  is,  in  my  opinion,  one  of  great  importance.  It  is  essential  to  the  develop- 
ment of  British  trade  that  your  merchants,  the  great  distributors,  should  be  men  of 
wealth  and  intelligence  and  energy,  and  this  you  can  only  secure  by  making  it  worth 
their  while — in  other  words,  when  there  is  money  to  be  made  in  it." 

Mr.  Jamieson's  remarks  are  applicable  to  Mexican  conditions.  The  lack  of  sta- 
bility in  exchange  has  transformed  our  trade  there  ;  the  telegraph  and  the  railways  have 
made  the  new  way  of  doing  business  possible  ;  competition  has  been  vastly  increased 
and  the  strong  mercantile  houses  of  the  old-fashioned  sort  are  not  multiplying  in 
Mexico,  and,  in  so  far  as  those  existing  fail  to  adopt  the  new  methods,  they  lose  trade. 

'  The  burden  of  this  charge  to  the  Mexican  Treasury  appears  quite  clearly  from 
the  following  figures  taken  from  the  report  that  President  Diaz  addressed  to  his  fellow- 
citizens  on  November  30,  1896,  giving  an  account  of  his  administration  in  Mexico 
during  the  last  twelve  years. 

The  Treasury  Department  estimated  the  expenses  of  exchange  to  pay  the  interest 
of  the  gold  bonds  in  London  during  the  fiscal  year  r888-i88g  to  be  $729,178.14. 
These  expenses  amounted  in  the  following  years  as  follows  : 

1890-91 $2,314,477  77 

1891-92 3,225,246  77 

1892-93 5,101,223  57 

Similar  losses  are  suffered  by  the  railroads,  that  have  to  pay  in  gold  the  interest 
on  their  bonds  and  the  supplies  they  buy  abroad.  I  take  from  the  report  of  the 
Mexican  Central  Railroad  for  1897  the  following  table,  which  shows  in  a  graphic  way 


6o8 


XTbe  Silver  Stan^ar^  in  ^cjico. 


who  do  not  consume  foreign  commodities,  have  not  increased,  except 
in  the  case  of  a  small  number  of  home  products  whose  prices  are  fixed 
by  foreign  gold  markets,  the  living  expenses  of  the  middle  and  wealthy 
classes  who  use  foreign  commodities  have  been  increased. 

There  are  many  other  disadvantages  resulting  to  Mexico  from  our 
having  a  silver  standard;  but  I  have  mentioned  the  most  noteworthy 
and  important  ones,  and  most  of  the  disadvantages  omitted  by  me  are 
the  results  of  those  already  pointed  out. 

Conditions  Resulting  in  Mexico  from  the  Silver  Statidard. — The  dis- 
advantages of  the  silver  standard  are  considerably  lessened  in  Mexico 
because  of  the  fact  that  we  have  used  coined  silver  for  over  three  hun- 
dred years  as  our  currency,  and  therefore  we  have  not  had  to  suffer 
the  disturbances  and  drawbacks  of  changing  the  standard,  but  have 
continued  with  the  same  currency,  regardless  of  the  market  price  of 
silver  bullion  in  foreign  countries  and  this  of  course  has  prevented  any 
serious  derangement  in  business  and  in  prices. 

In  consequence  of  these  causes,  we  have  had  fewer  business  failures 
than  other  countries;  our  internal  traffic  has  greatly  increased,  with  much 
benefit  to  our  railroads,  which,  with  only  one  exception,  have  not  gone 

how  the  growing  premium  on  gold  has  added  to  the  expenses  of  the  company  on 
purchases  made  in  the  United  States. 


-PREMIUM- 


UNITED  STATES   AVERAGE 
MONEY.  RATE. 


COST  IN 

MKXICAN 

CURRENCY. 


1891 
1892 

IS93 
1894 

1895 
1896 
IS97 


^1,549,998    60 

1,386,065  68 
1,213,270  38 
1,089,472  37 
929,677  49 
1,048,481  21 
1,447,530  13 


128.83 
143-16 
160.04 
192.69 
1S8.94 
188.65 


$446,841  39 
598,277  01 
728,475  62 

1,009,829  98 
826,880  83 
929,442  18 


209.39  I   1,583,446  21 


$1,996,839  99 
1,984,342  69 
1,941,746  00 
2,099,302  35 
1.756,558  32 
1.977,923  39 
3,030,976  34 


The  foregoing  brings  out  the  fact  that  in  United  States  money — that  is,  in  gold — 
the  purchases  made  in  1897  actually  cost  less  than  those  made  in  1891,  the  comparison 
being  $1,447,530  against  $1,549,998.  But  as  the  purchasing  power  of  the  silver 
dollar  has  in  the  meantime  so  seriously  declined,  it  took  $3,030,976  of  Mexican  money 
to  pay  for  the  purchases  in  1897,  against  only  $1,996,840  in  1891.  The  loss  in  the 
comparison  of  these  two  years,  it  will  be  observed,  is  over  a  million  dollars. 

The  International  Railroad  suffers  in  the  same  way  from  the  steady  depreciation 
in  the  price  of  silver,  which  diminishes  the  gold  value  of  the  Mexican  silver  dollar. 
The  average  price  received  for  the  dollar  in  1897  was  only  47.80  cents,  against  51.31 
cents  in  1S96.  Working  expenses  increased  $107,072  over  the  year  preceding  (on  a  gain 
in  gross  earnings  of  $133,201),  and  the  report  notes  that  the  fall  in  the  price  of  silver 
contributed  in  pari  to  this  incre.^.se  by  the  arbitrary  augmentation  of  cost  thus  forced 
upon  all  imported  supplies  consumed  during  the  year. 


Con&!tions  IResiUting  from  tbe  Silver  Stan^ar^.     609 

into  the  hands  of  receivers,  notwithstanding  that  they  have  to  pay  in 
gold  the  interest  of  their  bonds  and  the  increased  price  of  the  foreign 
commodities  which  they  need  to  operate  the  roads.' 

We  do  not  suffer  in  Mexico  from  one  of  the  principal  causes  of  the 
present  (June,  1895)  financial  distress  in  other  countries — the  low  prices 
of  agricultural  products.  In  fact,  in  some  cases,  the  prices  of  domestic 
commodities  have  gone  up  considerably,  when  they  are  fixed  by  the 
value  of  the  commodity  in  gold  markets.  This  is  the  case  with  coffee, 
for  instance.  As  the  largest  portion  of  our  crop  is  exported  and  com- 
mands cash,  its  price  is  fixed  by  its  value  in  gold  markets,  and  in  con- 

'  The  conditions  of  our  railroads  apjiears  very  clearly  from  the  following  extract  of 
Mr.  Raoul's  report,  December  31,  1894,  to  which  I  have  already  alluded  ; 

"  It  was  observed  in  the  last  report  that  there  had  been  no  appreciable  diminution 
in  the  purchasing  power  of  the  Mexican  silver  dollar,  as  applied  to  labor  and  materials 
of  Mexican  origin,  and  that  this  had  stimulated  the  effort  and  had  made  it  practicable  to 
neutralize,  in  some  degree,  the  bad  effects  of  the  fall  in  the  bullion  value  of  silver  out- 
side the  country,  by  increasing  the  number  of  articles  we  can  economically  manufac- 
ture in  our  own  shops,  and  the  quantity  and  variety  of  native  supplies  and  materials 
that  can  be  advantageously  purchased  i.n  the  country,  as  against  buying  in  a  foreign 
country  for  gold.  This  condition  remains  practically  unchanged,  and  to  it  is  due, 
in  large  part,  whatever  success  has  attended  the  efforts  of  the  managing  officers  in 
Mexico  in  maintaining  economies  already  established  and  effecting  others  to  the  same 
purpose.     .     .     . 

"A  comparison  of  the  traffic  with  last  year  shows  that,  with  the  exception  of  pas- 
sengers, a  loss  has  been  suffered  only  on  those  classes  that  are  affected  by  the  condi- 
tion of  the  exchange  market  between  Mexico  and  gold  standard  countries.  The  local 
traffic,  which  fairly  is  a  register  of  the  internal  trade,  has  made  satisfactory  progress — 
sufficient  to  offset  the  losses  on  the  external  traffic,  and  yield  the  increase  shown  in  the 
general  result. 

"  The  increase  and  decrease  on  the  several  classes  of  business  have  been  as  follows  : 

Revenue  from  imports  has  decreased 15.14  per  cent. 

Revenue  from  export  of  silver  ores  has  decreased 49.18  per  cent. 

Revenue  from  other  exports  has  increased 7.80  per  cent. 

Revenue  from  internal  traffic  has  increased 13-23  per  cent. 

Revenue  from  express  business  has  increased 14.12  per  cent. 

Revenue  from  passengers  has  decreased 6. 14  per  cent." 

"  The  Mexican  Northern  Railway,  running  from  Escalon,  a  station  on  the  Mex- 
ican Central  Railway,  to  the  mining  region  of  Sierra  Mojada,  in  the  State  of  Coahuila, 
was  organized  in  1890  under  the  provisions  of  Chapter  46S  of  the  Laws  of  1S81  of  the 
State  of  New  York,  the  articles  of  association  being  dated  on  the  24th  of  June  of  1890, 
and  the  certificate  of  incorporation  on  June  26th,  1890.  The  following  is  taken  from 
the  last  report  of  the  Company  : 

"  The  whole  line  of  the  road  is  completed  ;  gauge,  standard  ;  rails,  steel,  56  and 
60  lbs. ;  equipment,  seven  locomotives,  two  caboose  cars,  two  combination  passenger 
cars,  five  water  cars. 

"  The  capital  stock  is  $3,000,000,  the  number  of  shares  30,000,  par  value  $100. 

"  Bonded  debt,  $1,660,000,  represented  by  1,660  first  mortgage  twenty-year 
coupon  bonds  of  the  par  value  of  $1,000  each. 

'  A  portion  of  the  line  of  the  road  was  first  opened  for  freight  on  December  15, 


6io 


XTbe  Silver  Stan^ar^  in  /Dejico. 


sequence  of  this  its  price  in  Mexico  has  been  ahnost  doubled,  with  great 
advantage  to  the  producer. 

We  have  greater  stability  of  prices,  wages,  rents,  etc.  Although 
our  wages  are  low,  there  has  been  in  recent  years  a  marked  tendency 
to  their  increase.     Our  factories  are  not  only  in  operation,  but  they 

1890,  and  during  the  remaining  period  of  construction  until  September  30,  1891,  the 
road  was  operated  by  or  for  the  account  of  the  construction  company. 
"  STATEMENT  OF  THE  YEAR  ENDING  JUNE  30,   1893. 

Gross  earnings $1,160,147  89 

Operating  expenses 604,595  88 

555,552  01 
Miscellaneous  receipts 2,133  87 

Net  earnings 557,685  88 

Fixed  charges  : 

Payments  to  sinking  fund $58,007  39 

One  year's  interest  on  bonds 99,600  00 

Betterments  : 

New  construction  and  rolling  stock $73,5/2  50 

231.179  89 
Surplus  earnings $    326,505  99 

"  From  which  our  quarterly  dividends  of  i^  per  cent,  each  and  one  extra  divi- 
dend of  2  per  cent.,  amounting  altogether  to  $240,000,  were  paid." 

The  annual  report  of  the  Mexican  International  Railway  Co.,  for  the  year 
ending  December  31,  1894,  made  by  its  president,  Mr.  C.  P.  Huntington,  and  dated 
at  New  York  City  on  March  6,  1895,  is  not  less  satisfactory.  After  stating  that  the 
total  length  of  the  road  is  629.93  English  miles,  and  speaking  of  the  earnings  of  the 
road,  Mr.  Huntington  says  : 

"  The  transportation  earnings  and  expenses  (in  Mexican  currency)  for  the  year 
have  been  as  follows  : 

"  EARNINGS. 


Passenger  earnings  .  . 
Express  " 

Freight  " 

Car  mileage    " 
Locomotive     mileage 

earnings  

Telegraph  earnings . . 
Sundry  " 

Rental 
International     bridge 

earnings 

Totals 

Operating  expenses 


1894. 

1893. 

Increase. 

Decrease. 

$  208,551  86 
20,073  78 

1,873.974  91 
25,273  86 

$  219,624  38 

20,598  10 

1,743,140  42 

19,896  99 

$130,834  49 
5,376  87 

$11,072  52 
524  31 

7.993  13 

7,558  43 

6,200  35 

16,447  95 

4,681  91 

7,094  02 

16,391  84 

13,776  42 

3,311  22 
464  41 

2,671  53 

10,191  49 

3,047  20 

5.729  93 

2,682  73 

$2,169,121  47 
1,281,815  83 

$2,050,934  01 
1,301,394  33 

$118,187  46 

$19,578  50 

Conclusion.  6ii 

are  being  greatly  extended,  and  new  plants  and  industries  are  being 
established.  Instead  of  diminishing  the  demand  for  our  laborers,  we 
find  occupation  for  them  all,  and  we  need  to  import  them  for  the  work 
to  be  done  in  some  localities,  and,  as  our  laborers  find  occupation  and 
increased  wages,  we  have  no  strikes.  Our  silver  mines  have  not 
stopped  work,  and  we  find  them  still  quite  profitable.  We  have  more 
ready  money  with  which  to  transact  our  increased  business;  we  offer 
greater  inducements  to  foreign  investors  than  formerly;  and  the 
country  is  undoubtedly  more  prosperous  than  it  has  ever  before  been, 
although  the  silver  standard  is  not  the  only  cause  of  our  prosperity. 
One  of  its  principal  causes  is,  undoubtedly  the  building  of  railroads, 
as  already  stated,  but  they  could  not  have  been  as  remunerative  as  they 
are  without  the  production  and  coinage  of  silver. 

Conclusion. — Summing  up  the  effects  produced  in  Mexico  by  the 

Earnings  over  operat- 
ing expenses $887,305  64       $749,539  68        $137,765  96 

Earnings  over  operating  expenses  as 

above 887,305  64 

Exchange  estimated  at  200  per  cent, 
on  purchases  in  U.  S.  currency 
and  charged  to  operating  ex- 
penses at  that  rate 209,838  66       1,097,144  30 

Less  stamp  tax  paid 13,712  42 


Leaving  in  Mexican  currency $1,083,431  88 

which,    converted    into    U.     S. 

currency   at    the   rate   of    53.13 

cents  for  the  silver  dollar,  would 

be 575,627  36 

And  balance  for  account  of  express 

contract 52,000  00 

Interest  on  deposits 14,660  30 

Miscellaneous  receipts 4.777  44 

Total  U.  S.  currency $647,065   10 

Against  this  is  chargeable  in  U.   S. 

currency,  viz.  : 
One  year's  interest  on  bonded  debt..       $560,000  00 
General  expenses 10,11285  570,11285 


Balance  U.  S.  currency....  $76,952  25" 

After  explaining  the  manner  in  which  Mexican  silver  is  reduced  to  United  States 
currency,  Mr.  Huntington  says  in  his  report : 

"  The  net  results  from  the  year's  operations  show  an  increase  in  the  gross  earn- 
ings of  $118,187.46  or  5.76  per  cent.,  and  a  decrease  in  operating  expenses  of  $19,- 
578.50  or  1.50  per  cent.,  making  a  total  gain  of  $137,765.96  or  18.38  per  cent,  over 
1893.  This  is  quite  a  gratifying  showing,  when  it  is  considered  that  the  general  busi- 
ness depression  in  the  United  States,  and  the  low  price  of  silver,  have  not  been  with- 
out their  unfavorable  effect  upon  the  year's  business." 


I 


6i2  Xlbe  Silrcr  5tan^a^^  in  /IDcyico. 

silver  standard,  I  can  say,  with  perfect  truth,  that  while  it  is  a  draw- 
back, a  great  inconvenience,  and  a  serious  loss  to  the  government  and 
to  the  railroads  to  have  our  currency  depreciated  when  we  have  to  use 
it  abroad,  either  to  pay  for  foreign  merchandise  or  the  interest  on  our 
gold  obligations,  and  while  that  depreciation  increases  our  burdens  to 
some  extent,  because  our  gold  obligations  and  the  price  of  foreign  com- 
modities are  nearly  doubled  by  it,  the  advantages  we  derive  from  the 
use  of  silver  money  in  all  our  transactions  are  so  great  as,  in  my 
opinion,  to  fully  compensate,  if  they  do  not  outweigh,  its  disadvantages. 
Notwithstanding  the  views  of  those  who  desire  that  the  present 
depreciation  of  the  Mexican  money  should  continue  in  Mexico,  I,  for 
one,  and  I  think  that  I  express  the  views  of  a  majority  of  my  fellow- 
citizens,  would  like  to  see  our  silver  commanding  the  same  price  as 
it  had  before  it  was  demonetized  in  1873,  and  we  believe  that  the 
world  will  have  to  come  back  sooner  or  later  to  bimetallism,  as  the 
only  way  to  have  a  common  and  a  more  stable  level  of  values  and  to 
avoid  most  of  the  financial  troubles  from  which  the  commercial 
nations  of  the  world  are  now  so  keenly  suffering. 


APPENDIX. 

I  will  insert  in  this  supplement  the  following  papers:  ist,  my  re- 
marks delivered  on  March  30,  1891,  at  the  fifth  meeting  of  the  Ameri- 
can International  Monetary  Commission  on  the  position  of  Mexico  on 
the  monetary  question;  2d,  a  list  of  papers  bearing  on  the  silver  ques- 
tion, printed  by  order  of  the  Senate,  from  1893  to  1898,  published  by 
the  Senate  on  June  6,  1898;  and  3d,  comments  on  the  Mexican  Central 
Railway  earnings  in  silver  and  reduced  to  gold,  and  on  the  deficit  of 
that  road  to  pay  the  interest  of  its  bonded  indebtedness. 

I. — M.  Romero's  remarks  on  the  position  of  Mexico  on  the 

MONETARY    QUESTION. 

Remarks  of  M.  Romero,  delivered  on  March  30,  1891,  at  the  fifth 
meeting  of  the  American  International  Monetary  Commission,  on  the 
position  of  Mexico  on  the  monetary  question  : 

Gentle.men  :  While  I  shall  cast  my  vote  in  favor  of  the  propositions  of  the  Dele- 
gates of  the  United  States  to  this  Conference,  because  I  think  they  are  advisable,  and 
because  they  come  from  the  representatives  of  the  inviting  country,  still  I  cannot 
refrain  from  expressing  my  regret  that  said  propositions  were  not  introduced  after  some 
attempt  had  been  made  for  all  the  American  nations  represented  at  this  Conference 
to  come  to  an  understanding  on  the  subject  of  a  common  coin. 

The  American  nations  are  all  bimetallists,  but  they  have  adopted  different  ratios 
between  gold  and  silver,  and  they  have  coins  differing  in  weight  and  alloy,  and,  there- 
fore, in  my  opinion,  it  would  be  desirable  at  least  to  arrive  at  some  understanding 
which  should  secure  the  establishment  of  a  common  ratio  between  gold  and  silver,  and 
a  unit  of  coin  of  the  same  weight  and  fineness,  even  though  the  coin  of  each  country 
should  not  be  a  legal  tender  outside  of  its  own  limits,  in  case  it  be  found  impossible 
to  agree  upon  its  being  received  as  a  legal  tender  in  all  the  American  countries. 

I,  for  one,  would  have  had  no  difficulty  in  accepting  the  ratio  of  i  to  iS'A>  which 
prevails  in  the  other  countries  of  America,  and  I  venture  to  presume  that  the  United 
States  might  accept  this  same  ratio,  since  one  of  its  most  distinguished  Senators,  well 
versed  in  financial  and  monetary  matters,  recently  introduced  a  bill  for  that  purpose, 
to  which  I  imagine  the  country  is  not  averse.  In  that  case  we  might  secure  the  ad- 
vantage of  at  least  having  a  uniform  ratio  in  America  to  be  the  same  as  that  prevailing 
in  Europe. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  an  international  agreement  upon  a  common  coin,  to  be  a 
legal  tender  in  all  the  contracting  countries,  would  require  the  concurrence  of  the 
nations  of  the  world  to  make  it  complete  and  work  smoothly  ;  but  for  the  present  it 
seems  unlikely  and  quite  difficult  to  obtain  this  concurrence,  so  far  as  England  and 
Germany,  and  especially  England,  are  concerned.  This  matter  has  been  discussed 
several  times  in  conference  wherein  Great  Hritain  was  represented,  and  she  has  never 
given  her  assent,  and  I  see  no  new  reason  why  she  would  give  it  now. 

I  have  been  for  some  time  of  opinion  that  if  all  the  American  nations  should 
reach  an  agreement  which  would  secure  to  them  a  common  coin,  and  especially  if  this 
were  to  be  a  legal  tender  in  all  of  them,  the  effect  of  such  agreement  wouKl  be  so 
marked  in  Europe,  and  especially  in  England,  that  it  would  be  likely  to  induce  that 

613 


6 14  ^be  Silver  StauDarO  in  /IDejico. 

power  to  join  in  the  agreement,  as  she  could  not  aflord  to  allow  the  United  States  to 
have  commercial  advantages  in  the  American  continent  which  she  could  not  share. 

I  am  afraid  that  the  advances  the  United  States  are  making  every  day  in  the  world 
as  a  commercial  nation  are  hardly  realized  in  this  country;  and  I  think  that  for  this 
reason  they  are  slow  in  taking  the  lead  in  some  important  commercial  matters,  lie- 
sides,  all  indications  seem  to  show  that  one  of  the  first  acts  of  the  Fifty-second  Con- 
gress of  the  United  States,  which  meets  on  the  first  Monday  in  December  next,  will 
be  to  authorize  the  free  coinage  of  silver,  and,  in  case  that  is  done,  all  the  objections 
they  now  have  against  the  legal-tender  clause  of  a  common  American  coin  will  disap- 
pear. Would  it  not  be  more  prudent,  under  such  circumstances,  to  adjourn  this  Con- 
ference until  the  first  of  January,  1892,  when  this  subject  will,  in  all  probability,  have 
been  decided  by  the  Government  of  the  United  States. 

I  beg  to  be  allowed  to  grasp  this  opportunity  to  state  the  position  of  Mexico  on 
this  question,  repeating,  perhaps,  what  I  previously  stated  on  a  similar  occasion,  as 
Delegate  from  Mexico  to  the  International  American  Conference. 

Mexico  is  legally  a  bimetallic  country,  because  we  have  both  gold  and  silver 
coins,  both  being  legal  tender  ;  but  practically  it  is  a  silver  nation,  because  all  our  busi- 
ness is  carried  on  exclusively  with  silver,  since,  owing  to  the  difference  of  the  price  in  the 
markets  of  the  world  of  both  metals,  all  of  our  gold  (and  we  do  not  yet  produce  much) 
is  exported,  while  a  considerable  part  of  our  silver  remains  in  the  country  in  the  form 
of  coin. 

I  will  mention,  briefly,  the  disadvantages  the  depreciation  of  silver  in  the  markets 
of  the  world  produces  in  Mexico,  and  at  the  same  time  (be  not  astonished)  the  advan- 
tages accruing  therefrom. 

The  disadvantages  are  three  : 

(i)  An  increase  in  the  price  in  Mexico  of  foreign  goods  which  has  to  be  paid  in 
gold. 

(2)  A  loss  to  the  national  treasury  in  the  funds  sent  abroad  to  pay  the  interest  on 
the  Mexican  bonds  held  in  Europe,  which  loss  is  equivalent  to  an  increase  in  the  rate 
of  that  interest. 

(3)  A  loss  to  wealthy  Mexicans  living  in  Europe,  when  their  capitals  or  revenues 
are  sent  to  them,  equivalent  to  the  depreciation  of  silver,  between  twenty-five  and  thirty- 
three  per  cent. 

The  depreciation  of  silver  has  not  affected  in  any  perceptible  way  the  working  of 
our  silver  mines,  but,  on  the  contrary,  our  production  of  that  metal  has  considerably 
increased  since  1871,  when  the  depreciation  began,  although  this  increase  is  due,  of 
course,  to  the  construction  of  railways,  to  the  long  peace  the  country  has  enjoyed,  and 
to  the  restoration  of  our  public  credit.  I  do  not  know  of  any  silver  mine  where  work 
has  been  stopped  owing  to  the  depreciation  of  silver. 

These  disadvantages  are,  however,  of  but  little  account  when  compared  to  the 
benefits  we  have  received  from  the  depreciation  of  silver,  and  which  are  the 
following  : 

(i)  As  the  Mexican  commodities  we  export,  such  as  coffee,  indigo,  hennequen, 
etc.,  are  sold  in  the  foreign  markets  in  gold,  they  command  now  a  higher  price  at 
home,  where  they  are  bought  for  silver,  which  really  amounts  to  a  bounty,  when  ex- 
ported, equal  to  the  difference  between  the  actual  price  of  silver  at  home  and  their 
price  in  gold  in  the  markets  of  the  world,  which  has  been  between  twenty-five  and  thirty- 
three  per  cent.  This  bounty  has  produced  the  effect  of  considerably  increasing  the 
production  and  exportation  of  commodities  which  could  not  be  exported  before. 

(2)  And  perhaps  the  most  important  advantage  has  been  to  keep  in  Mexico  a  very 
large  amount  of  money  which  formerly  used  to  go  out  of  the  country  as  soon  as  coined, 
it  being  the  only  article  of  export  with  which  imported  foreign  goods  were  purchased. 


Xlst  ot  papers  Bearing  on  tbe  Silver  (Siuestion.    615 

thus  leaving  a  very  limited  amount  to  transact  the  business  of  the  country.  The  rea- 
son why  this  money  does  not  go  out  now  is  because  it  has  become  more  profitable  to 
export  commodities  in  the  place  of  silver,  which  remains  in  the  country  in  the  form  of 
coin,  to  the  great  benefit  of  business. 

It  is  natural  that  when  the  Mexican  dollar  loses  from  one  fourth  to  one  third  of 
its  value  in  Mexico  by  sending  it  abroad,  that  it  should  be  kept  in  the  country,  and 
that  in  its  stead  other  articles  should  be  exported,  thus  considerably  increasing  the 
circulating  medium  in  Mexico,  to  the  great  benefit  of  all  ;  and  the  country,  therefore, 
is  perfectly  satisfied  with  the  present  condition  of  things. 

(3)  A.  great  many  rich  men  in  Mexico,  both  native  and  foreign,  used  to  realize  on 
what  they  had  in  the  country  and  send  the  proceeds  to  Europe,  where  they  found  a 
safer,  if  not  more  a  profitable  field  for  investment.  But  they  cannot  afford  to  do  so  now, 
because  their  capital  would  be  reduced  one  third  or  one  fourth  ;  and  as  besides  there 
is  now  perfect  security  to  life  and  property  in  Mexico,  and  a  large  field  for  profitable 
investment  has  been  opened  by  the  building  of  railways  and  the  consolidation  of 
peace  and  order  in  the  country,  capital  is  entering  instead  of  leaving  Mexico. 

When  these  facts  are  taken  into  consideration,  it  does  not  seem  strange  that  we 
are  in  no  great  haste  to  seek  any  change  in  the  present  condition  of  things,  because 
the  depreciation  of  silver  has  actually  produced  very  favorable  results.  Yet,  when 
we  consider  that  silver  has  been  for  nearly  three  hundred  years  almost  our  only  arti- 
cle of  export,  and  that  it  now  represents  two-thirds  of  our  total  exports,  we  cannot  be 
indifferent  to  any  measure  adopted,  either  by  treaty  or  legislation,  which  may  produce 
the  effect  of  enhancing  the  value  of  that  metal  ;  and  for  this  reason  we  might  be  will- 
ing to  join  in  any  agreement  which  may  be  likely  to  bring  about  that  result,  provided 
it  would  not  materially  affect  our  interests. 

We  are  peculiarly  situated  as  regards  our  silver  coin,  possessing  advantages  that 
are  enjoyed  by  no  other  country.  This  fact  becomes  patent  when  we  consider  the 
great  demand  there  is  for  our  silver  dollar  in  the  world,  owing  to  its  having  a  larger 
amount  of  pure  metal  than  any  similar  foreign  coin,  and  therefore  commanding  a 
higher  price  than  any  other  dollar.  We  have,  besides,  a  special  market  for  our  silver 
dollar  in  the  East,  where  it  has  been  used  for  many  years  as  the  national  coin,  and 
where  it  is  in  great  demand.  This  circumstance  causes  us  to  be  very  slow  to  accept 
any  changes  in  our  own  coin  which  may  deprive  us  of  those  markets  and  those 
advantages. 

The  preceding  remarks  will  show  the  Conference  that  while  Mexico  is  disposed 
to  co-operate  with  her  sisters,  the  American  Republics,  in  any  measures  which  would 
be  beneficial  to  the  interests  of  those  concerned,  she  is  not  willing  to  accept  anything 
which  would  not  be  clearly  advantageous  and  useful  to  all,  and  she  is  in  no  particular 
hurry  to  change  the  actual  condition  of  things. 


2. — LIST    OF    PAPERS    BEARING    ON    THE    SILVER    QUESTION. 

Fifty-fifth  Congress,  2d  Session,  Senate  Document  No.  286.  June  6,  1898. 
Ordered  to  be  printed.  Mr.  Chandler  presented  the  following  list  of  papers  bearing 
on  the  silver  question,  printed  by  order  of  the  Senate,  1893-1898.  (Prepared  in  the 
Senate  Library  by  Mr.  Clifford  Warden.) 

This  list  of  papers  bearing  upon  the  silver  question  embraces  the  principal  papers 
printed  by  order  of  the  Senate  during  the  period  since  the  beginning  of  the  Fifty- 
third  Congress,  1893.  It  includes  several  important  papers  which  were  printed  by 
order  of  the  Senate  during  the  consideration,  in  1893,  of  the  bill  to  repeal  the  silver- 
purchasing  portion  of  the  Sherman  law  of  1890. 


6i6 


TLbc  Silver  Sran^ar^  in  /IDejico. 


Subject. 


*  Give  us  free  silver.  An  editorial  printed  in 
the  New  York  Kfcorder^  August  13,  i8t)3. 

Production  of  gold  and  silver  in  the  world  since 
the  discovery  of  America.  Presented  by  Mr. 
Vest. 

Report  of  the  commission  appointed  to  inquire 
into  the  Indian  currency,  commonly  known  as 
the  Ilerschell  report  on  the  coinage  of  silver  in 
India,  with  the  accompanying  correspondence 
and  testimony. 

*  Letter  from  F.  C.  Waite  to  Hon.  Henry  M. 
Teller,  relative  to  cause  of  financial  and  indus- 
trial depression. 

*  Letter  from  Ernest  Seyd  to  Hon.  Samuel 
Hooper  on  the  subject  of  coinage. 

Letter  from  R.  E.  Preston,  Acting  Director  of 
the  Mint,  transmitting  statements  of  the  pro- 
duction and  coinages  of  the  principal  countries 
of  the  world,  for  the  years  1873-1S92.  Pre- 
sented by  Mr.  Cockrell. 

Monetary  systems  and  api)ro.\imate  stocks  of 
money  in  the  aggregate  and  per  capita  in  the 
principal  countries  of  the  world.  Presented  by 
Mr.  Cockrell. 

Production  of  gold  and  silver  in  the  world,  lygz- 
1892.  (Statement.)  Presented  by  Mr.  Cock- 
rell. 

No  international  bimetallism  including  Great 
Britain  is  possible.  Memorial  of  A.  Wolcott. 
Presented  by  Mr.  Allen. 

Official  statement  of  production  of  gold  and  silver 
of  Arizona,  Colorado,  California,  Idaho,  Mon- 
tana, Nevada,  Utah,  and  New  xMexico,  1873- 
1892.      Presented  by  Mr.  Teller. 

Memorial  from  the  buisness  men  of  Philadelphia 
in  relation  to  tariff  and  financial  legislation. 
Presented  by  Mr.  Cameron. 

*  The  currency  problem,  by  J.  Barr  Robertson  ; 
a  paper  quoted  from  the  Journal  of  the  Society 
of  Arts.      Presented  by  Mr.  Teller. 

Seigniorage  arising  from  the  coinage  of  silver 
purchased  under  the  act  of  July  14,  1S90  :  Cor- 
respondence with  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury 
relative  to. 

*  The  future  of  silver,  by  Eduard  Suess,  professor 
of  geology  at  the  University  of  Vienna,  mem- 
ber of  the  Austrian  Parliament,  etc.  Published 
by  permission  of  the  author  and  by  direction  of 
the  Committee  on  Finance. 

'■■  Memorial  of  the  legislature  of  Utah  in  favor  of 
silver  coinage  (at  16  to  i). 

Census  distribution  of  the  gold  and  silver,  by 
States.  Article  prepared  by  Frederick  C. 
Waite.      Presented  by  .Mr.  Kyle. 

The  evidence  of  a  Crown  colony  on  gold  and  silver 
prices — Bimetallism  in  relation  to  agricultural 
depression.  Address  delivered  before  the  Lon- 
don Chamber  of  Commerce,  July  24,  1894.  Pre- 
sented bv  Mr.  Teller.  I 


Congress.      Session. 


53d. 
53d. 

53d. 

53d. 
53d. 

53d. 

53d. 
53d. 
53d. 

53d. 
53d. 
53d. 

53d. 

53d. 
53d. 

53d. 
53d. 


1st. 

1st. 

1st. 
1st. 


rst. 


ist. 


1st. 


1st. 


1st. 


1st. 
1st. 

2d. 

2d. 
2d. 


Document  num- 
ber (Senate). 


Mis.   II. 
Mis.  17. 

Mis.  23,  3  parts. 

Mis.  25. 
Mis.  29. 

Mis.  34. 


Mis 

35- 

Mis 

36. 

Mis. 

47. 

Mis. 

52. 

Mis. 

68. 

Mis. 

89. 

Mis.  91. 

Mis.  95. 
Mis.  80. 

Mis.  210. 
Mis.  262. 


*  Publi-shed  also  in  Coinage  Laws  of  the  United  States,  1 792-1 894  (Fifty-third 
Congress,  2d  Session,  Senate  Report  235). 


Xist  of  papers  Bearing  on  tbe  Silver  Question.    617 


Subject. 


Congress, 


Session. 


Document  num- 
ber (Senate). 


Berlin  Silver  Commission,  i8q4.  Report  of  the 
proceedings,  to  which  is  appended  the  report  of 
the  proceedinfjs  of  the  International  ISimetallic 
Conference  at  London,  May  2-3,  1894.  Trans- 
lated and  prepared  under  direction  of  the  Com- 
mittee on  Finance,  by  authority  of  Senate 
resolution  of  June  18,  1894. 

Statement  to  accompany  Senate  bill  2439,  "A 
bill  to  provide  for  the  establishment  and  main- 
tenance of  a  bimetallic  monetary  basis,  and  to 
secure  the  adjustment  to  business  requirements 
of  the  volume  and  distribution  of  the  national 
currency,"  etc.      Presented  by  Mr.  Manderson. 

Resolutions  adopted  by  the  Farmers'  National 
Congress  of  America  at  its  annual  meeting  at 
Parkersburg.  W.  Va.,  Oct.  3-C,  1894.  Pre- 
sented by  Mr.  George. 

Memorial  of  Anson  Wolcott  on  the  state  of  the 
national  finances.     Presented  by  Mr.  Turpie, 

The  real  causes  of  agricultural  distress.  Papers. 
Presented  by  Mr.  Teller. 

The  fall  of  prices — the  cause  and  the  cure.  Ad- 
dress by  President  E.  Benjamin  Andrews  be- 
fore the  Manufacturers'  Club  of  Philadelphia, 
Feb.  18,  1S94.      Presented  by  Mr.  Cockrell. 

Bill  to  provide  in  connection  with  other  nations 
for  the  unlimited  coinage  of  gold  and  silver  at 
the  ratio  of  i  to  15?,,  and  letter  of  Mr.  Robert 
Stein  in  relation  to  the  bill.  Presented  by  Mr. 
Chandler,  Dec    12,  1895. 

Papers  on  bimetallism,  by  George  Jameison,  and 
on  the  rise  in  the  value  of  gold,  by  Thomas 
Holyoake  Box  ;  on  the  fall  in  silver  and  its 
effects  on  British  trade,  by  David  Octavius 
Croal,  and  comments  by  Sir  Henry  Meysey- 
Thompson.     Presented  by  Mr.  Stewart. 

Gold  monometallism  ;  the  upas  tree  of  Great 
Britain  ;  blighting  effect  on  British  industries  ; 
hypothetical  example  of  the  cost  of  monometal- 
lism.    Presented  by  Mr.  Teller. 

Resolution  of  the  Camden  County,  N.  J.,  Farm.- 
er's  Institute,  favoring  the  free  and  unlimited 
coinage  of  silver.     Presented  by  Mr.  Teller. 

Memorial  of  An.son  Wolcott  on  the  monetary 
laws  and  monetary  conditions  of  the  United 
States.     Presented  by  Mr.  Stewart. 

Letter  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  Jan.  16, 
1896,  relative  to  the  amount  of  .silver  bullion 
on  hand,  the  cost  of  same,  and  coinage  value  if 
coined  into  dollars,  and  amount  of  seigniorage 
if  so  coined,  etc.      Presented  l)y  Mr.  Cockrell. 

Letters  of  Hon.  Ben.  Bultervvorth  and  Samuel  J. 
Ritchie  upon  the  silver  question  and  upon  the 
general  financial  policy  of  the  Government,  as 
of  late  pursued.     Presented  by  Mr.  Teller. 

Speech  of  Hon.  John  G.  Carlisle  before  the  work- 
ingmen  of  Chicago,  April  15,  1896. 

Speech  of  John  P.  Altgeld,  governor  of  Illinois, 
at  the  Auditorium,  Chicago,  May  16,  i8g6. 
Presented  by  Mr.  Cockrell. 


53d- 

53d. 

53d. 
53d. 
53d. 

53d. 
54th. 

54th. 

54th. 
54th. 
54th. 

5■^th. 

54th. 
54th. 

54th. 


2d. 

3d. 

3d. 
3d. 
3d. 

3d. 
1st. 

1st. 

1st. 
1st. 
1st. 

1st. 

1st. 
1st. 

1st. 


Mis.  274. 

Mis.  31. 

Mis.  35. 
Mis.  86. 
Mis.  94. 

Mis.  136. 
Doc.  24. 

Doc.  30. 

Doc.  2g. 
Doc.  124. 
Doc.  177. 

Doc.  184. 

Doc.  235. 
Doc.  256. 

Doc.  284. 


6i8 


Zbc  Silver  Stan^ar^  in  /IDejico. 


Subject. 


Gold   and   the  world's  wheat   farmers,  by  L.  G. 

Powers.     Presented  by  Mr.  Lodge. 
The    Orientals    as    manufacturing    competitors. 
"A    silver    menace."       Letters    of    John    P. 
Young,  published  in  the  San  Francisco  Chroni- 
cle.    Presented  by  Mr.  Teller. 
Memorial  of  Henry  Nelson  Loud,  containing  an 
argument  for  a  universal  standard  dollar.     Pre- 
sented by  Mr.  McMillan. 
Arguments    by    eminent    French,    German,    and 
English   writers  in  favor   of  bimetallism,  pub- 
lished by  \.\i&  Xational  /^tn'ieiv,  February,  1897. 
Presented  by  Mr.  Chandler. 
Memorial  of  John  ^L  Mott,  praying  that  the  mints 
of  the  United  States  be  opened  to  the  free  coin- 
age of  silver.      Presented  by  .Mr.  Turpie. 
Memorial  of  clergymen  of  Philadelphia,  petition- 
ing for  the  removal  of  the  inequalities  of  the 
present  protective  system.      Presented  by  Mr. 
Cannon. 
Reports  of  the  metallists  of  the  French  and  Eng- 
lish Bimetallic  League  on  international  bimet- 
allism.    Presented  by  Mr.  Chandler. 
Papers  relating  to  the  adoption  of  the  gold  stand- 
ard by  Japan.      Presented  by  Mr.  Pettigrew. 
Speech  by  Hon.  Charles  A.  Towne,  chairman  of 
the    National    Committee,   Silver    Republican 
Party.  April  24,  1897.     Presented  by  Mr.  Pet- 
tigrew. 
Appointment  of  a  monetary  commission  to  inves- 
tigate and  report  upon  a  revision  of  the  finan- 
cial system  of  the  United  States.    Recommended 
in  message  from  the  President  of  the  United 
States. 
Extracts   from    a   speech    of    Monsieur    Meline, 
President  of  the  French  Cabinet,  delivered  in 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  November  20,  1897. 
Presented  by  Mr.  Wolcott. 
Correspondence  submitted,  July  27,  1897,  by  the 
British  Government  to  the  House  of  Commons 
on  the  currency  proposals  made  by  the  United 
States    special     envoys.       Presented    by    Mr. 
Chandler. 
Statement  by  Prof.  J.  A.  Collins  relative  to  the 
distribution    of   wealth    in    the   United  States. 
Presented  by  Mr.  Allen. 
Silver  and  wheat,  a  paper  published  by  Mr.  R. 

Lacey  Everett.     Presented  by  Mr.  Pettigrew. 
Monetary    changes    in    Japan,    by    Mr.    Garrett 
Droppers,  of  Tokyo,  Japan.     Presented  by  Mr, 
Wolcott. 
The  crime  of  1873— Why  the  silver  dollar  was 
omitted  in  the  law  of  1873— Frank  G.  Winn,  of 
Claremont,    N.   H.,    reviews   the  coinage  laws 
and  shows  why  the  silver  dollar  was  omitted. 
Presented  by  Mr.  Gallinger. 
Amount,  cost,  etc.,  in  standard   silver  dollars,  of 
silver  bullion  purchased  under  act  of  July  14, 
1890,  etc.     Letter   from    the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury  in  response  to  a  Senate  resolution. 


Congress. 


54th. 

54th. 
54th. 

54th. 
55th. 

55th. 

55th. 
55th. 

55th. 

55th. 
55th. 

55th. 

55th. 
55th. 

55th. 

55  th. 
55th. 


Session. 


1st. 

1st. 
2d. 

2d. 
1st. 

1st. 

1st. 
1st. 

1st. 

1st. 
2d. 

2d. 

2d. 
2d. 

2d. 

2d. 
2d. 


Document  num- 
ber (Senate). 


Doc.  306, 

Doc.  311. 
Doc.  99. 

Doc.  131. 
Doc.  20. 

Doc.  60. 

Doc.  156. 
Doc.  176. 

Doc.  177. 

Doc.  190. 
Doc.  26. 

Doc.  69. 

Doc.  75. 
Doc.  86. 

Doc.  126. 

Doc.  147. 
Doc.  163. 


%055  ot  1RailroaC)s  in  IReDucin^  Earnings  to  0ol&.    619 


Subject. 


Congress. 


Session. 


Document  num- 
ber (Senate). 


Monetary  question  in  Russia,  a  paper  published 
by  L  Economiste  European,  of  Paris,  May  7, 
1897.      Presented  by  Mr.  Pettigrew. 

The  currency  question.  Communication  from 
Mr.  Charles  A.  Towne,  published  in  the  Post- 
Inlelligencer,  of  Seattle,  Wash.  Presented  by 
Mr.  Pettigrew. 

Coinage  value  of  silver  bullion  in  the  Treasury, 
etc.  Letter  from  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury 
in  response  to  a  Senate  resolution  of  May  4, 
1898. 

Certain  silver  bullion  in  the  United  States  Treas- 
ury. Letter  from  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury 
in  response  to  a  Senate  resolution  of  April  27, 
1898. 

The  Indian  Currency,  an  article  by  Sir  Robert 
GifTen,  published  in  the  London  Times,  May 
19,  1898.     Presented  by  Mr.  Chandler. 


55th. 


55th. 


55th. 
55th. 


2d. 


2d. 


2d. 

2d. 


Doc.  167. 


Doc.  227. 


Doc.  268. 
Doc.  279. 


3.    LOSS    OF    MKXICAN    ROADS    IN    REDUCING    THEIR    EARNINGS    TO  GOLD. 

After  this  paper  had  been  printed  I  found  in  a  newspaper  of  this  country  a  com- 
parison of  the  earnings  of  the  Mexican  Central  Railway  in  silver  with  their  equivalent 
in  gold,  from  which  it  appears  that  the  increase  of  earnings  has  not  been  constant 
when  measured  in  gold,  as  the  price  of  exchange  has  varied  considerably,  having  had 
always  an  upward  tendency.  I  also  found  a  statement  of  the  deficit  of  that  road  to 
pay  all  its  gold  obligations  and  the  interest  on  its  bonds  during  the  last  five  years, 
which  has  been  published  to  show  how  much  the  Mexican  roads  are  suffering  on  ac- 
count of  our  silver  standard. 

As  I  desire  to  be  perfectly  fair  and  impartial  and  to  present  both  sides  of  the  case, 
I  give  here  the  above-mentioned  figures,  as  follows  : 

MEXICAN    CENTRAL    RAILWAY. 

EARNINGS  PER  MILE. 

Mexican  Currency.  Gold. 

1891 $4,169  $3,236 

1892 4,146  2,896 

1893 4,322  2,701 

1894 4.530  2,351 

1895 5.069  2,683 

1896 5.352  2,837 

1897 6,552  3,129 

DEFICIT    OF    THE    MEXICAN    CENTRAL    RAILWAY. 

In   1893 $546,401 

"    1894 814,185 

"    1895 265,252 

"    1896 483.011 

"    1897 538.947 


I  take  the  above  figures  to  be  correct,  although  I  do  not  think  tiiey  embrace  such 


620  Zbc  Silver  Stan^a^^  in  /IDeyico. 

profits  as  the  Mexican  Central  road  made  by  carrying  their  own  construction  material, 
and  I  have  to  remark  that  I  do  not  consider  it  fair  to  reduce  to  gold  the  earnings  of 
the  Mexican  railways,  because  the  largest  portion  of  their  expenses — namely,  those 
paid  in  Mexico,  including  all  operating  expenses — are  paid  in  silver,  and  it  is  only  for 
rolling-stock  and  other  foreign  commodities  that  they  have  to  pay  in  gold  as  well  as 
the  interest  on  their  bonded  indebtedness.  The  proper  course  in  this  case  would  be  to 
deduct  from  the  total  earnings  of  the  road  the  operating  and  other  expenses  incurred  in 
silver,  and  to  reduce  to  gold  such  amount  as  is  left  for  the  purpose  of  paying  for  foreign 
commodities  and  the  interest  on  its  debt.  When  that  operation  is  done  the  above- 
quoted  figures  will  appear  in  a  very  different  aspect.  That  is  just  what  the  Mexican 
National  Road  does.  That  Company  keeps  its  accounts  in  Mexican  money,  and  in 
order  to  avoid  having  the  cost  of  operation  fluctuate  back  and  forth  with  the  fluctua- 
tions of  silver,  it  adopted  several  years  ago  an  arbitrary  rate  of  exchange,  which  was 
20  per  cent,  discount,  then  the  actual  rate  of  exchange.  In  this  way  the  income 
account  is  debited  with  the  actual  cost  of  purchasing  gold  and  the  net  shown  is  conse- 
quently the  amount  reducible  to  gold,  so  giving  a  clear  idea  of  the  gold  earnings  of 
the  road.     I  think  the  other  roads  do  something  similar. 

I  would  further  remark  that  the  Mexican  Central  Railway  has  a  very  large  bonded 
indebtedness,  and  although  it  only  pays  4  per  cent,  interest  on  most  of  it,  that  interest 
has  to  be  paid  in  gold  ;  and  on  account  of  the  depreciation  of  silver  the  road  has  not 
yet  earned  money  enough  to  pay  the  whole  of  that  interest,  and  every  year  it  has  a 
deficit,  which  has  been  paid  with  a  large  amount  of  subsidy  granted  by  the  Mexican 
Government  to  the  Company,  and  which  has  been  kept  in  trust  for  such  emergencies 
as  this. 

Notwithstanding  such  deficit,  the  Mexican  Central  Railway  Company  must  con- 
sider its  property  very  valuable,  since  it  is  increasing  considerably  its  mileage  every 
year. 

The  Mexican  National  Railway  Company  has  also  a  very  large  bonded  indebted- 
ness in  proportion  to  its  mileage,  having  four  different  kinds  of  bonds.  The  interest 
of  the  first  series  has  been  punctually  paid.  There  are  outstanding  Series  "A" 
Bonds,  Second  Mortgage,  for  $I2,265,<X)0,  cumulative;  $12,265,00  Second  Mortgage 
Series  "  B,"  purely  income  bonds,  and  $7,040,000  Third  Mortgage  Income  Bonds. 
While  the  Second  Mortgage  Series  "  A"  Bonds  bear  coupons  and  are  cumulative,  they 
are  not,  by  the  terms  of  the  Trust,  entitled  to  have  the  mortgage  foreclosed  for  a  cer- 
tain period,  or  under  certain  conditions.  During  the  last  year  the  Company  paid  upon 
these  bonds  out  .of  its  earnings  3^  per  cent.,  which  is  the  largest  payment  made  on 
them  since  their  issue.  If  silver  had  not  been  depreciated  the  Mexican  National 
would  have  been  able  to  pay  in  full  the  interest  on  their  bonds.  As  it  is  now,  the  in- 
crease in  the  traffic  has  been  remarkably  uniform  year  by  year,  and  has  been  sufficient 
to  a  little  more  than  compensate  for  the  depreciation  of  silver  :  that  is  to  say,  the  net 
returns  of  the  Company  as  measured  by  gold  have  been  a  little  greater  each  year. 

The  Mexican  International  Railway  Company,  which  has  issued  a  reasonable 
amount  of  bonds  in  proportion  to  its  mileage,  earns  enough  to  pay  in  gold  the  interest 
on  its  bonds,  with  its  receipts  in  silver. 

The  following  statement  shows  the  bonded  indebtedness  of  each  of  the  three 
leading  Mexican  roads,  their  mileage,  and  the  bonded  indebtedness  per  mile  : 

Bonded  In-  •»•,  Bonded  Indebtr 

debtedness.  ueage.  edness  per  mile. 

Mexican  Central  Railway $95,051,712.50  1,877.15  $50,636.18 

Mexican  National   Railway 42,879,000.00  1,056.16  40,598.96 

Mexican  International  Railway 14,984,000.00  658.28  22,762.34 


THE    PAN-AMERICAN    CONFERENCE 

OF    1889. 


621 


IH 


Doni' 
then 


tde 


THE    PAN-AMERICAN    CONFERENCE 

OF    1889. 

INTRODUCTION. 

The  meeting  in  Washington  in  October,  1889,  of  a  Congress  in 
which  all  the  American  States  were  represented  was  an  event  of  great 
moment  and  concern,  not  only  to  the  United  States,  but  to  every  one  of 
the  nations  of  this  hemisphere.  In  that  way  the  project  originated  by 
Bolivar,  immediately  after  the  independence  of  the  Spanish  colonies  in 
America,  of  forming  a  confederation  among  all  the  American  nations 
for  their  mutual  advancement,  was  partially  realized.  It  is  therefore 
of  great  importance  to  record  what  took  place  in  that  Conference,  as  I 
am  sure  it  will  not  be  the  last  one,  and  a  knowledge  of  the  circumstances 
attending  the  same  and  of  its  main  discussions  and  decisions  will  be  of 
great  use  in  future  meetings.  It  is  now  nearly  ten  years  since  that 
meeting  took  place,  and  the  idea  has  been  suggested  of  calling  a 
similar  conference,  as  it  is  thought  proper  that  the  American  nations 
should  convene  to  consult  among  themselves  on  subjects  affecting  their 
common  interests  and  welfare  at  least  once  in  every  ten  years. 

I  thought  that  an  impartial,  conscientious,  and  concise  analysis  of 
what  took  place  in  that  Conference  presented  by  a  Spanish-American 
delegate,  especially  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  Latin-American 
nations,  which  is  not  quite  fully  understood  in  the  United  States, 
would  be  of  great  interest  to  all  concerned,  and  especially  so  to  this 
country,  and  with  such  object  in  view  I  wrote  a  paper  which  appeared 
in  the  September  and  October  numbers  of  1890  of  the  North  American 
Review,  of  New  York,  under  the  heading  of  "The  Pan-American 
Conference." 

I  now  reprint  this  paper  substantially  as  it  was  then  published;  but 
giving  only  a  few  more  details  about  the  way  in  which  the  Act  of  May  24, 
1888,  which  convened  the  Conference,  originated,  and  about  other  points 
of  personal  interest,  and  rectifying  a  statement  regarding  Mr.  Hender- 
son, Chairman  of  the  United  States  delegation  to  the  Conference,  which 

623 


624  ^f3e  ipan^Bmei'ican  Contercnce. 

appeared  in  the  original  article,  and  which  was  not  exactly  fair  to  him. 
This  edition  of  the  paper  gives  me  also  tlie  opportunity  of  mentioning 
what  have  been  so  far  some  of  the  permanent  results  of  the  Conference. 
I  have  thought  it  advisable  also  to  append  the  principal  documents 
which  are  referred  to  in  the  paper,  as  the  Act  convening  the  Confer- 
ence, a  full  list  of  the  delegates,  a  list  of  the  committees,  and  the  text 
of  the  project  of  arbitration,  and  another  against  conquest,  reported 
by  the  Committee  on  General  Welfare,  which  finally  ended  in  a  Treaty 
of  Arbitration,  signed  by  most  of  the  delegates  to  the  same  on  April  19, 
1890,  and  several  other  important  documents  bearing  on  the  results  of 
the  Conference. 

I  published  this  paper  almost  immediately  after  the  Conference  ad- 
journed, and  when  Mr.  Blaine  and  all  the  members  of  the  Conference 
were  not  only  living,  but  had  fresh  in  their  memory  the  events  that  hap- 
pened in  the  same,  and  when  Mr.  Blaine  was  yet  Secretary  of  State. 
With  the  exception  of  Mr.  Henderson,  to  whom  I  have  already  alluded, 
neither  Mr.  Blaine  nor  any  one  of  the  delegates  in  any  manner,  directly 
or  indirectly,  intimated  to  me  or  to  anybody  else,  to  my  knowledge,  that 
there  was  any  misstatement  or  misunderstanding  on  my  part  about  the 
incidents  which  I  had  commented  upon,  and  this  shows  very  clearly 
to  my  mind  that  my  statements  were  correct. 

Complete  information  on  this  subject  will  be  found  in  the  following 
official  publications  of  the  proceedings  of  the  Pan-American  Confer- 
ence :  ist,  a  volume  of  906  pages,  containing  the  Minutes,  signed 
by  the  President  and  the  two  Secretaries,  of  the  seventy  meetings  held 
by  the  Conference,  under  the  title  of  Minutes  of  the  Inter/iationai 
American  Conference  in  English  and  Spanish,  i8go.  2d,  a  pub- 
lication in  four  volumes  entitled  International  American  Confer- 
ence, printed  by  the  United  States  Government  under  the  direction 
of  the  Executive  Committee  and  by  order  of  the  Conference,  ap- 
proved March  7,  1890.  Volumes  I.  and  II.  of  said  publication  con- 
tain the  reports  of  the  committees  and  discussions  thereon  ;  Vol.  III. 
contains  the  narrative  of  the  tour  of  the  delegates  through  the 
United  States,  descriptions  of  places  visited,  and  reports  of  ad- 
dresses delivered  ;  and  Vol.  IV.  an  historical  appendix,  beginning  with 
the  Congress  of  Panama  of  1826,  and  subsequent  movements  toward 
a  conference  of  American  nations.  And  3d,  a  volume  containing 
the  recommendations  approved  by  the  Pan-American  Conference 
sent  to  Congress  by  President  Harrison,  each  with  a  special  Message, 
accompanied  in  every  case  by  a  report  of  Mr.  Blaine  as  Secretary 
of  State.  In  some  cases,  as  in  regard  to  reciprocity  treaties,  Mr. 
Blaine  wrote  a  full  report,  going  into  details  of  the  subject,  and  in 
others  he  merely  prepared  a  letter  of  transmittal.  The  following  is  a 
complete  list  of  the  subjects  recommended  by  the  Pan-American  Con- 


1[ntro5uction.  625 

ference,  as  communicated  by  President  Harrison  to  Congress,  with 
the  dates  of  his  Messages  in  the  chronological  order  in  which  they  were 
sent,  all  of  which  are  bound  in  one  volume  : 

Inter-Continental  Railway,  President's  Message  to  the  Senate,  May  19,  1890. 
International    American    Bank,    President's    Message  to  the  Senate,    May  27,    1890. 

Senate  Ex.  Doc,  No.  129,  Fifty-first  Congress,  1st  Session. 
Customs  Regulations,  President's  Message  to  the  Senate,  June  2,  i8go.      Senate  Ex. 

Doc,  No.  135,  Fifty-first  Congress,  ist  Session. 
Reciprocity  Treaties,  President's  Message  to  the  Senate,  June  19,  1890.     Senate  Ex. 

Doc,  No.  158,  Fifty-first  Congress,  ist  Session. 
Colombian  Exposition,  President's  Message  to  the  Senate,  July  2,  1890.     Senate  Ex. 

Doc,  No.  173,  Fifty-first  Congress,  ist  Session. 
Postal  and  Cable  Communications,  President's  Message  to  the  Senate,  July  2,  1890. 

Senate  Ex.  Doc,  No.  174,  Fifty-first  Congress,  ist  Session. 
Sanitary  and  Quarantine  Regulations,  President's  Message  to  the  Senate,  July  li,  1890. 

Senate  Ex.  Doc,  No.  176,  Fifty-first  Congress,  ist  Session. 
Patents  and  Trade-Marks,  President's  Message  to  the  Senate,  July  11,  1890.     Senate 

Ex.  Doc,  No.  177,  Fifty-first  Congress,  1st  Session. 
International   Monetary   Union,    President's    Message  to   the   Senate,  July  12,   1890. 

Senate  Ex.  Doc,  No.  180,  Fifty-first  Congress,  ist  Session. 
Uniform  System  of  Weights  and  Measures,  President's  Message  to  the  Senate,  July 

12,  1890.     Senate  Ex.  Doc,  No.  181,  Fifty-first  Congress,  ist  Session. 
Uniform  System  of  Port  Dues,   President's   Message  to    the    Senate,  July   14,    1890. 

Senate  Ex.  Doc,  No.  182,  Fifty-first  Congress,  ist  Session. 
Uniform  Code  of  International  Law,  President's  Message  to  the  Senate,  July  14,  1890. 

Senate  Ex.  Doc,  No.  183,  Fifty-first  Congress,  ist  Session. 
Uniform  Treaties  for  the  Extradition  of  Criminals,  President's  Message  to  the  Senate, 

July  15,  1890.     Senate  Ex.  Doc,  No.  187,  Fifty-first  Congress,  ist  Session. 
Erection  of  Memorial  Tablet,  President's  Message  to  the  Senate,  July  15,  1890.     Sen- 
ate Ex.  Doc,  No.  188,  Fifty-first  Congress,  ist  Session. 
Plan  of  Arbitration.  President's  Message  to  the  Senate,  September  3,  1890.     -Senate 

Ex.  Doc,  No.  224,  Fifty-first  Congress,  ist  Session. 


THE  PAN-AMERICAN  CONFERENCE  OF  1889. 

Although  the  idea  of  assembling  a  congress  in  which  all  the  Ameri- 
can nations  should  be  represented  was  not  a  new  one — as  it  had  origi- 
nated in  South  America  with  its  liberator,  Bolivar,  after  the  Spanish 
colonies  had  accomplished  their  independence,  and  was  put  into  effect 
by  his  calling  in  1826  a  congress  to  meet  at  Panama,  a  project  very 
heartily  supported  in  this  country  by  Henry  Clay,  then  Secretary  of 
State — Mr.  James  G.  Blaine  can  be  properly  considered  as  the  origi- 
nator in  the  United  States  of  the  movement  which  resulted  in  convening 
the  International  American  Conference  which  met  in  October,  1889, 
He  proposed  it  in  1881,  when  he  served  as  Secretary  of  State  for  the 
first  time,  under  President  Garfield's  Administration,  but  reduced  to 
narrow  limits  the  object  of  such  a  conference :  namely,  to  the  negotiation 
of  an  agreement  for  the  purpose  of  settling  by  arbitration  all  differences 
that  might  arise  between  the  American  nations. 

The  change  of  Administration  which  soon  afterwards  took  place,  in 
consequence  of  the  assassination  of  President  Garfield,  caused  this 
idea  to  be  abandoned,  as  at  that  time  it  had  not  been  well  received. 
Chili  was  then  engaged  in  a  war  with  Peru  and  Bolivia,  and  some 
thought  that  the  proposed  conference  was  an  attempt  to  interfere  in 
that  difficulty.  Mexico  also  received  it  very  coolly,  for  she  had  then  a 
boundary  question  pending  with  Guatemala,  and  Mr.  Blaine  had  pro- 
posed that  the  President  of  the  United  States  should  arbitrate  thereon; 
but,  unfortunately,  in  making  that  offer,  he  had  expressed  an  opinion 
unfavorable  to  the  rights  of  Mexico,  which  were  based  on  undeniable 
historical  facts;  and  for  this  and  other  reasons  the  proposal  was  not 
then  accepted. 

Act  Convening  the  Conference. — The  idea  remained  latent  in  this 
country,  however,  and  it  was  revived  by  President  Arthur,  who,  coming 
from  the  commercial  metropolis,  and  being  in  close  association  with 
the  mercantile  community,  thought  of  adding  a  commercial  feature  to  the 
original  proposition,  and  sent  a  Commission  to  the  several  other  Repub- 
lics to  ascertain  how  another  invitation  would  be  received,  and  to  ask 
suggestions  as  to  the  topics  that  might  be  considered  at  a  conference  of 

627 


628  Xlbc  ipan=american  Conterence. 

American  nations.  A  draft  of  the  law  authorizing  the  President  of  the 
United  States  to  call  such  an  assembly  was  submitted  to  Congress  with 
the  report  of  that  Commission,  and  full  abstracts  of  interviews  with  the 
Presidents  of  ten  of  the  American  nations  concerning  the  meeting  and 
subjects  to  be  discussed.  Nine  endorsed  the  project  with  cordial 
approval.  Chili  reserved  its  reply,  being  reluctant,  while  certain  po- 
litical complications  were  pending,  to  give  a  positive  answer.  The 
report  of  the  Commission  and  its  recommendations  reflected  the  policy 
of  President  Arthur,  but  were  nevertheless  transmitted  to  Congress  by 
President  Cleveland  without  endorsement.  The  proposed  law  calling 
a  conference  was  therefore  brought  forward  under  President  Cleve- 
land's first  Administration,  although  without  any  intervention  on  Mr. 
Blaine's  part.  It  was  introduced  in  the  House  of  Representatives  by 
Governor  McCreary,  a  Democratic  Representative  from  Kentucky,  and 
in  the  Senate  by  Mr.  W.  P.  Frye,  a  distinguished  Republican  Senator 
from  Maine,  both  members  of  the  Foreign  Affairs  Committee  in  their 
respective  Houses.  These  facts  show  that  it  was  not  introduced  and 
approved  as  a  political  measure,  since  it  was  supported  by  the  two 
parties  struggling  for  ascendancy  in  this  country.  President  Cleve- 
land's Administration  did  not  second  the  proposal  in  an  active  manner, 
seeming  to  content  itself  with  passive  indifference. 

The  Act  was  finally  approved  by  Congress  on  May  lo,  1888,  but 
President  Cleveland  withheld  his  approval  of  the  same,  and  when  the 
ten  days  fixed  by  the  Constitution  had  elapsed  without  its  having  been 
approved  by  the  President,  it  was  announced  on  May  24th  that  the 
Bill  had  become  a  law  without  the  sanction  of  the  President. 

It  will  be  interesting  to  state  that  the  arbitration  clause  of  the  Act 
of  May  24,  1888,  was  introduced  on  January  4,  1888,  in  the  House  of 
Representatives  of  the  50th  Congress,  ist  Session,  by  Hon.  William 
McKinley,  then  a  Membei  of  Congress  from  Ohio,  and  now  President 
of  the  United  States,'  and  this  fact  shows  the  trend  of  his  views  in 

'  Fiftieth  Congress,  ist  Session,  H.  R.  1715.  In  the  House  of  Representatives, 
January  4,  1888.  Read  twice,  referred  to  the  Committee  on  Foreign  Affairs,  and  or- 
dered to  be  printed.  Mr.  McKinley  introduced  the  following  bill :  "  A  Bill  to  author- 
ize the  President  of  the  United  States  to  invite  the  autonomic  governments  of  America 
to  send  delegates  to  an  international  congress  to  arrange  the  settlement  of  national 
differences  by  arbitration." 

"  Beit  enacted  by  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  of  the  United  States 
of  America  in  Congress  assembled.  That  the  President  of  the  United  States  be,  and  he 
is  hereby,  authorized  to  invite  the  autonomic  governments  of  America  to  send  delegates 
to  a  congress  to  be  held  at  Washington  or  New  York,  and  at  such  time  as  he  may  des- 
ignate, for  the  purpose  of  devising  and  formulating  and  recommending  a  definite  and 
fixed  plan  of  arbitration  of  all  differences  now  existing  or  that  may  hereafter  exist  be- 
tween them,  with  the  understanding  that  the  delegation  from  each  government  shall 
have  but  one  vote  in  said  convention  ;  and  that  the  President  is  hereby  authorized  to 


I 


Bets  Convenino  tbe  Conterence.  629 

favor  of  arbitration,  which  he  proclaimed  and  defended  so  vigorously 
as  President  of  the  United  States  when  the  arbitration  treaty  between 
the  United  States  and  Great  Britain  was  pending  in  the  Senate. 

The  personal  views  of  the  new  promoters  of  the  project  were  not 
limited  to  arbitration,  but  embraced  every  subject  which  might  affect 
the  relations  of  the  United  States  with  the  other  American  Republics. 
To  prevent  opposition  in  Congress  the  promoters  of  the  measure  had 
to  accept  new  suggestions  which  came  up  during  the  discussion  of  the 
bill,  and  which  enlarged  considerably  the  subjects  upon  which  the  Con- 
ference had  to  act.  Finally,  the  Act  of  May  24,  1888,  embraced  eight 
different  subjects  which  the  Conference  was  called  upon  to  consider, 
some  of  them  covering  as  many  as  four  subdivisions.  On  account  of 
these  amendments,  provisions  were  incorporated  into  the  Act  which  did 
not  meet  with  the  support  of  President  Cleveland's  Administration  or 
that  of  his  successor.  President  Harrison,  under  whose  Administration 
the  Conference  was  held;  such,  for  instance,  as  the  one  referring  to  the 
adoption  of  a  silver  coin  to  be  legal  tender  in  all  the  American  Republics. 

From  this  statement  of  facts  it  appears  that  Mr.  Blaine  had  nothing 
to  do  with  the  enactment  of  the  law  which  convened  the  Conference, 
and  therefore  he  is  not,  and  cannot  be,  responsible  for  the  form  in 
which  it  was  finally  approved. 

As  this  law  was  passed  during  a  Democratic  Administration,  by  a 
Congress  having  a  Democratic  majority  in  the  House  of  Representatives, 
although  the  Republican  party  had  control  of  the  Senate,  it  was  natural 
that  it  should  embrace  several  of  the  principles  contained  in  the  platform 
of  the  dominant  party,  as,  for  instance,  those  referring  to  the  develop- 
ment of  foreign  trade,  which  might  directly  or  indirectly  conflict  with  the 
political  views  and  the  ideas  of  political  economy  of  their  opponents, 
and  to  the  coinage  of  a  silver  coin  of  uniform  fineness  and  weight  to  be  a 
legal  tender  in  all  the  American  nations.  It  was  natural,  too,  that  the 
delegates  of  the  United  States,  appointed  by  a  Republican  Administra- 
tion, should  represent  the  protection  principles  of  that  party,  and  that, 
therefore,  they  would  not  be  eager  to  accept  the  measures  concerning 
the  development  of  foreign  trade,  and  would  look  with  concern  on  the 
coining  of  silver  into  legal-tender  money.  This  resulted  from  the  diver- 
sity of  political  and  economic  views  in  the  two  parties  which  control 
this  country,  and  which  in  turn  attain  ascendancy;  as  it  happens  some- 
appoint  delegates,  who  shall  not  exceed  twelve  in  number,  equally  from  the  two  lead- 
ing political  parties,  six  of  them  being  learned  in  international  law  ;  and  that  such 
delegates  shall  serve  without  compensation  other  than  their  expenses  ;  and  that  the 
President  is  hereby  authorized  to  take  such  other  action  as  may  be  necessary  for  the 
purposes  of  this  act  ;  and  the  sum  of  thirty  thousand  dollars  is  hereby  appropriated, 
out  of  any  money  in  the  Treasury  not  otherwise  appropriated,  to  defray  the  ex))enses 
that  may  be  incurred  under  this  Act." 


630  Hbe  lpau=Hmcricau  Contcrence. 

times  that  one  House  of  Congress  is  controlled  by  one  party  and  the 
other  House  by  the  other  party.  For  these  reasons,  and  from  the  fre- 
quent rotation  of  political  parties  in  the  government  of  the  United 
States,  it  is  very  difficult  to  bring  to  a  successful  termination  any  trans- 
action of  a  complex  character  which  requires  complete  continuity  of 
views  and  effort  on  the  part  of  all  the  branches  of  the  government  for 
any  length  of  time. 

Fears  of  the  Spanish-American  Nations. — It  may  be  assumed  that, 
as  a  general  rule,  the  Latin-American  nations,  except,  perhaps,  the 
Central  American  and  two  or  three  of  the  South  American  States, 
looked  with  distrust  on  the  meeting  in  Washington  of  an  International 
American  Conference,  fearing  that  its  object  might  be  to  secure  the 
political  and  commercial  ascendancy  of  the  United  States  on  this  con- 
tinent, to  the  disadvantage  of  those  nations;  but  this  distrust  did  not 
go  so  far  as  to  make  them  refuse  the  invitation.  Fortunately,  when 
they  were  invited,  there  was  no  serious  question  pending  between  the 
Latin-American  States  which  could  prevent  their  acceptance,  as  was 
the  case  when  a  conference  was  suggested  in  1881.  The  invitation 
was  therefore  accepted  by  all  the  American  nations,  with  the  single 
exception  of  San  Domingo.  The  answer  of  the  Dominican  Govern- 
ment was  a  very  courteous  one,  as  it  stated  that  that  Government  had 
agreed,  in  a  treaty  recently  signed  with  the  United  States,  upon  arbi- 
tration, extradition,  reciprocity,  and  the  other  subjects  mentioned  in 
the  law  convening  the  Conference;  that  these  subjects  had  therefore 
been  considered  and  decided  in  said  treaty  under  the  Dominican  point 
of  view,  embracing  stipulations  which  were  already  decided  by  the 
Dominican  Government  and  could  not  be  modified  by  the  Confer- 
ence, as  it  was  not  proper  to  modify  treaty  stipulations  in  an  indirect 
manner  by  recommendations  of  the  Conference;  and  therefore,  as  long 
as  the  pending  treaty  would  not  be  acted  upon  by  the  United  States, 
the  Dominican  Government  felt  that  it  could  not  send  delegates  to  the 
Conference.  This  letter  was  mistranslated,  as  the  phrase  causaban 
estado,  which  meant  that  as  the  Dominican  Government  was  "com- 
mitted to  a  definite  policy  on  all  the  points  of  the  program  of  the 
Conference,  it  was  useless  that  it  should  attend  that  Conference," 
was  translated  ''caused  a  hitch  in  the  relations  between  the  two  coun- 
tries." That  naturally  created  some  feeling  on  the  part  of  the  United 
States,  because  if  the  translation  had  been  correct  the  Dominican  an- 
swer would  certainly  have  been  discourteous;  thus  showing  what  are 
the  consequences  of  a  mistranslation.  Chili  accepted  in  so  far  as  eco- 
nomic questions  were  concerned,  but  stated  that  she  would  take  no  part 
in  political  questions  or  in  arbitration.  An  unofficial  intimation  that 
an  invitation  for  the  representation  of  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico  in  the 
Conference  might  be  accepted  was  overlooked  for  obvious  reasons. 


jfears  of  tbe  Spanisb^american  Hations.         631 

,It  was  apprehended  by  some,  as  already  intimated,  that  the  object 
of  the  United  States  in  convening  the  Conference  was  to  obtain  decided 
political  and  commercial  advantages  over  the  other  nations  of  this  con- 
tinent, making  them  almost  its  dependencies;  and  this  view  caused 
decided  opposition  to  the  project.  There  was  nothing  to  show  that 
this  was  the  purpose  of  the  United  States,  and  it  probably  never 
entered  the  mind  of  either  President  Arthur  or  Secretary  Frelinghuy- 
sen,  who  formulated  the  plan.  Their  motives,  as  expressed  to  their 
confidential  associates,  were  to  promote  the  peace  and  the  material 
development  of  the  American  countries,  and  divert  their  trade  from 
Europe  to  the  United  States.  Mr.  Blaine,  whose  boundless  ambition 
grasped  at  all  possibilities,  may  have  desired  a  political  alliance 
in  which  "  The  Great  Republic"  should  figure  as  a  protector  of  its 
smaller  sisters,  but  he  was  violently  opposed  to  the  mixture  of  races, 
and  never  favored  the  annexation  to  the  United  States  of  any  foreign 
territory,  except  Canada.  The  delegates  from  the  United  States  did 
not  propose  in  the  Conference  anything  seemingly  designed  to  accom- 
plish such  an  end.  Judging,  therefore,  by  facts  and  results,  these 
apprehensions  were  entirely  groundless.  In  speaking  of  arbitration 
and  commercial  union,  this  will  appear  more  plainly. 

My  personal  knowledge  of  what  took  place  in  the  Conference  leads 
me  to  think  that  there  was  not  on  the  part  of  Mr.  Blaine  any  precon- 
ceived plan  about  the  subjects  that  were  to  be  considered,  except, 
perhaps,  that  of  arbitration,  and  that  he  not  only  had  no  prearranged 
plan,  but  even  refused  to  express  an  opinion  on  any  subject,  or  even 
to  give  instructions  to  the  United  States  delegates  when  called  on  for 
them.  Mr.  Blaine's  purpose,  as  it  appears  to  me,  was  not  to  curtail 
in  any  manner  whatever  the  full  freedom  of  all  the  Latin-American 
nations  represented  in  the  Conference,  but  to  allow  equal  freedom  to 
the  United  States  delegates,  so  that  all  might  propose  and  agree  on 
such  points  as  they  should  think  most  advantageous  to  the  interests  of 
their  respective  countries,  without  any  pressure  and  without  even  sug- 
gestions from  the  United  States  Government. 

Even  in  regard  to  the  question  of  arbitration,  Mr.  Blaine's  wish  was 
only  that  an  agreement  should  be  arrived  at  that  all  dispute^arising 
among  American  nations  should  be  ended  by  arbitration,  with  the 
very  laudable  and  humane  object  of  abolishing  war;  and  he  did 
not  seem  to  have  any  special  plan  of  his  own.  When  he  had  to  act 
upon  one,  he  tried  to  harmonize  the  discordant  opinions  of  the  dele- 
gates, without  intending  to  press  it  upon  any  one.  His  interference 
on  this  subject  was  only  for  the  purpose  of  revising  the  plan  which 
was  accepted  by  a  majority  of  the  Conference;  and  to  carry  out  this 
purpose  he  had  to  request  one  of  the  United  States  delegates  to  give  up 
his  opposition  to  the  form  in  which  the  project  was  finally  accepted. 


632  Zbc  ipan^Bincrican  Conference. 

It  was  understood  and  asserted  at  the  time  that  even  the  general  idea 
of  arbitration  was  not  unanimously  supported  by  the  representatives  of 
the  United  States. 

Personnel  of  tlie  Conference. — Mexico,  Guatemala,  Nicaragua,  Colom- 
bia, Venezuela,  Peru,  Chili,  the  Argentine  Republic,  and  Brazil  accred- 
ited as  delegates  to  the  Conference  their  diplomatic  representatives 
residing  at  Washington  ;  Colombia,  Venezuela,  the  Argentine  Republic, 
and  Brazil  each  sent  two  more  delegates,  while  Mexico  and  Chili  each 
sent  only  one  more;  all  the  other  Republics  were  represented  by  one 
delegate  each.  The  delegates  from  Honduras,  Ecuador,  and  Bolivia 
were,  besides,  accredited  to  the  United  States  Government  as  Envoys 
Extraordinary,  and  those  from  Chili  and  Brazil  had  a  similar  character 
before  the  Conference.  The  representatives  of  Salvador,  Costa  Rica, 
Paraguay,  and  Uruguay  came  only  as  delegates,  as  did  also  the  first 
representative  from  Hayti.  The  Uruguayan  delegate  was  the  only 
one  who  left  before  the  close  of  the  session.  The  first  delegate  from 
Hayti  was  obliged  to  return  home  on  account  of  sickness,  and  his  place 
was  filled  by  the  Haytian  Minister  Resident  at  Washington. 

On  the  very  day  the  Conference  closed  its  session,  that  is,  on  April 
19,  1890,  there  was  received  the  acceptance  by  Hawaii  of  an  invita- 
tion sent  by  Mr.  Blaine,  as  Secretary  of  State  of  the  United  States, 
to  send  a  representative  to  the  Conference,  and  the  announcement 
was  made  that  Mr.  Carter,  then  Hawaiian  Minister  in  Washington, 
had  been  appointed  a  delegate.  There  was  therefore  no  o])portunity 
to  pass  upon  Mr.  Carter's  credentials,  thus  avoiding  the  discussion  of 
the  question,  regarding  which  the  Argentine  delegates  were  disposed  to 
object,  as  they  thought  that  Hawaii  could  not  be  represented  in  the 
Conference,  because  the  Act  of  Congress  authorizing  the  meeting  of 
the  Conference  only  referred  to  American  nations,  and  the  Hawaiian 
group  is  not  in  the  American  continents  or  their  adjacent  islands. 

The  delegates  who  were  accredited  as  Ministers  at  Washington 
found  very  soon  that  their  official  relations  to  the  United  States  Gov- 
ernment considerably  restricted  their  liberty  of  action  as  compared 
with  that  enjoyed  by  those  of  their  colleagues  who  came^on  a  transient 
mission. 

Although  President  Cleveland  issued  the  invitation  for  the  Confer- 
ence, he  refrained,  out  of  deference  to  his  successor,  from  naming 
the  United  States  delegates,  and  their  appointment  was  made  soon 
after  President  Harrison's  inauguration.  These  appointments  were 
severely  censured  in  some  quarters,  because  it  was  thought  that 
some  of  the  gentlemen  named  were  not  the  best  fitted  for  the  mission, 
and  some  went  so  far  as  to  think  that  their  selection  was  an  act  of  dis- 
respect to  the  Latin-American  nations.  Whatever  may  have  been  the 
motive  which  governed  the  President  of  the  United  States  in  making 


iDifficulties  from  tbe  TUse  of  ^Different  Xanouacjes.     6^^ 

live  appointments,  I  am  sure  that  he  did  not  intend  to  choose  as  repre- 
sentatives of  this  country  gentlemen  of  little  worth,  much  less  to  show 
any  disrespect  to  the  nations  which  the  Government  of  the  United 
States  had  invited  to  send  delegates  to  Washington.  The  appointments 
were  made  in  the  manner  usual  in  connection  with  offices  of  the  highest 
rank.  They  were  all  ratified  by  the  Senate.  The  gentlemen  appointed 
represented  all  political  parties,  all  sections  of  the  country,  and  all 
branches  of  its  industries;  and  they  were  all  honorable  gentlemen. 
Among  them  were  two  ex-Senators,  four  manufacturers,  and  two  mer- 
chants; from  which  it  seems  that  the  intention  was  to  select  business 
men  rather  than  diplomats. 

It  is  entirely  unnecessary,  so  far  as  the  Latin-American  nations  are 
concerned,  to  inquire  whether  this  Government  could  have  selected 
gentlemen  better  fitted  for  the  work,  because  if  those  appointed  had 
not  the  necessary  qualifications,  the  United  States  would  have  been  the 
principal  sufferer  from  any  embarrassment  that  might  have  resulted. 

The  habits  and  manners  of  the  two  races  represented  in  the  Con- 
ference were  so  widely  different;  the  urbanity  of  the  Latin  race  is  so 
exquisite,  and  it  attaches  so  much  importance  to  forms  of  courtesy  and 
personal  attention,  which,  as  a  general  rule,  are  somewhat  disregarded 
by  the  Anglo-Saxon  race,  that  when  they  came  in  contact  the  contrast 
was  very  apparent.  It  was  natural  that  the  Latin-Americans,  who  did 
not  know  the  Anglo-Saxon  Americans  well,  should  wonder  at  the  sim- 
plicity of  their  manners,  which  almost  looked  like  discourtesy,  and 
that  they  should  have  attributed  to  impoliteness  what  was  only  the 
result  of  different  customs  and  ways  of  life.  The  daily  intercourse  of 
the  delegates  during  several  months  dispelled  this  impression,  which 
had  disappeared  almost  completely  when  the  Conference  adjourned. 
There  were,  however,  among  the  United  States  delegates  several  who 
distinguished  themselves  by  their  courtesy  and  conciliatory  spirit, 
especially  Mr.  Carnegie,  Mr.  Bliss,  and  Mr.  Flint,  very  likely  because 
they  were  somewhat  acquainted  with  the  Latin  race. 

Difficulties  Growing  Out  of  the  Use  of  Different  Languages. — One 
of  the  principial-difficulties  which  arose  in  the  Conference,  and  which, 
although  apparently  insignificant,  had  an  influence  that  can  hardly  be 
over-estimated,  was  caused  by  the  different  languages  spoken  by  the 
delegates.  Only  one  of  the  United  States  delegates,  Mr.  Flint,  had  a 
meagre  knowledge  of  colloquial  Spanish,  gained  in  commercial  inter-  . 
course;  one,  Mr.  Trescot,  could  read  it;  but  the  other  delegates  of  the 
United  States  knew  nothing  of  it.  Several  of  the  Latin-American 
members,  and  among  them  the  Argentine  delegates,  who  took  so  im- 
portant a  part  in  the  proceedings  of  the  Conference,  did  not  speak 
English,  although  one  of  them  by  the  end  of  the  session  understood  it 
tolerably  well.      It  certainly  would    have  been    preferable  if  all  the 


634  "Cbc  iPaii^Hincricau  Conference. 

United  States  delegates  had  si)ok.en  S[)anish,  and  been  conversant  with 
diplomatic  affairs  in  general,  especially  with  those  of  the  Latin-Ameri- 
can nations.  It  would  have  been  desirable,  also,  that  all  the  Latin- 
American  delegates  had  spoken  English  and  been  familiar  with  the 
United  States;  but  the  inconvenience  which  resulted  from  these  draw- 
backs was  not  essential,  and  was  remedied  in  some  degree  by  means 
of  interpreters.  Besides,  the  advantage  of  knowing  both  languages 
was  a  secondary  one  compared  with  all  the  other  tjualifications  of  a 
delegate.  These  circumstances  made  the  services  of  interpreters  indis- 
pensable. 

My  personal  experience  has  shown  me  how  difficult  it  is  to  make  a 
good  translation.  Besides  a  perfect  knowledge  of  the  original  language 
and  of  that  in  which  the  translation  is  made,  other  conditions  are  re- 
quired, which  are  not  always  found  in  any  one  person,  as,  for  instance, 
perfect  familiarity  with  the  subject-matter  to  which  the  translation  re- 
fers, and  a  good  command  of  language.  This  e.xplains  why  it  is  almost 
impossible  to  translate  a  masterpiece,  like  Shakespeare's  works.  The 
best  proof  that  can  be  presented  of  this  difificulty  is  shown  by  retrans- 
lating a  translation  into  its  original  language:  for  instance,  take  any 
masterpiece,  either  of  English  or  Spanish,  translate  it  to  the  other  lan- 
guage, and  then  retranslate  it  into  its  original  language,  and  the  imper- 
fections of  the  first  translation  will  be  apparent. 

The  above  -  stated  difficulties  of  making  a  good  translation  are 
greatly  enhanced  when  applied  to  the  oral  language.  It  is  hard  to 
realize  how  difficult  it  is  to  translate  fairly  a  good  speech  until  one 
has  undertaken  to  do  it.  So  far  as  speeches  worthy  of  that  name  are 
concerned,  they  are  generally  made  by  good  orators,  and  to  do  justice 
to  the  speeches  the  translator  ought  himself  to  possess  high  oratorical 
qualifications,  because  it  is  plain  that  if  a  man  has  not  perfect  com- 
mand of  his  own  language,  and  is  not  able  to  speak  it  elegantly,  he 
much  less  can  do  so  when  using  a  foreign  language,  and  even  if  he 
translates  into  his  own  language,  he  cannot  do  justice  to  an  eloquent 
speech  made  in  the  other  when  he  has  not  equal  qualification  as  a 
speaker  with  the  orator  himself. 

Another  great  difficulty  in  translating  a  speech  is  the  fact  that  it 
requires  a  wonderfully  good  memory.  A  speech  generally  embraces 
several  subjects,  and  in  order  that  none  be  omitted  the  memory  must 
grasp  and  retain  them  all,  even  in  case  notes  are  taken  to  avoid  any 
omission. 

The  difficulty  of  correct  translations,  which  was  felt  more  especially 
in  the  early  sessions  of  the  Conference,  caused  the  delegates  of  quick 
temper,  when  they  did  not  fully  understand  the  ideas  expressed  in  the 
other  language,  to  misinterpret  them,  and  sometimes  to  consider  them 
offensive  and  to  return  sharp  answers,  which  provoked  sharp  retorts, 


Bgreement  between  tbe  Xatin^Bmerican  Countries.  635 

and  not  only  disturbed  the  harmony  among  the  delegates,  but  in  some 
cases  seemed  even  to  threaten  the  success  of  the  Conference.' 

The  interpreters  were  required  by  Article  IX.  of  the  rules  of 
the  Conference,  to  interpret  the  speeches  made  at  the  discussions 
of  the  meetings  as  soon  as  they  were  delivered,  stating  the  substance  of 
the  remarks  made  by  the  respective  delegates. 

The  preceding  remarks  are  not  intended  to  cast  any  reflections  on 
the  ability  of  the  gentlemen  who  served  as  interpreters  in  the  Pan- 
American  Conference,  who  were  both  able  and  competent,  and  who 
made  very  creditable  translations,  as  such  remarks  only  express  my 
own  conclusions,  based  on  my  personal  experience  when  I  have  had  to 
make  translations  and  act  as  an  interpreter.  The  qualifications  as  a 
Si)anish  and  English  scholar  of  Doctor  Don  Jose  Ignacio  Rodriguez, 
who  succeeded  Senor  Pierra  as  the  Spanish  Secretary  of  the  Conference, 
are  too  well  known  to  be  questioned.  Dr.  Rodriguez  was  such  an  effi- 
cient interpreter  that  I  remember  I  thought  on  one  occasion  that  he 
had  misunderstood  in  interpreting  into  Spanish  the  remarks  made  in 
English  by  one  of  the  United  States  delegates,  and  the  speaker  being 
requested  to  repeat  his  remarks,  I  found  that  I  was  the  one  who  had 
misunderstood  him  and  that  Dr.  Rodriguez's  version  was  the  correct 
one. 

Reported  Agreement  between  the  Latin- American  Countries. — It  has 
been  stated  that  the  Chilian  Government  laid  its  views  before  the 
Governments  of  the  Argentine  Republic  and  the  Empire  of  Brazil, 
proposing  that  the  three  nations  should  act  in  concert  in  the  Confer- 
ence, and  that  it  had  answers  which  it  understood  to  mean  that  those 
Governments  shared  its  views  in  regard  to  arbitration,  and  that  they 
all  would  stand  together.  Probably  this  was  the  reason  why  the  Chilian 
delegates  consented  to  take  part  in  some  of  the  discussions  relating  to 
arbitration,  and  did  not  refrain  from  voting  on  that  subject,  except  in 
the  last  days  of  the  Conference,  when  the  question  had  assumed  a 
definite  shape,  and  it  was  plain  that  their  views  in  this  regard  were  not 
shared  by  any  of  the  other  South  American  nations.  The  Argentine 
delegates  declared,  however,  that  their  Government  had  not  committed 
itself  to  Chili  on  this  question.  If  the  Brazilian  Government  gave 
Chili  such  assurance,  it  instructed  its  delegates  in  Washington,  after 
the  Empire  was  overthrown   in    Brazil   in    November,    1889,   and  the 

'  In  an  answer  I  wrote  in  June,  1890,  to  severe  strictures  against  the  United  States 
and  Mexican  delegates  made  hy  Senor  Don  Fidel  G.  I'ierra,  and  published  on  May 
4th  of  that  year  in  La  Nacion,  a  newspaper  of  Buenos  Ayres,  Argentina,  and  which 
will  be  found  in  the  Appendix  at  the  end  of  this  paper,  I  dwelt  especially  on  the  in- 
conveniences, serious  troubles,  and  frequent  misunderstandings  caused  in  the  early 
sessions  of  the  Pan-American  Conference  by  the  use  of  difTerent  languages  spoken  by 
its  members. 


636  Ube  ipan^american  Gontcrcnce. 

Republican  Government  established,  to  act  in  perfect  accord  with 
those  of  Argentina,  as  at  that  time  the  relations  between  the  two 
countries  had  assumed  a  very  cordial  and  intimate  character.  That, 
of  course,  increased  very  considerably  the  strength  of  the  Argentine 
delegates,'as  the  Brazilians  were  able  men,  and  represented  the  largest 
country  in  South  America,  and  up  to  that  time  it  was  understood  that 
their  instructions  required  them  to  act  in  concert  with  the  Chilian 
delegates. 

The  delegates  from  Paraguay  and  Uruguay  had  been  instructed  by 
their  respective  Governments  to  act  in  accord  with  the  Argentine 
delegates,  and  so  they  did;  but  the  delegate  from  Uruguay  found  it 
difficult  to  act  in  that  way,  and  rather  than  disobey  the  instructions  of 
his  Government,  he  soon  decided  to  give  up  his  position,  and  to  return 
to  London,  where  he  was  accredited  as  Uruguayan  diplomatic  repre- 
sentative. 

Jealousy  among  the  South  Atnerican  Nations. — There  are  in  South 
America  two  nations  which  have  acquired  very  great  importance — one 
on  account  of  its  large  territorial  extent,  its  immense  natural  resources, 
favored  by  an  excellent  system  of  navigable  rivers,  and  its  extraordi- 
nary material  progress;  the  other  by  its  unrivalled  position  on  the 
Pacific,  by  possessing  as  it  does  almost  one  half  of  the  western  coast 
of  South  America,  by  its  habits  of  order  and  industry,  and  by  its  rapid 
acquisition  of  national  and  individual  wealth.  I  refer  to  the  Argentine 
Republic  and  to  Chili.  Although  Brazil  has  a  larger  territory  and 
population  than  these  two  nations  together,  the  political  transition 
which  was  in  progress  in  that  country  prevented  it,  then,  from  being 
a  centre  of  political  combinations.  The  last  war  on  the  Pacific,  the 
results  of  which  were  not  yet  an  accomplished  fact,  naturally  caused 
very  great  excitement.  It  is  only  natural  that  the  nations  which  were 
conquered  in  that  war  should  look  upon  the  Argentine  Republic  as 
the  centre  of  strength  for  the  maintenance  of  the  political  equilibrium 
or  statu  quo  ;  and  that,  for  the  same  reasons,  they  should  look  with 
distrust  upon  Chili,  and  apprehend  a  repetition  of  events  similar  to 
the  war  of  1 879-1 883.  It  was  natural,  too,  that  this  political  excite- 
ment, which  is  merely  alluded  to  here,  should  be  felt  in  the  workings 
of  the  Conference,  and  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  take  it  into  con- 
sideration to  explain  some  of  the  incidents  which  took  place  in  that 
assembly. 

This  conflict  of  political  views  and  interests  did  not,  however,  pre- 
vent personal  and  official  relations  among  the  South  American  delegates 
from  being  so  courteous  and  cordial  that  no  one  who  was  not  aware  of 
the  feelings  and  tendencies  of  the  various  countries  could  perceive  that 
any  difference  existed  among  them.  On  almost  all  questions  pre- 
sented in  the  Conference  they  acted  in  accord;  even  the  Chilian  and 


Jealousy  among  tbe  Soutb  Bmertcan  IRations.     637 

Argentine  delegates  did  so  in  the  discussion  of  the  rules,  and,  espe- 
cially, the  one  concerning  the  minority  report  on  customs  union  and 
reciprocity  treaties. 

Central  America  is  too  far  from  Chili  and  the  Argentine  Republic 
to  take  part  in  the  political  complications  of  South  America,  but  she 
has  a  pending  question  of  her  own — the  confederation  of  the  five  Cen- 
tral American  States — which  is  a  transcendent  one,  on  which,  it  seems, 
all  the  States  are  not  in  complete  accord,  and  this  fact  could  not  fail 
to  influence  the  conduct  of  their  representatives  in  the  Conference. 
The  projected  Nicaragua  Canal  was  also  a  source  of  difference  between 
Nicaragua  and  Costa  Rica. 

I  would  not  convey  an  exact  idea  of  the  tendencies  and  apprehen- 
sions which  prevailed  in  the  Conference,  should  I  omit  to  say  that 
Guatemala  looked  upon  Mexico  with  distrust, '  because  she  imagined  that 
the  Mexican  Government  cherished  certain  designs  against  her — a  sup- 
position by  no  means  correct — and  this  notwithstanding  that  the  long 
boundary  dispute  between  Mexico  and  Guatemala  had  then  been 
settled,  first  by  the  preliminary  bases  signed  in  New  York,  on  August 
12,  1882,  between  General  J.  Rufino  Barrios,  President  of  Guatemala, 
and  myself,  and  by  the  final  boundary  treaty  signed  in  the  City  of 
Mexico  on  the  27th  of  the  following  September.  It  was  inevitable 
that  this  fear  should  also  be  felt  in  the  Conference. 

Mexico,  if  not  the  only  one,  was  nevertheless  one  of  the  few  Latin- 
American  nations  which  could  properly  be  considered  as  really  impartial 
in  regard  to  South  American  questions.  On  account  of  the  immense 
distance  which  separates  her  from  her  southern  sisters,  and  the  lack  of 
means  of  communication,  which  almost  wholly  prevents  commercial 
relations  with  them,  Mexico  has  no  political  interest  in  the  subjects 
agitated  in  those  countries.  Hence  she  looks  upon  all  the  nations  of 
the  southern  continent  as  friends  and  sisters,  and  has  a  most  cordial 
and  sincere  wish  for  the  prosperity  and  welfare  of  each  of  them.  Al- 
though Mexico  ardently  desires  that  the  principles  of  equity  and 
justice  should  prevail  among  the  American  nations,  and  although  she 
might  disapprove  of  the  conduct  of  any  of  them  which,  in  her  opinion, 
was  subversive  of  those  principles,  and  might  even  go  so  far  as  to  ex- 
press her  disapproval,  she  is  not  called  upon  to  take  any  active  part  in 
regard  to  questions  which  may  arise  in  South  America,  and,  therefore, 
she  is  not  only  neutral,  but  perfectly  impartial. 

'  Fortunately  the  condition  of  things  which  existed  in  1889  is  rapidly  disappear- 
ing. The  last  boundary  question  between  Mexico  and  Guatemala,  growing  out  of 
the  interpretation  of  the  treaty  of  September  27,  1882,  was  amicably  settled  by  the 
convention  of  April  i,  1896,  and  the  late  enlightened  ruler  of  Guatemala,  General 
Jose  Maria  Rcyna  Barrios,  inaugurated  a  change  of  policy  which  I  consider  very  bene- 
ficial to  that  country. 


638  Ubc  ipan^Bmcrican  Conterence. 

Perhaps  in  the  beginning  a  misunderstanding  of  this  position  caused 
the  Mexican  delegates  to  be  looked  upon  with  distrust  by  some  of 
their  colleagues,  who  feared  that  they  might  be  disposed  to  interfere 
in  the  South  American  questions,  or  be  too  partial  to  the  United 
States;  but  the  impartial  and  friendly  conduct  of  those  delegates  in 
regard  to  the  sister-Republics  of  South  America  ought  to  have  satisfied 
them  that  Mexico,  far  from  having  any  feeling  against,  or  design 
upon,  any  South  American  nation,  or  any  wish  to  interfere  in  their 
policies,  had,  on  the  contrary,  the  most  sincere  wishes  for  the  pres- 
ervation of  their  peace  and  the  promotion  of  their  common  welfare. 

The  Argentine  delegates  seemed  to  be  under  the  impression  that 
the  Mexican  delegates  had  formed  a  compact  with  their  Chilian  col- 
leagues to  act  together  in  the  Conference.  Such  impression,  if  it  ever 
existed,  was  entirely  unfounded.  There  was  no  compact,  under- 
standing, or  agreement  of  any  kind  whatsoever,  expressed  or  implied, 
between  the  Mexican  and  the  Chilian  delegates  to  act  together,  in  all  or 
in  any  question  before  the  Conference,  and  much  less  in  antagonism 
to  any  of  the  other  States,  and  when  their  votes  happened  to  be  in 
accord,  it  was  due  only  to  similarity  of  views  or  instructions  from  their 
respective  Governments,  and  never  to  any  compact  among  them. 

Prelimi7iary  Meeting  of  the  Conference. — The  President  of  the 
United  States  fixed  the  2d  of  October,  1889,  as  tlie  date  for  the 
meeting  of  the  Conference.  Two  days  previous  to  this  date,  the  dele- 
gates, excepting  those  of  Ecuador,  Paraguay,  and  Hayti,  who  had  not 
arrived,  assembled  in  Washington,  and  held  a  preliminary  meeting  to 
agree  upon  their  organization.  The  first  question  which  was  pre- 
sented to  them  was  the  election  of  a  president. 

Election  of  Mr.  Blaine  as  President. — It  is  an  act  of  courtesy,  sanc- 
tioned by  the  example  of  diplomatic  congresses  and  conferences  which 
have  met  hitherto,  that  a  representative  of  the  inviting  Government, 
on  whose  territory  the  conference  meets,  shall  be  elected  President; 
and  therefore  all  the  delegates  agreed  that  the  President  should  be  a 
member  of  the  United  States  delegation.  The  Latin-American  dele- 
gates were  not  in  accord  as  to  the  gentleman  whom  they  desired  to 
elect  President;  some  thought  that  Mr.  Henderson,  being  the  Chairman 
of  the  United  States  delegation,  ought  to  be  chosen;  others  were  dis- 
posed to  vote  for  Mr.  Trescot,  because  he  had  had  great  experience  in 
diplomatic  affairs,  and  was  supposed  to  be  better  fitted  for  the  position. 
Mr.  Blaine  was  suggested  for  President  by  Mr.  Curtis  because  of  the 
supposed  antagonism  between  Mr.  Henderson  and  Mr.  Trescot.  This 
suggestion  was  originally  made  to  Mr.  Blaine,  who  was  pleased  with  the 
prospect  of  participating  in  the  Conference.  He  sent  Mr.  Curtis  to 
President  Harrison  to  submit  the  proposition  and  the  reasons.  Presi- 
dent Harrison  approved,  and  requested  Mr.  Bliss  and  Mr.   Davis  to 


I 


/IDr.  Blaine's  Blection  as  il>resi&ent.  639 

express  his  wish  to  the  United  States  delegates  and  to  the  Conference 
if  necessary.  A  technical  objection  at  once  presented  itself — whether 
a  functionary  of  this  Government  who  was  not  a  member  of  the  Con- 
ference, not  being  a  delegate,  could  be  made  President;  but  this  objec- 
tion, which  was  only  one  of  form,  was  happily  solved,  since  the 
Secretary  of  State  represented  his  country  in  a  truer  sense  than  the  ten 
United  States  delegates  together.  Hence  if  the  election  was  to  be 
made  with  the  purpose  of  fulfilling  a  duty  of  courtesy  towards  the  in- 
viting Government,  that  duty  could  be  most  satisfactorily  performed 
by  choosing  the  Secretary  of  State,  even  though  he  were  not  a  dele- 
gate. On  the  other  hand,  the  high  position  of  this  functionary  made 
his  election  as  President  an  act  befitting  the  dignity  of  the  Conference. 
Although  several  delegates  objected  at  first  to  his  election,  all  were 
satisfied  with  the  foregoing  explanation,  excepting  the  Argentine  rep- 
resentatives, who  stated  that  they  could  not  vote  for  him  because  he 
was  not  a  member  of  the  Conference.  To  avoid  casting  a  nega- 
tive vote,  they  decided  not  to  be  present  at  the  first  meeting  of 
the  Conference,  when  the  President  was  elected  ;  but  both  of  them 
attended  the  official  banquet  which  Mr.  Blaine  gave  on  that  day  to 
the  delegates.  The  judgment  of  the  Argentine  delegates  was  certainly 
entitled  to  great  weight,  but  it  is  not  likely  that  they  alone  were  right 
in  this  matter;  and  if  this  incident  involved  a  question  of  the  dignity 
and  independence  of  the  delegates,  it  is  not  probable  that  only  the 
delegates  of  one  among  the  fourteen  States  represented  in  the  Confer- 
ence would  have  entertained  such  an  opinion.  If  this  objection  had 
been  a  valid  one,  those  presenting  it  would  not  have  attended  the  sub- 
sequent meetings  of  the  Conference,  as  they  were  presided  over  by  a 
gentleman  who,  in  their  opinion,  was  not  qualified  to  be  its  President. 

I  think  that  the  Argentine  delegates  were  misled  by  a  memorandum 
prepared  under  Mr.  Trescot's  direction  by  Mr.  Warner  P.  Sutton,  who 
was  at  the  time  Chief  Clerk  of  the  Conference,  mentioning  all  the  pre- 
cedents of  the  European  diplomatic  conferences  which  unanimously 
establish  the  practice  to  be  that  the  Secretary  of  State  of  the  inviting 
Government,  being  a  member  of  the  Conference,  should  be  elected 
President. 

This  memorandum  was  intended  for  the  exclusive  use  of  Secretary 
Blaine  and  the  American  delegates,  but  by  some  means  knowledge  of 
its  contents  reached  Seiior  Quintana,  and  as  Mr.  Blaine  was  not  a 
member  of  the  United  States  delegation,  Senor  Quintana  naturally 
thought  that  Mr.  Blaine  was  not  eligible  for  President.  Senor  Quin- 
tana afterwards  made  a  very  handsome  explanation  and  apology  to  Mr. 
Blaine,  and  the  Sutton  memorandum  was  frequently  the  subject  of  jest 
between  them.  There  was  another  important  memorandum  to  the  effect 
that  this  Conference  was  the  first  one  ever  held  in  the  United  States, 


640  XTbe  lpan=Hnicrican  Contcrence. 

and  ought  to  be  held  under  such  conditions  as  would  justify  the 
making  of  precedents,  and  not  follow  exactly  those  hitherto  made  in 
Europe.  . 

Subsequent  events,  and  especially  those  which  occurred  during  the 
last  meetings  of  the  Conference,  showed  clearly  how  wise  was  the  elec- 
tion of  Mr.  Blaine,  because  he  was  invested  with  full  powers  to  nego- 
tiate with  the  Latin-American  delegates — powers  which  were  really 
broader  than  those  of  the  United  States  delegation — and  because,  on 
the  other  hand,  possessing  exquisite  tact  and  a  strong  desire  to  prevent 
the  failure  of  a  high  purpose  in  an  assembly  of  which  he  was  the 
originator,  he  went  farther  in  order  to  come  to  an  agreement  with  the 
Latin-American  delegates  than  in  all  probability  the  United  States 
delegation  would  have  deemed  themselves  authorized  to  go. 

Question  of  Precedence. — The  question  of  the  precedence  of  the 
nations  represented  in  the  Conference  was  next  brought  up.  Some 
thought  that  the  alphabetical  order  should  be  adopted,  and  others  that 
this  matter  should  be  decided  by  lot.  The  latter  view  prevailed, 
and  in  the  third  meeting  of  the  Conference  all  the  nations  represented 
were  placed  in  ballot,  and  thus  the  precedence  given  to  their  delegates 
was  decided. 

Formal  Opening  of  the  Conference. — After  the  preliminary  meetings 
in  which  the  Conference  elected  its  President,  it  was  formally  organized 
on  October  2,  1889.  Mr.  Blaine  delivered  on  that  occasion  a  very 
remarkable  address  which  was  one  of  his  happiest  compositions,  and 
then  he  took  the  delegates  to  the  White  House  to  present  them  to  Presi- 
dent Harrison.  In  the  evening  he  gave  a  banquet  to  the  delegates 
which  was  attended  by  them  all,  and  early  the  next  morning  the  dele- 
gates left  Washington  for  New  York  and  West  Point  on  their  excursion 
through  the  principal  cities  of  the  United  States. 

The  Excursion  of  the  Delegates. — The  Conference,  immediately  after 
its  formal  opening,  adjourned  to  enter  upon  the  railway  excursion  which 
lasted  from  October  3  to  November  13,  1889.  That  excursion  covered 
more  than  nine  thousand  miles  of  travel,  and  included  visits  to  all  of 
the  large  cities  east  of  the  Missouri  and  north  of  the  Ohio  River.  It  was 
suggested  by  Mr.  William  E.  Curtis,  whose  connection  with  the  Confer- 
ence will  presently  appear,  and  heartily  favored  by  President  Harrison 
and  Secretary  Blaine,  and  it  had  several  objects  in  view:  First,  to  give 
the  delegates  an  opportunity  to  become  acquainted  with  each  other, 
and  to  establish  friendly  personal  relations  among  themselves  before 
entering  upon  the  serious  business  of  the  Conference;  second,  to  im- 
press them  with  the  magnitude,  the  wealth,  the  prosperity,  and  the 
commercial  advantages  of  the  United  States;  third,  to  soften,  and  if 
possible  to  remove  the  prejudices  and  distrust  that  have  been  alluded 
to,  by  hospitality  and  social  intercourse;  and,  finally,  to  awaken  among 


Excursion  of  tbe  Delegates.  641 

the  people  of  the  United  States  an  interest  in  the  proceedings  of  the 
Conference  and  an  appreciation  of  its  importance. 

However,  after  the  excursion  took  place,  I  thought  it  did  not  pro- 
duce the  results  expected,  as  many  of  the  delegates  knew  this  country 
well,  and  those  who  did  not,  could  hardly  form  an  adequate  idea  of  it 
in  such  a  rapid  trip.  Some  of  those  who  took  an  active  part  in  the 
proceedings  of  the  Conference,  among  them  the  Argentine  delegates, 
did  not  join  it,  but  about  three-fourths  of  the  delegates  and  almost  all 
the  attaches  made  the  entire  journey,  it  being  the  particular  desire  of 
Mr,  Blaine  that  all  the  young  men  should  go,  because,  as  he  said,  they 
would  learn  more  than  the  older  men  and  would  make  better  use  of 
their  information.  The  only  delegate  who  did  not  accompany  the 
excursion  at  all  was  Senor  Saenz  Pena,  who  excused  himself  because 
his  wife  and  child  were  absolute  strangers  in  Washington,  unable  to 
speak  the  language,  and  dissatisfied  with  hotel  life,  and  he  felt  that  he 
must  remain  and  get  them  settled  in  a  private  dwelling  as  soon  as 
possible.  Senor  Quintana  accompanied  the  excursion  only  a  few  days; 
he  joined  the  delegates  at  Chicago,  but  left  the  next  day  and  was 
not  present  at  the  banquet  given  there  to  the  delegates,  and  where  he 
had  been  invited  to  speak  ;  he  excused  his  return  by  saying  that  he 
had  been  unexpectedly  appointed  a  delegate,  and  felt  that  he  should 
make  use  of  the  interval  to  prepare  himself  for  his  labors. 

I  only  accompanied  the  excursion  to  West  Point  and  then  returned 
to  Washington.  When  the  delegates  reached  Chicago  I  went  there,  at 
the  special  request  of  Mr.  Blaine,  and  accompanied  the  excursion  to 
Council  Bluffs  and  Omaha,  returning  from  there  to  Washington.  When 
the  excursion  reached  Pittsburg,  I,  with  most  of  the  delegates  who  had 
not  joined  it,  went  to  that  place  and  we  all  came  together  to  Phila- 
delphia, Wilmington,  and  Baltimore. 

If  any  favorable  result  grew  out  of  the  excursion,  it  was  most  likely 
among  the  inhabitants  of  the  cities  visited  by  the  delegates,  on  account 
of  the  good  impression  which  may  have  been  produced  by  personal 
intercourse  with  them,  although  this  was,  of  course,  very  slight.  This, 
too,  may  have  dispelled  some  wrong  views  that  had  been  entertained. 
Those  who  most  enjoyed  the  excursion  were  the  young  men,  attaches 
of  delegations  and  others  who  joined  it. 

On  the  return  of  the  delegates  after  their  excursion,  just  mentioned, 
the  organization  of  the  Conference  was  perfected  by  approving  the 
rules  of  the  same,  electing  Vice-Presidents,  committees,  etc.,  on  which 
subjects  I  shall  presently  speak. 

Election  of  Vice-Presidents. — If  Mr.  Blaine  had  been  a  man  of  fewer 
engagements  than  fall  to  the  lot  of  a  Secretary  of  State,  and  able  to 
attend  all  the  meetings  of  the  Conference  and  remain  as  long  as  they 
lasted,  his  election  would  very  likely  have  proved  satisfactory  during  the 


642  Zbc  ipan^american  Coutcvence. 

remaining  sessions  of  the  Conference;  but,  this  not  being  the  case,  it  was 
soon  found  that  the  change  of  the  presiding  officer  every  day  created 
many  difficulties,  because  there  was  no  uniformity  in  the  decisions  of 
the  chair;  and  this  caused  delay  and  inconvenience  in  the  workings 
of  the  Conference.  For  this  reason,  Senor  Alfonso,  a  Chilian  delegate, 
reported  on  behalf  of  the  Committee  of  Rules  on  December  4,  1S89,  a 
resolution  to  the  effect  that  two  Vice-Presidents  should  be  elected, 
who  should  be  called  to  the  chair  by  turns  in  the  absence  of  the  Presi- 
dent, the  chair  to  be  filled  in  their  absence  by  the  other  delegates 
in  regular  order  adopted  by  the  Conference.  That  resolution  was 
approved  on  the  following  day. 

The  United  States  delegates,  viewing  the  election  of  Mr.  Blaine  as  an 
act  of  deference  and  courtesy  to  themselves,  decided  to  reciprocate  it 
by  offering  their  support  in  carrying  out  any  plan  the  Latin-American 
delegates  might  suggest  for  the  appointment  of  one  or  more  Vice- 
Presidents.  With  the  best  intention  of  pleasing  their  colleagues,  and 
following  the  parliamentary  practices  which  prevail  in  this  country,  the 
United  States  delegates  made  a  suggestion,  which  did  not  find  favor, 
to  the  effect  that,  there  being  three  different  sections  of  America  rep- 
resented in  the  Conference,  a  Vice-President  should  be  elected  for  each 
of  them — to  wit,  one  from  the  delegates  of  Central  America,  two  from 
the  delegates  of  South  America  (one  representing  the  eastern  side,  or 
the  nations  bordering  on  the  Atlantic,  and  the  other  the  western  side, 
or  the  nations  bordering  on  the  Pacific),  and  a  fourth  to  represent  the 
Latin  portion  of  North  America. 

Although  I  do  not  believe  that  any  of  the  delegates  desired  to  be 
elected  Vice-President  on  personal  grounds,  the  matter  was  regarded 
with  a  great  deal  of  interest  by  all  of  them,  on  account  of  the  political 
bearing  which  it  might  have  on  the  relations  between  their  respective 
countries.  The  above  suggestion  was  not  accepted,  owing  to  the  diffi- 
culty of  coming  to  an  agreement  about  the  appointment  of  one  or  more 
Vice-Presidents;  and  it  Avas  first  decided  that  none  should  be  elected, 
but  that  in  the  absence  of  the  President  his  place  should  be  filled  by 
each  delegate  in  turn  as  designated  by  lot.  Later,  however,  it  was  de- 
cided to  elect  two  Vice-Presidents. 

The  jealousies  prevailing  in  some  of  the  South  American  Repub- 
lics, to  which  I  have  already  alluded,  increased  by  the  ill  feeling  caused 
by  the  war  which  had  taken  place  a  few  years  before  between  Chili  on 
one  side  and  Bolivia  and  Peru  on  the  other,  had  created  such  a  condi- 
tion of  things  that  it  was  very  difficult  for  the  South  American  delegates 
to  agree  upon  a  Vice-President  of  the  Conference,  and  that  threatened 
to  be  a  bone  of  contention  between  them.  Senor  Lafayette  Rod- 
riguez Pereira,  a  Brazilian  delegate  and  a  man  of  very  clear  judgment 
and  great  experience,  who  out  of  regard  for  the  personal  feelings  of  the 


Blcction  ot  lDice==llM'esiC>cnts.  643 

Emperor  vacated  his  office  as  soon  as  he  heard  that  the  Emperor  had 
been  dethroned,  thought  that  one  of  the  Mexican  delegates  was  the 
only  possible  candidate  which  could  have  the  support  of  the  South 
American  delegates,  because,  while  Mexico  is  inhabited  by  the  same 
race  and  having  the  same  conditions  as  the  South  American  Republics, 
she  was  by  the  great  distance  from  her  sisters  and  the  scanty  means  of 
communication  between  them,  entirely  neutral  to  their  differences  and 
friendly  to  all ;  but  the  nucleus  formed  around  the  Argentine  delegates 
would  not  be  satisfied  with  a  neutral  Vice-President,  and  they  desired 
one  who  was  willing  to  act  in  accord  with  their  views  on  the  subject  of 
arbitration  and  conquest.  So  when  the  time  came  to  elect  a  Vice-Presi- 
dent, the  Argentine  delegates,  together  with  their  friends,  had  as  their 
candidate  the  Peruvian  delegate, who  was  very  well  fitted  for  the  position, 
as  he  had  been  partially  educated  in  the  United  States,  spoke  English 
very  well,  had  lived  many  years  in  this  country,  and  was  perfectly 
familiar  with  the  same,  besides  being  a  man  of  great  ability  and 
remarkably  good  sense  ;  while  some  of  the  other  delegates,  like  the 
Chilian,  Brazilian,  and  others,  who  opposed  the  preponderance  of  the 
Argentines,  and  could  not  see  with  indifference  that  they  should  have 
control  of  the  Conference,  tried  to  have  a  neutral  delegate  as  Vice- 
President,  and  their  choice  was  in  favor  of  one  of  the  Mexican  repre- 
sentatives. 

The  election  of  the  first  Vice-President  took  place  on  December  6, 
1889,  and  on  the  first  ballot  Senor  Zegarra,  the  Peruvian  representa- 
tive, received  six  votes,  a  Mexican  representative  five,  Senor  Hurtado 
three  votes,  Senor  Quintana  and  Senor  Cruz  one  vote  each,  and  no- 
body having  obtained  a  majority,  the  question  was  presented  whether 
some  of  the  absent  delegates  had  a  right  to  vote,  but  finally  it  was 
decided  to  take  another  ballot  the  following  day.  At  this  ballot, 
which  took  place  on  December  7,  1889,  Senor  Zegarra  and  myself  re- 
ceived eight  votes  each,  and  Sefior  Aragon,  a  delegate  from  Costa 
Rica,  proposed  that  chance  should  decide  which  of  the  two  should  be 
first  and  second  Vice-Presidents  respectively. 

A  recess  was  taken  and  two  ballots  deposited  in  a  box,  one  bearing 
the  name  of  Senor  Zegarra  and  the  other  mine.  A  ballot  was  drawn, 
bearing  the  name  of  Senor  Zegarra,  and  he  was  thereupon  declared 
first  Vice-President.' 

The  Peruvian  delegate,  who  knew  well  the  programme  of  his 
friends,  did  not  attend  the  Conference  during  the  two  days  in  which 

'  It  may  be  interesting  to  know  how  the  delegates  voted  on  that  occasion,  and 
although  the  ballot  was  secret  and  I  cannot  be  sure  of  the  way  in  which  each  delega- 
tion voted,  I  think  from  what  I  knew  and  heard  at  the  time  that  the  most  approximate 
version  is  the  following :  For  Senor  Zegarra,  The  Argentine  Republic,  Uruguay, 
Paraguay,  Bolivia,  Venezuela,  Guatemala,  Nicaragua,  and  Honduras  ;  for  myself,  the 
United  States,  Brazil,  Chili,  Colombia.  Ecuador   Cnst.i  Rica.  Salvador,  and  Hayti. 


I 


644  '^IH^  lpan=Bincricau  Contcrcncc. 

the  ballots  were  taken,  but  as  I  did  not  consider  myself  a  candidate,  1 
attended  both  meetings,  but  was  not  in  the  hall  of  the  Conference 
when  the  ballot  was  taken  on  the  second  day. 

As  Mexico  had  two  delegates,  one  of  them  intended  to  vote  for  his 
colleague,  not  as  an  honor  to  him  personally,  but  to  their  country, 
which  course  would  have  been  perfectly  proper;  but  he  was  induced 
by  me  to  give  up  his  intention  and  the  election  was  decided  by  lot.  I 
had  no  desire  to  act  as  presiding  officer  of  the  Conference,  because 
that  would  have  curtailed  considerably  my  freedom  of  action  on  the 
floor.     Senor  Zegarra  made  a  model  presiding  officer.' 

On  that  occasion  an  incident  occurred,  insignificant  in  itself,  but 
which  caused  a  misunderstanding  that  I  do  not  think  is  yet  fully  dis- 
pelled. As  the  United  States  delegates  were  disposed  to  accept  and 
support  anything  that  their  colleagues  might  determine  upon  in  re- 
gard to  the  vice-presidency,  as  an  act  of  courtesy  towards  them  and 
in  exchange  for  their  having  elected  as  President  the  Secretary  of 
State,  they  thought  that  the  Latin-American  delegates  would  be  more 
free  to  discuss  and  decide  this  point,  which  was  a  delicate  one,  being 
somewhat  i)ersonal,  if  they  consulted  by  themselves;  and  for  this 
reason  the  United  States  delegates  were  not  present  in  the  room  where 
their  colleagues  met.  Their  absence,  however,  was  considered  by 
some  of  the  Latin- American  delegates  as  an  act  of  discourtesy,  because 
they  took  as  a  want  of  consideration  to  them  the  fact  of  their  not  as- 
sembling in  the  same  room  with  their  colleagues,  whereas  the  true 
reason  was  a  desire  to  show  consideration  for  their  associates. 

Right  of  Delegates  to  Express  Personal  Opinions. — Another  incident 
which  threatened  to  disturb  the  good  understanding  of  the  Conference 
was  the  view  entertained  by  the  Argentine  delegation  that  the  dele- 
gates should  express  only  the  official  opinion  of  their  Governments,  and 
that  personal  views  ought  not  to  be  taken  into  account,  either  in  the 
Conference  or  in  the  committees.  The  law  providing  for  the  meeting 
of  the  Conference  had  authorized  each  nation  to  send  as  many  dele- 
gates as  it  thought  proper,  but  prescribed  at  the  same  time  that  each 
country  should  have  only  one  vote;  so  that  whatever  might  have  been 
the  opinions  of  the  delegates  from  any  State,  in  casting  their  vote  only 
one  opinion  was  expressed,  which  was  the  opinion  of  the  majority,  and 
therefore  the  official  opinion  of  their  Government. 

It  was  natural  to  suppose  and  to  expect  that  each  delegate  would 
express  the  opinion  of  his  Government  contained  in  his  instructions 
when  the  case  under  consideration  was  embraced  in  such  instructions, 
or  an  opinion  as  nearly  as  possible  in  accord  with  the  wishes  and  interests 

'  In  my  answer  to  Senor  Pierra,  to  which  I  have  already  alluded  and  which  ap- 
pears among  the  documents  forming  the  Appendix  to  this  paper,  I  give  further  details 
about  the  election  of  the  Vice-Presidents. 


Bppointment  ot  (Xcmniittees.  645 

of  his  country,  as  each  one  could  form  when  he  had  not  specific  in- 
structions on  any  particular  question.  In  many  cases  the  American 
Governments  either  did  not  give  instructions  to  their  delegates  or  gave 
them  very  broad  ones,  preferring  that  they  should  exercise  their  own 
personal  judgment  and  discretion  on  such  questions  as  might  arise. 
To  assert,  therefore,  that  the  delegates  ought  to  express  only  the 
official  opinion  of  their  Governments  was  to  interfere  in  a  measure  with 
the  relations  of  the  delegates  with  their  respective  Governments,  and  to 
limit  their  right  to  say  what  they  thought  proper.  This  opinion  did 
not  meet  with  favor  in  the  Conference,  since,  while  it  arrived  at  no  de- 
cision on  this  point,  it  never  refused  to  hear  any  personal  opinion,  or 
contrary  opinions  from  two  or  more  members  of  the  same  delegation. 

Appointment  of  Committees. — The  appointment  of  the  committees 
was  a  very  important  matter,  since  a  great  deal  of  the  success  of  the 
Conference  depended  thereon,  and,  with  a  view  to  avoiding  any  un- 
pleasantness among  the  delegates  on  this  account,  they  agreed  to  re- 
quest the  President  to  appoint  them.  Mr.  Blaine  performed  that 
duty  without  consulting  any  of  the  delegates,  only  exercising  his  own 
discretion  on  the  subject.  As  I  understand,  Seiior  Quintana  was  the 
only  man  consulted  as  to  his  own  wishes,  believing  that  he  would 
turn  out  to  be  a  "  punctilious  gentleman,"  as  Mr.  Blaine  expressed  it. 
His  preference  was  ascertained,  and  then  he  was  placed  on  the  Com- 
mittee of  General  Welfare.  I  do  not  know  that  the  appointment  of 
the  committees  gave  rise  to  any  well-grounded  complaint,  or  caused 
embarrassment  in  the  transaction  of  the  business  which  they  had 
in  charge.  The  only  embarrassment  I  have  heard  of  in  the  com- 
mittees was  caused  by  the  discordant  opinions  of  the  delegates  from 
one  country  who  were  members  of  the  same  committees,  and  by  the 
fact  that  the  United  States  delegates  had  no  instructions  from  their 
Government,  and  could  therefore  express  only  their  own  personal 
views.  In  the  Committee  on  Monetary  Union  there  were  two  United 
States  delegates  who  held  opposite  views  in  regard  to  the  coining  of 
silver,  and  this  made  it  difficult  for  the  other  members  of  the  commit- 
tee to  find  out  what  was  the  view  of  the  United  States  Government  on 
this  subject.  I  understand  there  was  a  similar  difficulty,  although  in 
a  less  degree,  in  the  Committee  on  Communications  by  Railways;  but 
the  most  serious  misunderstanding  arose  in  the  General  Welfare 
Committee,  which  had  the  subject  of  arbitration  in  charge,  because 
the  United  States  member  expressed  personal  views  which  were  not 
shared  by  the  other  members  of  the  committee. 

Rules  of  the  Conference. — The  Conference,  when  organized,  de- 
cided, very  prudently,  to  frame  a  code  of  rules  for  its  deliberations 
and  decisions,  and  the  committee  appointed  for  that  purpose  took  as  a 
model  the  rules  approved  by  the  South  American  Congress  that  met  at 


646  Zbc  lpan=Bmcrican  Conference. 

Montevideo  in  1888,  which  had  the  advantage  of  having  been  put  in 
practice  successfully  at  that  congress.  Senor  Quintana,  and  a  member 
of  the  Committee  on  Rules,  who  was  also  a  member  of  that  congress, 
was  requested  by  the  committee  to  prepare  the  rules  and  to  support 
them  in  the  discussion  before  the  Conference. 

The  parliamentary  practices  of  the  Latin  and  the  Anglo-Saxon 
nations  being  so  widely  different,  the  rules  reported  by  the  committee 
of  seven,  of  whom  six  were  Latin  members  and  only  one  Anglo- 
Saxon  member,  met  with  great  opposition  on  the  part  of  the  United 
States  delegates.  A  long  discussion  of  each  article,  which  lasted  for 
several  weeks,  ensued.  This  discussion,  which  was  mainly  sustained 
by  the  Argentine  delegates,  warmly  supported  by  Senor  Alfonso, 
the  chairman  of  the  committee,  showed  at  once  the  firmness  of  char- 
acter of  both  sets  of  delegates,  and  especially  of  the  United  States 
delegates,  who  were  not  quite  disposed  to  accept  the  modifications 
suggested  to  them,  even  though  these  were  not  of  much  consequence. 
This  was  an  indication  of  what  was  to  happen  later  with  more  im- 
portant subjects.  The  rules  were  finally  approved  substantially  as 
they  were  presented  by  the  committee. 

Senor  Quintana,  conscious  of  his  own  merits,  and  influenced  always 
by  firm  convictions,  was  never  willing  to  yield  even  in  such  points  as 
might  be  considered  of  a  secondary  nature,  as  in  some  cases  it  is  quite 
desirable  to  do  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  the  cordial  and  spontaneous 
support  of  an  assembly  wherein,  necessarily,  different  views  exist. 
Tact,  which  in  such  a  case  consists  in  yielding  on  secondary  points 
for  the  purpose  of  securing  the  principal  ones, — although  frequently 
there  are  differences  of  opinion  as  to  which  are  the  principal  and  which 
the  secondary  points, — possibly,  after  all,  is  a  characteristic  of  weaker 
minds. 

Mr.  Henderson,  the  Chairman  of  the  United  States  delegation,  pos- 
sessed somewhat  similar  strong  convictions,  and  for  this  reason  the 
discussions  which  had  the  liveliest  character,  and  which  sometimes 
went  so  far  as  to  be  personal,  were  those  which  took  place  between 
this  gentleman  and  Senor  Quintana.  The  Argentine  delegates,  in- 
spired by  the  great  progress  of  their  country,  and  having  no  political 
relations  and  no  business  of  any  importance  with  the  United  States, 
showed  an  independence  which  in  every  case  was  very  laudable,  but 
they  sometimes,  perhaps  on  account  of  their  personal  characteristics, 
displayed  an  extraordinary  and  exquisite  susceptibility.  Whatever 
may  have  been  disagreeable  in  the  discussions  of  the  Conference  was 
disposed  of,  however,  in  a  satisfactory  manner  by  the  following  re- 
mark of  Mr.  Henderson  in  closing  the  session:  "  If  in  that  freedom  of 
speech  a  word  of  acrimony  has  been  used,  let  us  now  consider  it  ex- 
punged from  the  record,  and  resolve  to  forget  it  forever." 


IRuIes  ot  tbe  Conference.  647 

Soon  after  the  Conference  met,  some  newspapers  in  this  country, 
prompted  by  jealous  politicians  at  Buenos  Ayres,  began  to  attack  the 
Argentine  delegates  with  extraordinary  and  unjustifiable  rudeness, 
even  going  so  far  as  to  say  that  they  were  paid  agents  of  England 
acting  with  the  purpose  of  preventing  the  success  of  the  Conference. 
Such  uncalled-for  and  ungrounded  attacks  caused,  as  was  only  natural,  a 
strong  reaction,  by  which  the  merits  of  those  gentlemen  were  made  plain 
and  the  reflections  cast  upon  them  were  disposed  of  in  so  successful  a 
manner  that  such  insinuations  were  never  again  referred  to.  Any  un- 
pleasant feeling  which  these  aspersions  may  have  caused  the  Argentine 
delegates  was  certainly  abundantly  compensated  for  by  the  satisfaction 
they  must  have  felt  when  they  were  so  triumphantly  and  successfully 
vindicated. 

The  attitude  of  the  Argentine  delegates,  who,  during  the  discussions 
of  the  Conference,  had  frequent  encounters  with  the  United  States 
delegates,  especially  with  Mr.  Henderson,  and  spoke  of  their  country 
as  being  on  a  parallel  with  the  United  States,  was  of  course  a  source 
of  great  satisfaction  to  many  more  patriotic  than  discreet  Spanish- 
Americans,  who  did  not  realize  the  objects  of  the  Conference  and  the 
best  means  to  accomplish  these  objects  to  the  advantage  of  the  Latin- 
American  nations.  Not  only  the  Argentine  papers,  but  the  papers  of 
other  Spanish-American  countries,  praised  very  highly  the  attitude  of 
the  Argentine  delegates,  and  those  who  like  myself  had  followed  a 
different  course  were  severely  censured  by  Mexican  papers,  and  I  was 
criticised  even  by  a  distinguished  Mexican  writer.  I  had,  therefore, 
to  enter  into  a  discussion  with  a  prominent  literary  man  of  Mexico, 
who  regretted  that  I  did  not  assume  the  more  than  independent  attitude 
of  the  Argentine  delegates,  and  that  discussion  was  ended  by  the 
Mexican  Government  stating  that  I  had  acted  under  their  instructions 
and  in  a  manner  entirely  satisfactory  to  them,  I  append  extracts  from 
a  letter  written  by  me  at  the  time  to  my  critic  explaining  my  course. 

Mr.  William  E.  Curtis. — Although  I  realize  how  disagreeable  it  is 
to  descend  to  personal  matters,  I  think  it  indispensable,  with  a  view 
to  a  better  understanding  of  what  happened  in  the  Conference,  to  make 
some  explanation  of  certain  incidents  of  this  nature.  Mr.  William  E. 
Curtis,  who  had  acted  as  Secretary  and  finally  as  a  member  of  the 
South  American  Commission  sent  by  President  Arthur,  in  1884,  for 
the  purpose  of  promoting  trade  with  South  America,  was  appointed 
by  Mr.  Blaine  to  take  charge  of  the  work  preparatory  to  the  meeting 
of  the  Conference,  and  more  especially  to  supervise  the  excursion 
which  the  Government  of  the  United  States  arranged  in  honor  of  the 
delegates. 

According  to  the  original  plan  of  the  Conference  Mr.  Curtis  was  to 
be  Chief  Secretary,  or  Executive  Officer,  with  three  Under-Secretaries 


648  Xlbe  pan^american  Ccntcrence, 

— Spanish,  Portuguese,  and  English;  but  Mr.  Curtis  was  not  2. persona 
grata  to  all  the  delegates,  and  the  opposition  to  him  was  prompted 
by  some  Spanish-Americans  in  New  York  whom  Mr.  Curtis  had 
offended:  the  Argentine  delegates  were  much  displeased  with  a  maga- 
zine article  Mr.  Curtis  had  written  concerning  the  financial  credit  of 
their  country;  the  Colombians  because  of  an  article  concerning  tlie 
family  relations  of  President  Nufiez,  and  his  concordat  with  the  Pope; 
the  delegates  from  Chili  were  offended  because  of  his  comments  upon 
the  then  recent  war  with  Peru ;  and  Seilor  Caamaiio,  of  Ecuador,  dis- 
liked some  humorous  personal  allusions  in  the  Capitals  of  South  America. 
The  publication  of  this  book  was  the  principal  cause  of  the  opposition, 
as  it  contained  allusions  to  other  Spanish-American  countries  which 
had  in  some  way  offended  their  respective  delegates,  who  thought  he 
had  committed  many  serious  mistakes  and  made  many  uncomplimen- 
tary remarks  in  speaking  of  their  capital  cities.  This  would  not  seem 
strange,  taking  into  consideration  that  the  time  Mr.  Curtis  spent  in 
each  city  was  very  short,  and  remembering  how  difficult  it  is  under 
such  circumstances  to  know  and  understand  a  country,  and,  still  more, 
to  write  about  it  without  making  mistakes,  which  are  generally  to  the 
prejudice  of  the  country  treated  of.  All  of  the  delegates  at  the  close 
of  the  Convention  were  generous  enough  to  write  Mr.  Curtis  congratu- 
latory letters  upon  his  management,  with  assurances  of  their  personal 
regard. 

The  Committee  on  Rules  presented  a  resolution,  which  was  ap- 
proved by  the  Conference  at  its  second  meeting,  to  elect  two  Secreta- 
ries, one  to  take  charge  of  the  Spanish  work  and  the  other  of  the 
English,  both  to  be  conversant  with  each  language,  and  both  to  be 
elected  directly  by  the  Conference.  The  Secretary  of  State  accepted 
this  resolution  out  of  deference  to  the  Conference,  notwithstanding 
that  the  law  which  convened  the  assembly  gave  him  the  appointment 
of  all  its  clerks;  and  his  right  to  do  this  was  still  more  clear  because 
the  salaries  of  'the  Secretaries  were  paid  by  the  United  States  Govern- 
ment. As  Mr.  Curtis  did  not  know  Spanish,  he  was  precluded  from 
being  a  secretary;  Mr.  Blaine  then  appointed  him  Executive  Officer  of 
the  Conference,  and  he  acted  until  the  end  as  chief  of  all  the  clerks. 
I  must  state  here,  in  justice  to  Mr.  Curtis,  that  during  the  time  he 
served  in  this  capacity  he  succeeded  in  dispelling  many  of  the  unfavor- 
able views  which  existed  regarding  him. 

Senor  Don  Fidel  G.  Pierra. — The  notoriety  acquired  by  the  Spanish 
Secretary  of  the  Conference  makes  it  necessary  to  say  a  few  words 
about  him.  Senor  Don  Fidel  G.  Pierra  is  a  Cuban  who  lived  many 
years  in  New  York,  where,  I  understand,  he  had  some  commercial 
business.  He  accompanied  the  Spanish-American  delegates  on  the 
excursion  which  preceded  the  Conference,   as  representative  of  the 


Senor  Won  3fi^el  0.  pierra.  64^ 

Spanish-American  Commercial  Union  of  New  York,  and  secured  their 
acquaintance  and  friendship  by  rendering  them  services  as  an  inter- 
preter and  in  other  ways.  The  Conference  elected  him  Spanish  Secre- 
tary; but  on  account  of  his  peculiar  temperament  and  disposition  he 
was  not  able  to  remain  long  in  that  place,  although  he  had  the  good-will 
and  support  of  the  Latin-American  delegates.  He  complained  that  he 
had  not  competent  clerks  to  assist  him,  and  he  thought  the  Executive 
Clerk,  Mr.  Curtis,  was  unfriendly ;  he  also  alleged  that  the  salary  assigned 
to  him  by  the  Department  of  State  was  not  sufficient  compensation  for 
his  work,  although  it  was  higher  than  the  salary  assigned  to  the  Assistant 
Secretaries  of  State,  and  as  high  as  the  highest  paid  to  clerks  of  the 
Conference.  Finally  his  resignation  was  accepted,  and  soon  afterwards 
Sefior  Pierra  addressed  to  Za  Nacion,  of  Buenos  Ayres,  Argentina,  a 
letter  dated  at  Washington,  on  March  lo,  1890,  in  which  he  gave  an 
account  of  the  proceedings  of  the  Conference,  making  many  incorrect 
and  some  slanderous  assertions  in  regard  to  incidents  which  occurred 
in  the  Conference,  and  more  especially  respecting  some  of  the  delegates 
of  the  United  States  and  Mexico.'  I  thought  it  proper  on  my  part  to 
publish  a  correction  of  such  misstatements,  and  I  wrote  a  correct  state- 
ment of  such  incidents,  which  was  published  by  Las  Novedades,  a  Span- 
ish newspaper  of  the  city  of  New  York,  in  its  issue  of  July  7,  1890. 
Senor  Pierra's  assertions  were  incidentally  considered  in  the  Senate  of 

'  When  Senor  Pierra's  letter  to  La  Nacion  of  Buenos  Ayres  reached  New  York, 
a  few  extracts  from  the  same  were  printed  by  the  New  York  Herald  of  June  28, 
i8qo,  and  in  its  issue  of  July  3,  1890,  it  published  fuller  extracts  of  such  portions  of 
the  letter  as  contained  abuse  to  the  representatives  of  the  United  States,  as  well  as  to 
myself.  As  soon  as  I  had  the  first  intimation  of  that  letter,  by  the  first  publication  of 
the  New  York  Herald,  I  obtained  a  copy  of  La  Nacion  of  Buenos  Ayres  which 
had  the  letter  in  full,  prepared  at  once  an  answer,  which  was  intended  to  be  read  espe- 
cially among  the  Spanish-American  people,  to  dispel  inaccuracies  of  Senor  Pierra,  and 
sent  it  to  Las  N'ovedades  of  New  York,  which  published  it  in  its  issue  of  July  7, 
i8go. 

In  a  discussion  in  the  Senate  of  the  United  States,  which  took  place  on  July  3, 
1890,  on  a  bill  to  subsidize  a  line  of  steamers  from  New  York  to  Buenos  Ayres, 
Senator  Vest,  under  the  misapprehension  that  Sefior  Pierra  was  the  Secretary  of  a 
society  in  the  city  of  Buenos  Ayres  and  had  accompanied  to  Washington  the  delega- 
tion from  the  Argentine  Republic  to  the  Pan-American  Conference,  and  believing 
that  Seiior  Pierra  expressed  the  views  of  the  Argentine  delegates  about  their  colleagues 
representing  the  United  States,  read  some  extracts  from  Seiior  Pierra's  letter  in  which 
he  abused  the  United  States  delegates.  This  abuse  so  excited  Senator  Hawley  that 
he  qualified  the  aspersions  of  Senor  Pierra  with  most  forcible  and  strong  language,  as 
appears  on  pages  7495,  7496,  and  7497  of  the  Congressional  Record  for  July  4,  1890  ; 
and  finally  Senator  Frye,  in  the  session  of  the  Senate  of  the  14th  of  the  same  month, 
spoke  on  this  subject  for  the  purpose  of  dispelling  Senator  Vest's  misapprehensions 
about  the  position  of  Senor  Pierra  in  the  Argentine  Republic,  using,  like  Senator 
Hawley,  very  strong  language  to  characterize  Senor  Pierra's  conduct,  and  then  Senator 
Vest  disclaimed  all  responsibility  or  endorsement  of  any  of  Senor  Pierra's  statements. 


6so  TTbe  pans»Hmertcan  Conference. 

the  United  States  on  July  14,  1890,  and  qualified  in  the  harshest  pos- 
sible manner,  although  fully  deserved,  considering  the  impropriety  of 
his  conduct.  I  append  to  this  paper  a  copy  of  my  communication  to 
Las  Novedades  of  New  York. 

Arbitration. — Arbitration  is  a  very  difficult  and  complicated  sub- 
ject. It  cannot  be  denied  that  during  the  present  century  mankind  has 
advanced  very  rapidly  in  civilization  and  moral  sense,  and  it  is  to 
be  hoped  that,  at  no  distant  period,  such  advancement  will  make  war 
impossible,  for  war  has  been  thus  far  one  of  the  greatest  scourges 
which  has  afflicted  the  human  race.  But  so  long  as  the  moral  sense  of 
highly  advanced  countries  does  not  disapprove  of  war  as  an  uncivilized 
way  of  adjusting  differences  among  themselves,  not  much  progress  can 
be  made  by  accepting  arbitration  in  solemn  treaties,  especially  if  no 
method  of  coercion  is  agreed  upon  against  such  nations  as  may  refuse 
to  compromise  their  differences,  and  such  a  method  cannot  be  estab- 
lished without  attempts  against  the  sovereignty  and  independence  of 
the  respective  states. 

It  was  thought  by  some  Spanish  Americans  that  the  purpose  of  the 
United  States  was  to  establish  a  permanent  court  of  arbitration  at 
Washington,  and  this  was  looked  upon  as  a  way  of  giving  the  United 
States  a  decided  preponderance  in  all  questions  affecting  this  continent. 
Although  I  understand  that  the  United  States  delegate  who  was  chair- 
man of  the  Committee  on  General  Welfare  looked  favorably  upon  the 
idea  of  having  a  permanent  tribunal,  and  his  views  on  this  subject 
were  shared  by  his  Colombian  colleague,  the  plan  was  not  accepted 
by  the  other  Latin-American  delegates,  nor  by  the  Secretary  of  State 
of  the  United  States,  and  had  therefore  to  be  abandoned. 

Mr.  Blaine  wished  arbitration  without  limitations  which  might 
nullify  its  principle.  Chili  did  not  favor  arbitration,  except  in  a  very 
restricted  manner.  Mexico  and  the  Argentine  Republic  desired 
reasonable  limitations,  while  all  the  other  States  accepted  the  idea 
without  any  limitation.  The  Argentine  and  Brazilian  delegates  intro- 
duced, on  January  15,  1890,  an  arbitration  project  which  contained, 
besides,  declarations  and  stipulations  against  conquest. 

The  Argentine  delegates  were  the  nucleus  of  the  opposition  to  the 
acquisition  of  territory  by  conquest,  and  naturally  were  joined  by  the 
South  American  nations  which  had  lost  territory  in  the  then  recent  war 
with  Chili,  namely,  Peru  and  Bolivia.  The  object  of  the  Argentine 
delegates  was  to  have  the  Conference  declare  that  territory  could  not 
in  any  case,  past  or  future,  be  acquired  as  a  consequence  of  war. 
Such  declaration  would  interfere  with  the  acquisition  by  Chili  of  terri- 
tory belonging  to  Peru  and  Bolivia.  The  United  States  delegate  in 
the  committee  thought  it  inexpedient  that  the  Conference  should  join 
in  any  such  declaration,  among  other  reasons  because  that  would  be 


Brbitration.  65 1 

equivalent  to  condemning  the  acquisition  of  Mexican  territory  after  the 
war  of  1847  and  1848,  and  he  could  not  therefore  join  the  Argentines 
in  accomplishing  that  object. 

The  text  of  the  Argentine  and  Brazilian  project  appears  in  Mr. 
Henderson's  letter  of  B'ebruary  14,  1898,  which  will  be  found  among 
the  documents  (No.  4)  annexed  to  this  paper,  taken  from  the  minutes 
of  the  meeting  of  the  Conference  held  January  15,  1890.  The  Argen- 
tine-Brazilian project  was  referred,  upon  its  presentation,  to  the  Com- 
mittee on  General  Welfare,  and  was  not  reported  by  that  committee ' 
until  April  14th,  near  the  close  of  the  session  of  the  Conference,  which 
finished  its  work  on  the  iSth  and  adjourned  on  the  19th  of  the  same 
month. 

While  this  project  was  in  committee  Mr.  Blaine  had  two  meetings 
with  delegates  at  his  residence;  the  first  one  with  the  representatives 
•of  Chili,  the  Argentine  Republic,  Brazil,  and  Mexico,  whose  views 
were  supposed  not  to  be  in  entire  accord  with  Mr.  Blaine's,  although 
the  Republican  Government  of  Brazil  had  then  authorized  its  delegates 
to  accept  the  broadest  possible  plan  of  arbitration;  and  the  second 
meeting  with  all  the  other  delegates,  who  fully  accepted  the  views  of 
the  Secretary  of  State. 

The  divergence  of  views  between  the  United  States  and  the  Latin- 
American  delegates  about  the  details  of  the  project  was  so  great  that 
Mr.  Blaine  had  to  take  the  matter  into  his  own  hands,  and  summoned 
all  the  members  of  the  Committee  on  General  Welfare  to  discuss  the  sub- 
ject with  him  at  his  private  residence,  spending  the  greater  part  of  two 
nights  in  that  work.  He  suggested  several  changes  to  the  Argentine- 
Brazilian  project,  which  had  been  accepted  by  all  the  Latin- Am.erican 
members  of  the  committee,  and  suggested  further,  as  the  only  way  in 
which  matters  could  be  adjusted,  to  divide  the  project  into  two  parts, 
■confining  the  first  to  a  general  arbitration,  and  the  second  to  a  declara- 
tion against  conquest,  which  the  Argentine  delegates  made  a  condition 
sine  qtia  non  to  accept  arbitration. 

After  the  committee  had  accepted  Mr.  Blaine's  suggestion  they 
agreed  upon  a  draft  for  the  first  project,  which  when  completed  was 
handed  to  Mr.  Curtis  with  instructions  to  have  a  clean  copy  made  of 
the  same  and  submit  it  to  Mr.  Elaine  for  his  information.  Mr.  Curtis 
did  so  and  Mr.  Blaine  amended  it  considerably,  and  with  such  amend- 
ments, and  others  afterward  made,  it  was  reported  by  the  committee. 
Mr.  Curtis  keeps  in  his  office  in  this  city  (Washington)  the  original  type- 

'  The  verbal  incorrections  which  are  noticed  in  the  Plan  of  Arbitration  as  re- 
ported by  the  committee,  were  due  to  the  fact  that  Seiior  Cruz,  the  Guatemalean 
delet^ate  to  the  Conference,  and  a  member  of  the  Committee  of  General  Welfare,  was 
entrusted  to  put  into  English  the  Spanish  text  of  the  project,  who,  although  a  good 
linguist  and  having  a  fair  knowledge  of  the  English  language,  was  not  then  entirely 
proficient  in  the  same. 


652  Zbc  lpan=Bmcrtcan  Conference. 

written  copy  of  the  project  as  agreed  upon  by  the  committee,  with 
the  amendments  made  by  Mr.  Blaine  in  his  own  handwriting,  and  he 
has  kindly  allowed  me  to  make  a  facsimile  of  the  first  page  of  that 
paper  (Document  No.  5  of  the  Appendix),  which  was  the  one  most 
substantially  amended,  and  from  which  it  appears  exactly  how  much 
and  how  materially  the  Argentine-Brazilian  project  was  altered  by  Mr. 
Blaine,  and  shows  at  the  same  time  the  trend  of  his  mind  on  the 
subject  of  arbitration  and  the  interest  he  took  in  the  same.  At  Mr. 
Blaine's  request  Mr.  Henderson  signed  the  report  of  the  committee 
as  modified  and  approved  by  Mr.  Blaine. 

On  the  14th  of  April,  1890,  the  report  of  the  committee,  bearing 
date  of  the  9th,  was  presented  to  the  Conference,  and  was  first  discussed 
and  approved  under  the  rule  called  in  Spanish  "  Discusion  en  lo  gene- 
ral," which  in  English  might  be  "  discussion  on  the  whole,"  and  by 
which  the  adoption  of  the  general  idea  of  a  measure  is  first  discussed, 
since,  if  that  idea  is  not  accepted,  it  is  useless  to  enter  into  its  details, 
and  if  the  idea  is  accepted  then  the  discussion  and  approval  of  the 
details  of  the  measure  are  in  order,  under  our  parliamentary  practice 
accepted  by  the  rules  of  the  Conference.  The  project  reported  by 
the  committee  was  approved  on  the  whole  on  the  day  of  its  presenta- 
tion, as  were  also  the  first  eleven  articles,  excepting  the  2d  and  4th, 
which  were  discussed  and  approved  at  the  meeting  of  the  Conference 
which  took  place  on  the  i6th  of  April.  The  Preamble  was  consid- 
erably modified,  and  it  was  finally  approved  at  the  meeting  of  the  17th. 

The  Argentine  delegates  voted  in  favor  of  arbitration  when  the 
project  was  discussed  on  the  whole  ;  but  when  the  final  vote  on  the 
specific  project  proposed  by  the  committee  was  submitted  to  the  Con- 
ference on  April  i8th,  they  abstained  from  voting. 

The  fact  that  Mr.  Henderson  did  not  sign  the  report  on  the  right 
of  conquest,  that  it  had  suffered  substantial  changes  from  the  form  in 
which  it  was  presented  by  the  Argentine  delegates,  and  the  fear  that 
after  the  agreement  was  signed  it  might  not  be  ratified  by  the  con- 
tracting parties,  were,  in  all  probability,  the  causes  why  they  did  not 
vote  for  the  arbitration  plan  nor  sign  the  respective  treaty.  Mr.  Hen- 
derson's refusal  came  near  causing  a  failure  of  arbitration,  and  to  avoid 
such  failure  Mr.  Blaine  had  to  accept  the  scheme  against  conquest. 

Before  the  arbitration  project  was  finally  approved,  important 
changes  were  made  in  the  same,  which  appear  in  Document  No.  8  of 
the  Appendix  to  this  paper,  which  is  the  text  of  the  treaty  signed  in 
Washington  April  28,  1890.  This  treaty  as  well  as  two  other  recom- 
mendations of  the  Conference  were  submitted  to  Congress  by  the 
President  with  his  Message  of  September  3,  1890. 

At  the  meeting  of  April  i8th  the  Committee  on  General  Welfare 
presented  their  project  against  conquest,  the  final  text  of  that  project 


Bilntration.  653 

being  approved  in  very  different  shape  from  that  in  which  it  was  re- 
ported by  the  committee.  In  the  annexed  document,  No.  7,  appears 
the  text  as  reported  by  the  committee,  and  in  No.  8  the  text  of  the 
project  as  approved  by  the  Conference. 

The  Conference  also  approved  a  recommendation  to  the  European 
nations  to  accept  the  principle  of  arbitration,  which  appears  among 
the  papers  embraced  in  Document  No.  8. 

The  report  of  the  committee  was  presented  to  the  Conference  so 
late  that  it  could  only  be  taken  up  partially  in  three  meetings,  and 
there  was  not  sufficient  time  to  consider  it  carefully,  or  even  to  adopt 
verbal  amendments  which  were  necessary  to  make  it  more  clear  and 
precise.  It  can  therefore  be  properly  said  that  there  was  no  discussion 
on  the  subject  of  arbitration,  since  the  delegates  could  only  give  their 
views  in  the  debate  which  followed  for  the  purpose  of  explaining  their 
votes  and  the  position  of  their  respective  Governments. 

From  what  I  heard  at  the  time  especially  from  Sefior  Quintana,  and 
judging  from  the  natural  disposition  of  Mr.  Henderson  to  be  deliberate 
and  careful  in  anything  he  does,  I  thought,  and  expressed  in  rather 
harsh  terms  in  the  first  edition  of  this  paper,  that  he  was  responsible 
for  the  delay  of  the  Committee  of  General  Welfare  in  reporting  to  the 
Conference  the  arbitration  project.  When  my  article  was  published, 
Mr.  Henderson  told  me  that  I  had  done  him  an  injustice,  and  that  he 
was  in  no  way  responsible  for  that  delay.  I  assured  him  that  I  did 
not  have  any  intention  to  be  unfair  to  him  or  to  anybody  else  con- 
nected with  the  Conference,  and  that  if  he  would  do  me  the  favor  of 
writing  a  memorandum  of  the  case,  I  would  publish  it  at  once  as  a 
correction  of  my  statement.  He  did  not  do  so  at  the  time,  and  when 
I  was  preparing  the  present  edition  of  this  paper,  I  begged  of  him  again 
to  make  his  statement  of  the  case,  and  he  kindly  sent  me  a  letter  con- 
taining the  history  of  his  connection  with  the  arbitration  project 
presented  by  the  committee  of  which  he  was  chairman,  with  two 
enclosures,  which  in  justice  to  Mr.  Henderson  I  published  in  the 
North  American  Review  for  April,  1898,  so  that  those  who  had 
read  my  article  could  read  Mr.  Henderson's  explanation,  and  I  now 
append  to  this  paper  what  I  published  in  that  Review.  (Document 
No.  4.) 

Mr.  Blaine  desired  that  the  delegates  who  had  accepted  the  report 
of  the  committee  should  sign  it  in  the  shape  of  a  treaty  before  the  Con- 
ference closed  its  sessions.  His  grounds  were  that  Article  I.  of  the  Act 
convening  the  Conference  mentioned  as  its  principal  object  the  con- 
sideration and  recommendation  of  a  plan  of  arbitration.  Several  dele- 
gates, among  them  the  Argentines,  were  of  the  opinion  that  this  subject 
ought  not  to  be  disconnected  from  the  others,  and  were  willing  to  sign 
in  the  shape  of  a  treaty  the  recommendation  relative  to  arbitration, 


654  ^be  |pan*Biuerican  Contcrcnce. 

provided  all  the  other  recommendations  adopted  by  the  Conference 
were  signed  at  the  same  time.  As  there  was  no  time  to  engross  all 
of  them,  the  formality  of  signature  was,  on  motion  of  a  delegate  from 
the  United  States,  limited  to  that  concerning  arbitration,  and  this  con- 
stituted another  reason  why  the  Argentine  delegates  would  not  sign  it. 
Other  delegates  who  would  have  signed  the  arbitration  project  in  the 
shape  of  a  recommendation  did  not  consider  themselves  authorized  to 
sign  it  in  the  shape  of  a  treaty,  and  this  explains  why  some  of  the 
delegates  who  voted  for  the  agreement  did  not  sign  the  treaty.  On 
that  occasion  Mr.  Blaine's  earnestness  carried  him  so  far  that  he 
thought  it  necessary  to  come  down  from  the  chair  and  take  the  place 
of  a  delegate  in  supporting  the  motion,  which  was  finally  carried.' 

After  the  Conference  approved  the  arbitration  project  on  the  i8th 
of  April,  1890,  it  was  necessary  to  engross  the  same  in  the  form  of  a 
treaty  written  in  the  four  languages  spoken  by  the  American  nations,, 
namely,  English,  Spanish,  Portuguese,  and  French  ;  and  after  the 
proper  translations  were  made,  a  work  done  at  the  State  Department^ 
Mr.  Blaine  ordered  twenty-five  copies  of  the  same  printed  at  the  Gov- 
ernment Printing  Office,  on  large  paper,  with  four  parallel  columns, 
one  of  them  for  each  of  the  respective  languages,  and  when  all  this 
work  was  finished,  the  treaty  was  signed  at  the  State  Department  on 
April  28,  1890,  exactly  in  the  shape  in  which  it  appears  in  Document 
No.  8  of  the  Appendix  to  this  paper.  The  treaty  was  signed  by  the 
representatives  of  the  Governments  of  Bolivia,  Ecuador,  Guatemala, 
Hayti,  Honduras,  Nicaragua,  Salvador,  the  United  States  of  America, 
the  United  States  of  Brazil,  the  United  States  of  Venezuela,  and  Uru- 
guay. The  States  that  failed  to  sign  the  treaty  were,  therefore,  Mexico, 
Costa  Rica,  Colombia,  Peru,  Chili,  the  Argentine  Republic,  and  Para- 
guay. The  Costa  Rican  delegate  left  Washington  before  the  treaty  was 
signed,  and  the  Venezuelan  delegates  received  instructions  to  sign  the 
treaty  after  it  had  been  executed  by  the  other  delegates. 

As  Article  XIX.  of  the  treaty  provided  that  the  ratifications  of  the 
same  should  be  exchanged  in  Washington  on  or  before  the  ist  day  of 
May,  1891,  and  as  that  time  expired  before  the  treaty  could  be  ratified 
by  the  respective  nations,  another  convention  extending  the  time  for 
such  a  purpose  was  signed  in  Washington  on  October  22,  1891.  The 
only  Governments  which  signified  to  the  United  States  Government 

■  In  a  paper  which  1  published  in  the  Bulletin  of  the  American  Geographical 
Society,  of  New  York,  for  September  30,  1897,  vol.  xxix.,  No.  3,  entitled,  '^  jMr. 
Blaine  and  the  Boundary  Question  bctrvecn  Mexico  and  Guatemala,''  I  stated  at  length 
how  earnest  a  friend  of  arbitration  Mr.  Blaine  was,  and  how  hard  he  worked  to  substi- 
tute arbitration  for  war  in  the  settlement  of  international  disputes,  making  this  almost 
the  object  of  his  life,  and  how  his  devotion  to  arbitration  shown  on  different  occasions 
and  under  very  different  circumstances  enlisted  his  sympathies  in  favor  of  Guatemala 
in  our  boundary  question  with  that  State. 


Brbitration.  655 

their  willingness  to  renew  the  treaty  were  Ecuador,  Guatemala,  Hon- 
duras, Venezuela,  Nicaragua,  Salvador,  and  Bolivia. 

I  understood  the  treaty  had  been  submitted  to  the  United  States 
Senate  for  its  ratification  ;  but  after  having  made  inquiries  on  the  sub- 
ject I  found  that  it  was  never  sent  to  the  Senate.  I  cannot  understand, 
knowing  as  I  do  how  earnest  a  friend  of  arbitration,  and  how  anxious 
to  have  it  reduced  to  a  tangible  shape  in  the  form  of  a  treaty,  Mr. 
Blaine  was,  that  when  the  treaty  was  actually  signed,  at  his  earnest 
request  and  through  his  decided  efforts,  he  should  leave  it  in  the  files 
of  the  State  Department,  without  sending  it  to  the  Senate  as  is  always 
done  with  all  treaties  negotiated  by  representatives  of  the  United 
States  Government,  unless  disapproved  by  the  President.  When  he 
had  it  in  his  power  as  Secretary  of  State  to  submit  the  same  to  the 
Senate,  it  is  beyond  my  comprehension  why  he  did  not  do  so.  Pos- 
sibly President  Harrison  objected  to  the  treaty,  and  that  may  be  the 
explanation  of  his  failure. 

Although  Mr.  Blaine  was  the  leading  spirit  of  the  arbitration  pro- 
ject, he  cannot  be  considered  as  the  author  of  the  form  in  which  it  was 
finally  approved  by  the  Conference,  because  he  had  to  give  up  much 
for  the  purpose  of  securing  the  acceptance  of  the  principle  of  arbitra- 
tion; but  the  Preamble  to  that  paper  was  due  almost  entirely  to  him. 

The  population,  territorial  extension,  trade,  wealth,  and  advanced 
civilization  of  the  United  States  make  them  the  greatest  and  most  pow- 
erful nation  on  this  continent,  and  on  this  account  they  had  decided 
advantages  over  some  of  the  smaller  nations,  which  they  could  easily 
bring  to  bear  in  case  of  difficulties  with  them.  The  plan  approved  by 
the  Conference  deprived  them  of  all  these  advantages,  and  placed  them 
in  the  same  position  as  the  weakest  American  nation.  It  is  true  that 
this  agreement,  equitable  as  it  is  in  all  its  bearings,  as  all  the  countries 
participate  in  it  under  the  most  absolute  equality,  might  be  used  here- 
after in  establishing  the  preponderance  of  the  United  States;  but  should 
they  have  intended  to  undertake  this,  they  would  not  have  been  willing 
to  bind  themselves  by  an  agreement  which  they  would  have  to  break 
more  or  less  openly  before  they  could  take  other  steps.  This  appeared 
so  clear  to  my  mind  that  when  the  agreement  was  made  I  expressed 
the  opinion  that  it  would  not  be  ratified  by  the  Senate  of  the  United 
States. 

I  was  sure  that  a  treaty  of  arbitration  which  had  been  approved  in 
such  a  hasty  manner,  and  in  my  opinion  without  due  deliberation  and 
without  fully  considering  the  serious  objections  presented  against  it, 
would  not  be  approved  by  the  Senate  of  the  United  States,  and  I  so 
expressed  in  the  first  edition  of  this  paper  published  in  October,  1890. 
My  prediction  could  not  be  fully  verified,  because  the  treaty  was  not 
submitted  to  the  Senate  for  ratification,  and  to  my  surprise  not  only 


656  Xlbe  lpan*Bmer(can  Conference. 

the  United  States  but  other  governments  whose  delegates  signed  the 
treaty  did  not  ratify  it,  and  so  the  treaty  failed. 

Since  that  time  the  arbitration  views  of  the  United  States  Govern- 
ment have  received  a  great  set-back  in  the  rejection  by  the  Senate  of  the 
United  States  on  May  5,  1897,  of  the  Treaty  of  Arbitration  with  Great 
Britain  signed  in  Washington  on  January  nth  of  the  same  year.  It 
seems  to  me  that  if  the  United  States  are  not  willing  to  enter  into  a 
general  plan  of  arbitration  with  a  nation  at  least  as  powerful  as  them- 
selves it  is  not  likely  that  they  will  do  so  with  smaller  and  weaker  nations. 
I  am  sure,  however,  that  the  arbitration  idea  will  be  developed,  begin- 
ning in  a  limited  way,  until  finally,  possibly  after  some  centuries,  it  may 
supersede  war. 

Mexico  on  the  Treaty  of  General  Arbitration. — The  Mexican  Gov- 
ernment did  not  look  with  good-will,  for  obvious  reasons,  upon  the 
idea  of  forced  and  unrestricted  arbitration;  and  as  Article  XXI.  of 
the  treaty  of  February  2,  1848,  between  Mexico  and  the  United  States 
provided  ample  arbitration  with  this  country,  Mexico  thought  it  prudent 
not  to  have  it  extended  any  further,  and  instructed  its  delegates  ac- 
cordingly. We  did  not  intend,  therefore,  to  take  any  part  in  the 
discussion  on  this  subject,  but  only  to  cast  our  votes  in  accordance  with 
our  instructions  when  the  question  came  up.  But  when  the  Mexican 
Government  heard  that  several  South  American  nations  were  disposed 
to  go  much  farther  than  Mexico  in  the  premises,  not  wishing  to  appear 
in  disaccord  with  her  sister  Republics,  it  authorized  its  delegates  to  ex- 
tend the  scope  of  arbitration,  but  not  to  accept  it  without  limitation. 

I  had,  however,  to  give  up  the  intention  of  taking  a  passive  position 
on  this  question,  because  the  Secretary  of  State  requested  me  particu- 
larly to  prepare  a  draft  of  arbitration,  which,  in  my  opinion,  would  be 
acceptable  to  the  Mexican  Government  and  the  Latin- American  States 
which  were  not  disposed  to  accept  arbitration  without  limitation.  I 
stated  to  him,  with  all  candor  and  sincerity,  the  obstacles  which  were 
in  the  way  of  my  drafting  a  project  which  I  was  not  sure  would  have 
the  support  even  of  my  own  Government ;  but,  in  order  not  to  disregard 
his  repeated  requests,  and  because  I  thought  that  I  might  possibly  draft 
something  which  would  be  acceptable  to  all,  I  consented  to  take  up  the 
matter  and  to  speak  on  the  subject  with  several  of  my  colleagues. 
Soon  afterwards,  however,  I  found  that  the  difficulties  in  the  way  of 
coming  to  a  general  agreement  were  insurmountable,  and  I  wholly 
gave  up  the  attempt.  When  the  report  of  the  committee  was  discussed 
in  the  Conference  the  Mexican  delegates  expressed  only  the  opinion 
of  their  Government,  and  voted  in  accordance  with  their  instructions, 
when  they  had  specific  instructions,  or  with  what  they  understood  to 
be  the  wishes  of  their  Government  on  new  points  regarding  which  there 
had  been  no  time  to  receive  instructions. 


/IDcjico  on  tbe  Ureat^  of  (Beneral  Hrbitration.      657 

There  were  besides  some  subjects  connected  with  arbitration  which 
were  looked  upon  in  a  very  different  way  by  Mexico  and  the  South 
American  nations.  I  refer  to  boundary  questions,  and,  in  fact,  to  all 
territorial  questions.  In  the  immense  territorial  area,  very  thinly  popu- 
lated, of  the  South  American  nations,  their  people  being  of  a  homo- 
geneous race  and  having  the  same  religion,  habits,  and  language,  and 
those  nations  not  having,  as  a  general  rule,  clearly  marked  territorial 
limits,  the  boundary  questions  which  have  sprung  up  among  them 
are  relatively  of  little  importance.  A  district  of  land  practically 
uninhabited  does  not  diminish  in  any  perceptible  manner  the  domain 
of  the  nation  that  may  lose  it,  nor  increase  greatly  the  power  of  the 
nation  which  may  acquire  it,  nor  make  any  material  change  of  language, 
habits,  education,  social  condition,  and  political  status  of  its  inhabit- 
ants. This  is  not  the  case  as  between  Mexico  and  the  United  States, 
because  they  are  countries  inhabited  by  different  races,  speaking  differ- 
ent languages,  having  different  customs,  religions,  and  habits,  and  be- 
cause the  proportion  of  population,  wealth,  and  material  strength 
between  them  constitutes  a  very  different  condition  of  things.  The 
boundary  disputes  in  South  America  have  generally  been  decided,  and 
with  a  great  deal  of  reason,  by  arbitration,  and  its  statesmen  hold  the 
view  that,  if  arbitration  is  good  for  anything,  it  is  good  to  end  such 
disputes.  Perhaps  it  is  the  best  way  to  solve  them  in  any  case  ;  but 
to  make  arbitration  obligatory  as  to  all  questions,  including  boundary 
difficulties,  which  may  arise  between  Mexico  and  the  United  States, 
would  be  equivalent  to  placing  Mexico  in  an  unfavorable  position. 
Therefore  so  broad  a  stipulation,  which  is  not  only  desirable,  but  even 
necessary,  in  South  America,  might  well  not  be  accepted  by  Mexico. 
This  explains  why  Mexico  did  not  follow  her  sister-Republics  in  the 
whole  length  to  which  they  were  willing  to  go  on  this  subject. 

Subsequent  action  by  the  United  States  on  the  subject  justifies  the 
position  of  Mexico  in  this  case.  The  United  States  has  had  since  the 
arbitration  treaty  was  signed,  serious  questions  threatening  war,  with 
various  countries,  as  with  Chili  in  1891,  growing  out  of  the  Val- 
paraiso riot  which  resulted  in  the  wounding  of  some  sailors  of  the 
United  States  cruiser  Baltifnore.  Chili  proposed  arbitration  to  settle 
that  difficulty,  and  it  was  not  accepted  by  President  Harrison.  In  a 
later  question  which  unfortunately  could  not  be  settled  by  peaceful 
means,  arbitration  was  again  proposed  and  refused  by  this  govern- 
ment. The  reason  that  questions  affecting  the  honor  of  a  country  are 
not  fit  subjects  for  arbitration  was  not  mentioned  in  either  of  those  two 
cases,  but  I  have  no  doubt  that  it  was  the  controlling  reason  which  de- 
cided the  policy  of  this  Government  in  both  instances,  and  that  was 
exactly  the  position  assumed  by  Mexico  on  the  subject  in  the  Pan- 
American  Conference  when  arbitration  was  discussed. 


658  Xibe  iPau^Hmericaii  Conference. 

Reciprocity  Treaties. — Reciprocity  treaties  have  a  great  rdle  to  per- 
form in  the  development  of  commercial  relations  between  the  Spanish- 
American  nations  and  the  United  States,  but,  unfortunately,  public 
opinion  is  not  yet  prepared  in  this  country  to  accept  them.  The  sub- 
ject of  reciprocity  is  far  more  complicated  than  it  appears  to  be,  since 
it  has  become  connected  with  the  protection  and  free-trade  questions 
which  are  now  so  earnestly  agitated  in  this  country.  The  United 
States,  as  an  eminently  Anglo-Saxon  nation,  has  always  followed, 
although  sometimes  with  slowness,  the  footsteps  of  the  mother-country, 
in  many  cases  even  going  beyond  her;  and,  although  thus  far  they  do 
not  seem  disposed  to  accept  free  trade,  which  has  done  so  much  to 
secure  the  commercial  preponderance  of  England,  I  have  no  doubt 
that  before  long  they  will  not  remain  behind  Great  Britain  in  this  re- 
gard; but  as  the  ultra-protective  policy  prevails  here  at  present,  it  is 
not  possible  to  establish  and  maintain  reciprocity  successfully.  The 
United  States,  from  an  agricultural  country  which  it  was  a  few  years 
ago,  has  reached  the  condition  of  a  manufacturing  one,  and  in  this 
stage  is  making  very  rapid  strides.  Now  when  the  production  of  man- 
ufactured articles  is  exceeding  the  needs  of  the  home  market,  the 
foundation  of  the  protective  system  is  receiving  a  great  blow;  produc- 
tion is  now  cheapened;  new  foreign  markets  are  now  sought  for  the 
surplus  products;  and  when  all  this  is  attained,  this  country  will  be  a 
great  commercial  nation.  Reciprocity  treaties  will  represent  the  trans- 
ition between  these  two  stages,  and  until  the  second  is  fully  attained 
there  will  be  many  difficulties  in  the  way. 

The  fate  of  the  reciprocity  treaty  signed  with  Mexico  in  1883 
demonstrates  the  correctness  of  this  view.  That  treaty,  which  was 
initiated  by  this  Government,  was  made  with  a  country  contiguous 
to  it  for  nearly  two  thousand  miles,  inhabited  by  twelve  millions  of 
people,  who  produce,  in  proportion  to  their  population,  very  few  man- 
ufactured articles,  but  who  have  all  the  elements  of  soil,  climate,  and 
labor  necessary  to  produce  the  raw  materials  needed  by  the  manufac- 
turing industries  of  the  United  States.  That  nation,  too,  is  connected 
with  the  United  States  by  four  trunk  railways  built  by  United  States 
companies,  which  are  really  extensions  and  feeders  of  the  trunk  lines 
of  this  country.  It  is  clear  that,  if  reciprocity  could  not  be  established 
with  Mexico,  much  less  can  it  be  adopted  with  the  other  American 
nations,  which  have  not  as  favorable  conditions,  excepting  perhaps 
Brazil,  which  has  developed  a  very  large  trade  with  the  United 
States.  It  has  been  found  impossible  to  carry  out  the  reciprocity 
treaty  with  Mexico,  which  was  intended,  by  the  exemption  of  duty  on 
Mexican  sugar,  to  open  new  sources  of  production  and  trade. 
Moreover,  the  tariff  Act  of  October  i,  1890,  intended  to  close  this 
market  to  the  chief  article  of  Mexican  export — silver  in  lead-ore, — an 


IReciprocit^  tTreaties.  659 

industry  which  was  developed  by  the  construction  of  railroads  in 
Mexico,  this  ore  being  the  principal  article  that  they  transport,  and 
which  was  encouraged  and  increased  by  the  capital  and  skill  of 
this  country. 

The  main  reason  why  the  reciprocity  treaty  with  Mexico  was  not 
put  in  operation  was  the  opposition  to  receiving,  free  of  duty,  Mexican 
sugar,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that,  as  compensation  for  such  advant- 
age, Mexico  made  valuable  concessions  to  this  country;  and  yet  in  the 
Tariff  Bill  enacted  October  i,  189c,  foreign  sugar  was  exempted  from 
all  import  duties,  without  any  compensation  or  advantage  in  favor  of 
the  national  production  of  other  articles. 

Reciprocity  was,  undoubtedly,  the  subject  most  fully  considered  in 
the  Conference,  and  the  one  which  commanded  the  most  earnest  atten- 
tion. The  committee  agreed  as  to  the  difficulty  of  establishing  a 
customs  union,  in  the  sense  of  a  Zollvcrein,  and  as  to  the  desirability 
of  making  reciprocity  treaties  to  promote  trade  between  the  respective 
countries.  On  the  latter  point,  however,  the  committee  was  divided,  as 
the  Brazilian,  Colombian,  Venezuelan,  Nicaraguan,  and  Mexican  mem- 
bers of  it  recommended  the  negotiation  of  such  treaties,  not  upon  a  uni- 
form basis,  but  in  accordance  with  the  circumstances  and  needs  of  each 
country,  while  the  Argentine  and  Chilian  delegates  thought  it  officious- 
ness  on  the  part  of  the  Conference  to  make  any  such  recommendation. 
The  Argentine  Government  had  favored  reciprocity  treaties,  as  in 
1875  it  proposed  to  the  United  States  the  negotiation  of  one,  and  the 
same  suggestion  was  renewed  by  the  Argentine  delegation  to  the  chair- 
man of  the  United  States  delegation  in  the  Conference,  as  stated  in  the 
discussion  by  Senor  Saenz  Pena,  an  Argentine  delegate  who  was  a 
member  of  that  committee,  who  also  favored  reciprocity  personally, 
but  he  did  not  think  that  the  Conference  had  authority,  under  the  law 
convening  it,  to  consider  the  subject  of  reciprocity,  as  it  was  not  men- 
tioned in  the  program  of  its  labors.  He  therefore  did  not  sign  the 
report  of  the  majority,  and  made  with  Senor  Alfonso  a  minority  report. 

The  essential  difference  between  the  views  of  the  majority  and  the 
minority  of  the  committee  was  that  the  majority  thought  that  they  ought 
not  to  discourage  the  negotiation  of  reciprocity  treaties,  even  if  this 
was  only  for  the  purpose  of  leaving  on  the  United  States  the  respon- 
sibility of  their  failure,  while  the  minority  preferred  not  to  commit 
itself  to  any  given  policy,  leaving  the  whole  matter  to  the  respective 
governments,  although  in  reality  they  seemed  convinced  of  the  advan- 
tage of  such  treaties  and  wished  to  negotiate  them. 

The  discussion  on  this  subject  in  the  Conference  was  carried  on 
mainly  between  the  delegates  of  the  Argentine  Republic  and  of  the 
United  States,  who  were  members  of  the  committee;  but  the  economic 
policy  of  both  countries  rather  than   that   of  negotiating  reciprocity 


66o  Zbc  ipan^american  Contci-euce. 

treaties  was  the  subject  really  discussed.  The  Conference  finally  ap- 
proved the  recommendation  of  the  majority  in  favor  of  such  treaties, 
and  refused  to  give  a  vote  against  customs  union,  because  they  re- 
garded this  as  a  step  which  might  be  misunderstood,  in  the  sense  of 
acting  against  one  of  the  objects  of  the  law  convening  the  Conference, 
and  because  the  United  States  delegates  were  among  the  first  to  ac- 
knowledge the  impracticability  of  such  a  union.  The  minority  had 
to  reconsider  the  abrupt  manner  in  which  they  rejected  the  customs 
union. 

Mr.  Blaine  attached  a  great  deal  of  importance  to  this  matter,  and 
the  deep  interest  he  finally  took  in  it  was  only  revealed  several  months 
after  the  adjournment  of  the  Conference.  Conscious  of  the  many  ad- 
vantages which  would  accrue  to  his  country  by  the  negotiation  of  such 
treaties,  he  did  all  that  was  in  his  power  before  the  Committee  on 
Ways  and  Means  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  which  was  at  the 
time  preparing  the  tariff  bill  approved  by  the  President,  October  i, 
1890,  to  induce  it  to  leave  the  duties  on  sugar  as  a  good  basis  to  ne- 
gotiate such  treaties.  The  official  and  private  utterances  of  Mr.  Blaine, 
which  soon  afterwards  were  made  public,  show  very  plainly  the  great 
importance  he  attached  to  the  subject,  and  the  interest  he  felt  in  it  was 
so  great  that  he  even  went  so  far  as  to  antagonize  his  own  political 
party.  For  the  failure  of  reciprocity  treaties  he,  therefore,  cannot  be 
responsible.  The  Argentine  delegates,  who  were  not  aware  of  all  his 
efforts,  very  likely  thought  that  he  was  indifferent  to  this  matter,  but 
subsequent  events  have  shown  that  this  was  not  the  case,  although  I 
understand  that  he  did  not  favor  free  wool,  which  was  what  they  desired. 

Mr.  Blaine's  suggestions  in  favor  of  reciprocity  made  to  the  Com- 
mittee on  Ways  and  Means  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  with  a 
view  to  favor  reciprocity  with  the  Latin-American  countries,  were  not 
accepted,  and  instead  of  that,  sugar,  which  was  the  principal  induce- 
ment that  the  United  States  could  offer  to  those  nations,  was  placed  in 
the  free  list. 

Instead  of  the  commercial  reciprocity,  as  understood  in  the  treaties 
with  Canada,  concluded  June  5,  1854,  with  the  Hawaiian  Islands  on 
January  30,  1875,  and  the  unexecuted  treaty  with  Mexico  of  January 
20,  1883,  namely,  the  admission  into  the  United  States  free  of  duty  of 
commodities  produced  in  the  Latin-American  countries  paying  high 
duties  under  the  tariff  bill,  and  vice  versa.,  which  was  equivalent  to  a 
partial  free  trade  applicable  only  to  a  few  commodities,  and  which  was 
what  Mr.  Blaine  recommended  to  the  Committee  on  Ways  and  Means  of 
the  House  of  Representatives,  Congress  approved  a  measure  which  was 
really  retaliation  instead  of  reciprocity,  namely,  that  whenever  the 
President  should  be  satisfied  that  the  government  of  any  country  pro- 
ducing  and  exporting  sugars,  molasses,   coffee,  tea,  and  hides,  raw 


IRedprocit^  ZTreaties.  66i 

and  uncured,  or  any  of  such  articles,  imposed  duties  or  other  exactions 
upon  the  agricultural  or  other  products  of  the  United  States,  which  in 
view  of  the  introduction  of  such  articles  into  the  United  States  he 
raiglit  deem  to  be  reciprocally  unequal  and  unreasonable,  he  should 
have  the  power  to  suspend  the  free  importation  of  such  articles  into 
the  United  States,  for  such  time  as  he  should  deem  just,  and  to  levy  a 
duty  upon  the  same,  which  was  specified  in  Section  3  of  the  Tariff  Act 
of  October  i,  1890. 

I  can  say  with  perfect  certainty  that  none  of  the  Latin-American 
countries  ever  established  import  duties  with  a  view  to  discriminate 
against  the  United  States,  and  that  if  sometimes  they  levy  high  duties 
on  commodities  from  this  country,  which  are  paid  also  by  similar  com- 
modities from  other  countries,  it  is  because  they  need  such  duties  as 
revenue  to  defray  their  public  expenses,  and  in  no  manner  are  they  in- 
tended to  discriminate  against  the  United  States  or  to  act  as  an 
obstacle  to  the  trade  with  this  country. 

The  United  States  succeeded  through  their  able  diplomacy  in 
making  reciprocity  agreements  with  Brazil  on  January  31,  1891,  and 
Spain  in  behalf  of  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico  on  June  16,  1891.  As  the 
largest  portion  of  the  sugar  and  coffee  imported  into  the  United  States 
came  respectively  from  Cuba  and  Brazil,  the  other  American  countries 
which  exported  those  products  had  either  to  enter  into  similar  reci- 
procity agreements  or  be  subject  to  a  differential  duty,  and  many  of 
them  had  to  accept  the  very  slight  advantage  offered  by  that  tariff. 
The  European  nations  which  had  colonies  in  America  producing 
sugar  and  coffee  had  also,  for  the  same  reasons,  to  enter  into  similar 
arrangements. 

Mexico,  Colombia,  Venezuela,  the  Argentine  Republic,  Hayti,  and 
other  nations  did  not  enter  into  any  diplomatic  agreement, — some, 
like  Mexico,  because  they  thought  there  was  not  sufficient  compensa- 
tion in  the  reciprocity  provisions  of  the  tariff,  and  others,  like  Co- 
lombia and  Venezuela,  because  they  depended  almost  exclusively  on 
their  import  duties  and  could  not  possibly  reduce  them.  President 
i(d  Harrison  issued  a  proclamation  on  tlie  15th  of  March,  1892,  levying 
differential  duties  of  three  cents  per  pound  on  the  coffee  imported 
from  Colombia,  Venezuela,  and  Hayti. 

I  have  reason  to  know  that  neither  of  the  countries  which  entered 
into  such  agreements  were  at  all  satisfied  with  them,  and  in  fact  the 
Brazilian  agreement  was  the  source  of  great  dissatisfaction  to  the  people 
of  that  country  and  of  severe  censure  to  Sefior  Mendon9a,  the  Brazilian 
Minister  in  Washington,  who  negotiated  it.  Senor  Mendon^a  stated 
that  Mr.  Blaine  had  promised  him  that  he  would  not  make  reciprocity 
agreements  in  so  far  as  sugar  was  concerned  with  any  other  country, 
which  would  have  given  to  Brazil  the  monopoly  of  the  sugar  trade  with 


662  XLbc  pan^Biticncan  Conterence. 

the  United  States,  this  being  the  principal  inducement  which  the 
Brazilian  Government  had  to  accept  the  agreement;  but  when  this  fact 
was  brought  unofficially  to  the  notice  of  Mr.  Blaine,  he  denied  having 
ever  made  any  such  promise. 

President  Cleveland  was  understood  not  to  be  in  favor  of  the  re- 
ciprocity agreement,  but  he  could  not  take  upon  himself  the  respon- 
sibility of  nullifying  them  by  a  mere  executive  act.  This  object  was 
attained  however,  by  the  tariff  bill  of  August  28,  1894,  which  termi- 
nated said  agreements  by  ignoring  them. 

Sections  3d  and  4th  of  the  tariff  Act  approved  on  July  24, 1897,  now  in 
force,  gives  a  larger  scope  for  reciprocity  agreements,  but  even  that  does 
not  have  enough  inducement  for  the  American  countries  to  enter  into 
such  agreements,  and  I  am  not  aware  that  so  far  any  has  been  made. 

There  is  an  impression  in  this  country  that  the  Latin-American 
nations  were  very  well  satisfied  with  the  reciprocity  agreements  and 
that  they  were  very  anxious  to  renew  them,  but  I  know  that  impression 
is  ungrounded.  Some  of  the  American  republics  have  the  impression 
that  through  reciprocity  they  may  obtain  a  very  large  reduction  of 
duties,  as  compared  with  other  nations,  on  the  sugar  imported  to  the 
United  States,  and  that  is  the  reason  why  some  of  them  are  favorably 
disposed  to  make  such  agreements. 

The  result  proves  very  clearly  how  little  the  real  condition  of  things 
was  appreciated  by  some  of  the  manufacturing  nations  of  Europe,  when 
they  feared  that  the  outcome  of  the  Conference  might  be  the  negotia- 
tion by  the  United  States  of  reciprocity  treaties  with  American  republics 
that  might  interfere  with  their  own  existing  commercial  relations. 

Lasting  Results  of  the  Conference. — I  consider  as  the  lasting  results 
of  the  Pan-American  Conference;  the  railway  project,  out  of  which 
came  a  Railway  Commission  which  has  done  very  important  work; 
the  Monetary  Commission,  which  led  to  the  meeting  of  the  Brussels 
Conference,  although  its  result  so  far  has  been  nugatory;  and  the 
organization  of  the  Bureau  of  American  Republics. 

I  will  speak  especially  of  each  of  these  three  subjects,  and  before 
ending  this  paper  I  will  mention  others  which  the  Conference  took  up 
but  which  were  not  quite  as  important,  namely,  the  Montevideo  Treaties 
and  Commercial  Nomenclature. 

Intercontinental  Railway  Project. — The  Committee  on  this  subject 
appointed  by  the  International  American  Conference  recommended 
that  a  special  International  American  Commission  of  engineers  should 
meet  in  Washington  to  ascertain  the  routes,  determine  their  true 
length,  estimate  the  cost  of  each,  and  compare  their  respective  ad- 
vantages for  the  purpose  of  deciding  upon  the  construction  of  an  inter- 
national railway  connecting  all  the  nations.  That  recommendation, 
which  was  approved  by  the  Conference  on  February  26,  1890,  appears 


Ilntercoutinental  IRailvva^  project.  663 

in  Appendix  No.  8  to  this  paper.  The  Railway  Commission  met  in 
Washington  and  had  its  first  session  at  the  Department  of  State  on 
December  4,  1890.' 

The  Commission  held  eighteen  other  sessions  between  December 
4,  1890,  and  the  2 2d  of  April,  1891,  and  eleven  of  the  American  na- 
tions were  represented  by  delegates,  who  remained  as  the  final  rep- 
resentatives of  their  respective  countries.' 

The  Commission,  after  organization  and  the  appointment  of  the 
necessary  committees,  determined  to  send  as  many  surveying  parties 
into  the  field  as  the  state  of  its  funds  would  permit. 

Before  the  Commission  adjourned  they  left  the  work  to  be  done  in 
the  hands  of  the  Executive  Committee,  composed  of  five  members,  of 
which  Mr.   Cassatt  was  the  chairman.     The  business  of  the  central 

'  The  following  commissioners  were  present  at  the  first  meeting  of  the  Commis- 
sion :  Mr.  A.  J.  Cassatt  and  Mr.  Henry  G.  Davis,  representing  the  United  States  ; 
Senor  Don  Leandro  Fernandez,  representing  Mexico  ;  Seiior  Don  Cli'maco  Calderon, 
Senor  Don  Julio  Rengifo,  and  Senor  Don  C.  Frederico  Parraga,  representing  Colom- 
bia ;  Senor  Don  Matias  Romero,  representing  Ecuador  ;  Mr.  John  Stewart,  represent- 
ing Paraguay  ;  and  Senor  Don  Manuel  Elguera,  representing  Peru. 

As  several  of  the  representatives  of  the  American  Republics  had  not  arrived  at 
Washington  when  the  Conference  met,  the  Secretary  of  State  authorized  their  diplo- 
matic representatives  to  represent  their  respective  countries,  and  in  that  capacity  the 
following  gentlemen  were  present  at  that  meeting  :  Senor  Don  Jacobo  Baiz,  Consul 
General  and  Charge  d'Affaires  of  Guatemala  ;  Senor  Don  Nicanor  Bolet  Peraza,  Envoy 
Extraordinary,  etc.,  from  Venezuela  ;  Dr.  Don  F.  C.  C.  Zegarra,  Envoy  Extraordi- 
nary, etc.,  from  Peru  ;  Senor  Don  J.  G.  do  Amaral  Valente,  Envoy  Extraordinary, 
etc.,  from  Brazil ;  and  Senor  Don  Anselmo  Velio,  Charge  d'Affaires  of  Costa  Rica, 
met  at  the  invitation  of  the  Secretary  of  State,  to  witness  the  proceedings,  in  the  ab- 
sence of  the  Commissioners  from  these  countries. 

The  Mexican  government  sent  to  the  Commission  an  engineer,  but  the  Ecuatorian 
government  did  me  the  honor  of  appointing  me  their  representative,  notwithstanding 
I  was  not  an  engineer,  until  the  special  representative  sent  by  that  government 
reached  Washington,  so  I  was  not  present  at  all  the  meetings  of  the  Conference. 

^  The  following  is  a  list  of  the  permanent  delegates  to  the  railway  convention  : 
Argentina,  by  Senores  Don  Carlos  Agote,  Julio  Krause,  and  Miguel  Tedin  ;  Brazil, 
by  Senores  Don  Pedro  Betim  Paes  Leme,  Francisco  de  Monlevade,  and  Fran- 
cisco Leite  Lobo  Pereira  ;  Colombia,  by  Seiiores  Don  C,  Frederico  Parraga,  Julio 
Rengifo,  and  Climaco  Calderon  ;  Ecuador  and  Peru,  by  Senor  Don  Leffert  L.  Buck  ; 
Guatemala,  by  Senor  Don  Antonio  Batres  ;  Mexico,  by  Senor  Don  Leandro  Fernan- 
dez ;  Paraguay,  by  Mr.  John  Stewart ;  Salvador,  by  Senor  Don  Benjamin  Molina 
Guirola  ;  the  United  States,  by  Messrs.  Alexander  J.  Cassatt,  Henry  G.  Davis,  and 
Richard  C.  Kerens  ;  Uruguay,  by  Senor  Don  Francisco  A.  Lanza,  and  Venezuela,  by 
Seiior  Don  Luis  J.  Blanco.  Seiior  Hector  de  Castro  was  appointed  Secretary  in  Janu- 
ary, 1 891,  but  resigned  to  take  effect  June  30,  1892.  Lieut.  R.  M.  G.  Brown,  U.  S. 
Navy,  was  appointed  Executive  and  Disbursing  Officer,  March  10,  1891,  and  on  the 
20th  of  December,  1892,  the  Executive  Committee  unanimously  elected  Capt.  E.  Z. 
Steever,  U.  S.  Army,  who  had  been  serving  in  the  office  as  engineer  since  April  I, 
1891,  Secretary  of  the  Commission,  the  duties  of  said  position  to  be  performed  in  ad- 
dition to  his  other  duties. 


664  ^be  ipan^Bmerican  Coiucrence, 

office  at  Washington  has  been  conducted  by  Messrs.  A.  J.  Cassatt, 
President,  R.  M.  G.  Brown,  Executive  Officer,  E.  Z.  Steever,  Secre- 
tary. The  amount  of  money  on  hand  only  warranted  the  despatch 
of  three  such  parties,  viz. : 

Corps  No.  I,  composed  ahnost  entirely  of  officers  of  the  U.  S. 
Army,  under  the  command  of  Capt.  E.  Z.  Steever,  U.  S.  Army,  was 
to  proceed  to  Central  America  and  survey  a  line  from  the  w^estern 
boundary  of  Mexico  through  Guatemala,  Salvador,  Honduras,  Nica- 
ragua, and  Costa  Rica,  then  through  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  into 
Colombia  until  it  should  meet  Corps  No.  2,  coming  northward.  Corps 
No.  2,  under  the  direction  of  Mr.  William  F.  Shank,  was  to  proceed 
to  Quito,  Ecuador,  and  thence  survey  northward  to  Colombia  and 
through  that  Republic  and  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  until  it  should  meet 
Corps  No.  I  coming  from  the  north.  Corps  No.  3,  under  Mr.  J. 
Imbrie  Miller,  in  conjunction  with  Corps  No.  2,  was  likewise  to  pro- 
ceed to  Quito  and  thence  survey  southward  through  Ecuador  and  Peru 
to  Lake  Titicaca  on  the  confines  of  Bolivia.  As  already  stated,  the 
above  three  parties  were  the  only  ones  actually  despatched  to  the  field, 
but  the  scheme  of  the  Committee  on  Surveys  included  three  other 
parties  which,  if  funds  permitted,  were  to  be  sent  out  at  a  later  date. 
Party  No.  4  was  to  enter  the  field  by  way  of  the  port  of  Antofagasta, 
Chile,  and,  proceeding  northeasterly,  was  to  begin  its  surveys  near  the 
city  of  Oruro,  Bolivia,  working  towards  La  Paz,  Bolivia,  Puno  and 
Cuzco,  Peru,  until  it  should  meet  Party  No.  3  coming  southward. 
Party  No.  5  was  expected  to  commence  its  surveys  at  Huanchaca, 
Bolivia,  and  work  to  the  neighborhood  of  Potosi,  crossing  the  river 
Pilcomayo,  entering  Brazil  by  way  of  Corumba,  and  extending  its  sur- 
veys via  Coxim  until  a  connection  should  be  made  with  the  railroads 
having  communication  with  the  capital,  Rio  de  Janeiro.  Party  No.  6, 
commencing  its  work  at  Potosi,  Bolivia,  was  to  follow  the  course  of  the 
Pilcomayo  River  and  proceed  towards  Asuncion,  Paraguay,  thus 
making  connection  with  the  railroads  of  that  Republic  and  of  Uruguay. 

The  several  parties  sailed  from  the  United  States  in  the  spring  of 
1891,  and  after  remaining  in  the  field  from  one  and  a  half  to  two  years, 
returned  to  Washington,  and  several  years  were  then  devoted  to  the 
preparation  of  the  necessary  maps,  reduction  of  the  data  collected,  and 
the  preparation  of  the  reports  of  the  chief  engineers.  Each  party  re- 
ported the  feasibility  of  constructing  an  intercontinental  trunk-line, 
although  the  ease  with  which  such  a  line  could  be  constructed  would, 
naturally,  vary  in  different  countries,  according  to  the  character  of  the 
region  traversed  and  the  obstacles  to  be  encountered.  In  Central 
America  the  construction  would  be  comparatively  easy  and  at  a  mod- 
erate cost.  This  would  be  true  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  through 
Colombia  and  into  Ecuador,  and  through  the  latter  Republic  well  into 


/IDonetar^  XHniom  665 

Perii;  but  in  the  southern  section  of  Perd,  where  but  one  route  was 
surveyed,  many  difficulties  were  encountered,  owing  to  the  deep 
chasms  formed  by  several  rivers,  the  direction  of  which  being  nearly 
at  right  angles  to  the  proposed  road,  maximum  grades  would  be  neces- 
sary. However,  there  are  a  number  of  alternative  routes  which  present 
less  difficulties,  although  requiring  a  longer  development.  In  Central 
America,  the  line  from  Ayutla,  on  the  Rio  Suchiate,  to  Rio  Savegre, 
in  Costa  Rica,  would  be  in  length  about  890  miles,  of  which  187  are 
already  built.  A  proposed  location  from  the  Rio  Savegre  through  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama  and  Colombia  to  Quito,  in  Ecuador,  would  be 
1663  miles.  From  Quito,  through  Ecuador  and  Peru,  to  Puno,  on 
Lake  Titicaca,  the  location  proposed  would  be  2170  miles,  of  which 
151  miles  are  already  built. 

The  Commission  has  already  published  the  Minutes  of  the  Com- 
mission in  both  English  and  Spanish,  a  book  of  132  pages  with  a 
map;  Preliminary  Report  of  the  Executive  Committee,  in  both  English 
and  Spanish,  with  five  maps,  dated  January  31,  1893,  and  the  Report 
of  the  Committee  on  Trade  and  Resources,  in  English,  Avhich  documents 
have  already  been  distributed  ;  in  addition  it  has  printed,  in  both 
English  and  Spanish,  the  report  of  Corps  No.  3,  and  its  accompanying 
portfolio  of  maps,  the  report  of  Corps  No.  2  and  a  portfolio  of  maps 
accompanying  the  same,  and  has  nearly  finished  the  report  of  Corps 
No.  I  and  its  portfolio  of  maps.  When  all  these  reports  are  finished  a 
condensed  report  of  the  Commission  proper  will  be  prepared,  giving 
a  summary  of  the  work  accomplished  and  results  attained,  part  of 
which  is  now  in  the  hands  of  the  printer. 

Monetary  U?iion. — The  action  of  the  Conference  on  this  important 
question  was  a  step  backward.  The  law  of  Congress  which  convened 
it  submitted  to  the  Conference  the  consideration  of  the  advisability 
of  "  coining  a  silver  coin  of  the  same  weight  and  fineness,  which 
would  be  a  legal  tender  in  all  the  American  nations."  The  Con- 
ference decided  to  recommend  the  convening  in  Washington  of  another 
special  commission  for  the  purpose  of  deciding  about  the  coining  of 
one  or  more  coins,  without  stating  the  metal  of  which  they  should  be 
coined,  of  the  same  weight  and  fineness,  to  be  used  in  the  nations 
represented  in  the  Conference,  without  stating  whether  they  should  be 
a  legal  tender  in  all  the  countries.  A  majority,  if  not  all,  of  the  Latin- 
American  nations  preferred  the  basis  laid  down  in  the  convening  law, 
but  they  had  to  yield  on  this  point  so  as  to  act  in  accordance  with  the 
United  States,  whose  delegates,  excepting  one,  Mr.  Estee,  were  de- 
cidedly opposed  to  the  coining  of  legal-tender  silver  money. 

In  accordance  with  the  recommendation  of  the  Pan-American  Con- 
ference to  the  effect  that  an  International  American  Commission  should 
be  especially  convened  for  the  purpose  of  considering  the  question  of  a 


666  Zbc  ipan^american  Conference. 

monetary  union  among  themselves,  President  Harrison  sent  invitations 
to  the  American  Republics  for  such  Commission.  The  Commission  had 
eight  meetings  in  Washington  from  January  7  to  April  4,  1891,  I  rep- 
resenting Mexico,  having  been  honored  with  the  appointment  of 
presiding  officer  of  the  Commission,  notwithstanding  that  it  is  the 
universal  rule  that  the  president  of  an  international  conference  should 
be  a  delegate  of  the  inviting  nation.'  The  Minutes  of  this  Commission 
were  published  in  English  and  Spanish  in  a  book  of  123  pages  entitled 
Minutes  of  the  Ainericafi  Inter?iatiofial  Monetary  Commission  of  i8gi. 
It  was  of  course  impossible  to  come  to  any  satisfactory  conclusion  in 
that  Commission,  as  had  been  the  case  before  in  the  Pan-American  Con- 
ference, and  the  only  way  to  overcome  the  difficulty  was  to  agree  upon 
a  recommendation  to  the  Government  of  the  United  States  that  it 
should  propose  to  all  nations  of  the  world  the  meeting  of  an  Interna- 
tional Monetary  Conference.*  This  recommendation  led  to  the  meet- 
ing of  a  monetary  conference  at  Brussels  from  November  22  to 
December  17,  1892,  which,  as  is  well  known,  did  not  produce  any  sat- 
isfactory result,  but  rather  was  a  setback  to  the  idea  of  arriving  at  an 

'  The  following  is  a  list  of  the  delegates  to  the  American  International  Monetary 
Commission  : 

Argentine  Republic,  Senor  Don  Miguel  Tedin  ;  Bolivia,  Senor  Don  Melchor 
Obarrio  ;  Brazil,  Seiior  Don  Salvador  de  Mendonfa  ;  Colombia,  Senors  Don  Julio 
Reiigifo  and  Don  Climaco  Calderon  ;  Chile,  Senor  Don  Prudencio  Lazcano  ;  the 
United  States,  the  Hon.  N.  P.  Hill,  the  Hon.  Lambert  Tree,  and  the  Hon.  W.  A, 
Russell ;  Hawaii,  the  Hon.  H.  A.  P.  Carter ;  Hayti,  the  Hon.  Hannibal  Price  ; 
Honduras,  the  Hon.  Rowan  \V.  Stevens ;  Mexico,  Senor  Don  Matias  Romero ; 
Nicaragua,  Senor  Don  Horacio  Guzman  ;  Uruguay,  Senor  Don  Jose  Marti ;  Peru, 
Senor  Don  Felix  Cipriano  C.  Zegarra  ;  Costa  Rica,  Sefior  Don  Joaquin  B.  Calvo  ; 
Venezuela,  Senor  Don  Estanislao  Vetancourt  Rendon. 

^  The  following  is  a  copy  of  a  resolution  introduced  by  Senor  Mendonja,  recommend- 
ing the  meeting  of  an  International  Monetary  Commission,  reported  favorably  by  the 
committee  to  which  it  was  referred,  and  approved  by  the  Commission  on  April  3,  1891  : 

Whereas,  first,  in  the  opinion  of  the  Commission  the  establishment  of  a  fixed 
ratio  between  gold  and  silver,  the  adoption  of  coins  of  both  metals  and  of  a  common 
monetary  unit  would  be  of  great  benefit  to  the  commerce  of  the  world  ; 

Secondly,  these  ends  could  be  accomplished  by  means  of  an  international  agree- 
ment entered  into  by  all  the  commercial  nations  of  the  world  ;  and 

Thirdly,  in  view  of  the  efforts  recently  made  in  this  behalf  it  does  not  appear 
probable  that  under  present  circumstances  the  desired  ends  can  be  obtained  ;  be  it 
therefore 

Resolved,  That  this  Commission  bring  its  sessions  to  a  close,  expressing  the  wish 
that  before  long  another  Commission  may  meet  which  shall  reach  an  agreement  that 
will  secure  the  adoption  of  a  uniform  monetary  system  between  the  nations  of  America, 
advantageous  to  each  and  all. 

M.  Romero,  Julio  Rengifo, 

Salvador  de  Mendon^a,  Jose  Marti, 

Miguel  Tedin,  H.  GuzmAn. 

Washington,  D.  C,  April  j,  i8gi. 


Bureau  of  tbe  Hmerican  IRepublics.  667 

international  agreement  on  some  proposition  intended  to  restore  silver 
as  a  money  metal  by  the  commercial  nations  of  the  world. 

The  report  of  the  Commissioners  of  the  United  States  to  the  Brus- 
sels Conference,  dated  at  Washington  February  14,  1893,  together  with 
the  Minutes  of  the  ten  meetings  of  the  Conference,  were  printed,  with 
the  President's  Message  to  Congress  of  February  21,  1893,  in  a  volume 
of  384  pages. 

Bureau  of  American  Republics. — Another  lasting  result  of  the  Pan- 
American  Conference  was  the  establishment  in  the  city  of  Washington, 
supported  by  all  the  American  countries,  with  a  quota  in  proportion  to 
their  population,  of  an  American  Commercial  Bureau  for  the  purpose 
of  disseminating  commercial  information  among  the  American  nations 
and  so  to  increase  their  mercantile  relations.  Although  that  bureau 
has  not  done  all  that  was  expected  of  it,  with  the  experience  already 
gained  it  could  be  hereafter  a  very  useful  institution  to  promote  trade 
between  the  American  nations. 

Mr.  Curtis  was  at  the  head  of  the  Bureau  during  President  Harri- 
son's administration.  When  Mr.  Cleveland  entered  into  his  second 
term  Mr.  Clinton  Furbish  was  appointed  Director,  and  he  remained  as 
such  all  through  that  administration.  On  the  inauguration  of  Presi- 
dent McKinley,  Mr.  Joseph  P.  Smith  was  appointed  Director,  and  he 
greatly  exerted  himself  to  fulfil  the  duties  of  his  office  and  make 
his  mark,  but  unfortunately  he  contracted  a  disease  which,  much  to 
the  regret  of  all,  resulted  in  his  premature  death. 

The  recommendation  approved  by  the  Pan-American  Conference 
in  regard  to  the  Bureau  entrusted  the  direction  of  the  same  to  the  Sec- 
retary of  State  of  the  United  States;  but  while  Mr.  Olney  held  that 
office  he  desired  that  the  American  republics  should  have  more 
direct  participation  in  the  control  of  the  Bureau,  and  he  summoned  a 
meeting  of  their  representatives  in  Washington,  who  appointed  a  com- 
mittee to  propose  some  regulations  with  the  view  of  establishing  civil 
service  for  the  Bureau,  and  so  having  more  stability  in  its  employees, 
avoiding  the  rotation  of  other  offices  in  this  country,  the  personnel  of 
which  changes  almost  with  every  new  administration.  On  the  4th 
of  June,  1896,  new  regulations  were  approved  at  a  meeting  of  the 
American  representatives  in  Washington,  establishing  an  Executive 
Committee  of  four  representatives,  each  of  them  to  serve  for  four 
years  in  the  alphabetical  order  of  their  country,  under  the  presidency 
of  the  Secretary  of  State,  to  decide  all  matters  pertaining  to  the 
Bureau,  and  providing  that  appointments  of  its  employees  should  be 
made  by  the  Secretary  of  State  after  examination  by  a  Board  of  Exam- 
iners, composed  of  five  members,  three  appointed  by  the  Latin- 
American  members  of  the  Executive  Committee  and  two  by  the 
Secretary  of  State. 


668  Zbc  lPan=Bmcrican  Conterencc. 

The  Bureau  is  supported  by  the  contributions  of  all  the  American 
republics  who  accepted  the  agreement  apportioned  /y/o  rata  to  their 
population,  and  with  a  view  to  diminish  the  respective  quota  the 
Director  of  the  Bureau  was  authorized  to  publish  advertisements  in 
the  Mojithly  Bulletin,  a  source  which  was  expected  would  yield  some 
revenue. 

The  Bureau  of  American  Republics  has  made  several  publications, 
to  some  of  which  I  have  especially  referred,  and  the  others  are  the 
following  :  It  edits  a  Monthly  Bulletin,  or  magazine  of  150  pages,  con- 
taining current  information  of  interest  relating  to  the  various  countries 
represented  by  the  Bureau,  printed  in  the  four  languages  spoken  by 
the  American  nations,  and  besides  it  has  published  handbooks  of  all 
the  American  Republics,  and  also  of  Hawaii  and  Alaska;  it  has  printed 
a  Newspaper  Directory  of  Latin-America,  a  Commercial  Directory  of 
most  of  the  American  Republics,  and  especially  a  general  Commercial 
Directory  in  two  large  volumes,  and  the  Cotnmercial  Nomenclature  to 
which  1  shall  presently  allude.  All  the  regular  publications  issued  by 
the  Bureau  amount  to  ninety,  up  to  March  i,  1898. 

There  has  been  from  time  to  time  in  the  Congress  of  the  United 
States  some  opposition  to  the  Bureau,  but  whenever  the  respective 
committees  have  investigated  the  subject,  they  have  decided  to  sup- 
port the  Bureau,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  it  will  stand  for  the  ten  years 
agreed  upon,  and  possibly  that  it  will  be  extended  for  a  similar  period. 

The  Montevideo  Treaties. — The  part  which  the  Montevidean  treaties 
played  in  the  Conference  ought  not  to  be  omitted.  It  is  known  that  the 
principal  nations  of  South  America  met  in  congress  in  Montevideo  in 
1888,  and  recommended  the  conclusion  of  treaties  on  international  civil 
law,  international  commercial  law,  international  law  of  penal  procedure, 
patents,  trade-marks,  copyright,  extradition,  etc.,  etc.  The  extended 
scope  and  details  of  the  provisions  therein  contained  have  prevented 
some  of  the  nations  which  attended  that  congress,  and  whose  plenipoten- 
tiaries signed  the  treaties,  from  accepting  them  all.  The  Mexican  Gov- 
ernment, which,  at  the  request  of  the  Argentine  Republic,  had  been 
studying  those  treaties  for  more  than  a  year,  had  not  then  come  to  any 
conclusion  about  them.  The  rules  accepted  in  those  treaties  are  the 
same  as  those  prevailing  in  the  nations  which  follow  the  Roman  law, 
and  as  the  United  States  is  governed  generally  by  the  common  law  of 
England,  and  subjects  of  municipal  law  in  the  several  states  do  not 
fall  under  the  federal  jurisdiction,  it  is  very  difficult  for  this  country  to 
accept  said  treaties  in  all  their  details,  since  that  would  be  equivalent 
to  changing  the  basis  of  their  legislation.  This  explains  the  opposition 
of  the  United  States  delegation  to  these  treaties.  Notwithstanding  all 
this,  three  of  them — those  relating  to  copyrights,  trade-marks,  and 
patents — were  accepted  by  the  United  States  delegate  who  was  a  mem- 


Commercial  IHomenclature.  669 

ber  of  the  committee,  and,  finally  by  the  delegation  when  the  matter 
was  brought  to  a  vote  before  the  Conference. 

The  Conference  also  agreed  to  recommend  the  study  by  all  the 
American  nations  of  the  Montevideo  Treaties,  with  a  view  to  their 
final  adoption. 

Commercial  Nomenclature. —  There  is  an  incident  which,  although 
not  of  serious  consequence,  shows  how  easy  it  is  to  misunderstand  the 
plainest  enactment,  even  in  case  that  all  pains  are  taken  to  make  its 
object  perfectly  clear.  I  will  briefly  mention  that  incident  before  end- 
ing this  paper. 

I  always  thought  it  would  be  very  advisable  for  the  American 
nations  to  agree  upon  a  common  nomenclature  in  their  tariff  laws,  each 
of  them  reserving,  of  course,  the  right  to  tax  foreign  goods  according  to 
their  own  views  and  convenience.  If  this  idea  were  carried  out,  a  cen- 
tral bureau,  located,  for  instance,  in  Washington,  could  publish  from 
time  to  time  the  tariffs  of  all  American  countries,  in  a  single  book 
having  several  columns,  one  set  apart  for  each  country,  showing  the  rate 
of  duty  that  each  levied  upon  a  given  commodity.  It  would,  of  course, 
be  very  difficult  to  agree  on  a  common  nomenclature,  and  that  ought 
to  be  the  work  of  experts,  one  from  each  of  the  interested  nations. 
This  could  be  done,  accepting,  for  instance,  the  United  States  tariff,  or 
such  other  as  might  be  advisable,  as  the  basis  of  the  work,  and  then 
adding  to  it  such  merchandise  as  is  quoted  in  the  tariffs  of  the  other 
countries  and  not  mentioned  in  the  United  States  tariff.  In  this  case, 
such  commodities,  if  not  taxed  in  the  United  States,  would  be  left 
blank  in  the  column  belonging  to  the  United  States,  and  also  in  the 
columns  of  the  countries  that  did  not  levy  any  duty  upon  them.  While 
such  tariff  book  containing  all  the  data  would  be  rather  cumbersome, 
as  it  would  have  to  be  in  the  four  languages  spoken  by  the  American 
nations,  it  would  have  the  advantage  of  showing  the  exact  amount  of 
duties  levied  by  each  one,  upon  every  specific  imported  commodity. 

With  this  object  in  view  I  introduced  in  the  Conference  on  January 
2,  1890,  the  following  resolution,  which  was  referred  to  the  Committee 
on  Customs  Regulations,  of  which  I  was  a  member: 

"  Resolved,  That  the  proper  committee  of  this  Conference  be  requested  to  examine 

and  report  about  the  convenience  and  practicability  of  adopting  a  common  schedule 

of  foreign  goods,  to  be  used  by  the  several  nations  represented  in  this  Conference  for 

the  purpose  of  collecting  import  duties,   making  invoices,  bills  of  lading,  etc.,  each 

country  having  the  exclusive  right  to  fix  the  amount  of  duties  to  be  levied  on  each 

article,  but  the  schedule  of  the  articles  to  be  common  to  all. 

"  M.  Romero, 

"  Delegate  from  iVIexico. 
"  Washington,   January  2,  iSgo." 

My  resolution  was  carefully  examined  by  the  committee,  and  after  I 
explained  to  them  its  object  it  was  written  over  again,  to  make  it  man- 


670  XTbe  pau=Bnicrican  Conference. 

datory  and  plainer,  in  the  following  terms,  in  which  it  was  reported 
to  the  Conference,  and  agreed  upon  by  the  same  on  February  10,  1890. 
"  Jiesolved,  That  the  International  American  Conference  recommends  to  the  Gov- 
ernments represented  therein  the  adoption  of  a  common  nomenclature  which  shall 
designate  in  alphabetical  order  in  equivalent  terms,  in  English,  Spanish,  Portuguese, 
and  French,  the  commodities  on  which  import  duties  are  levied,  to  be  used  respectively 
by  all  the  American  nations  for  the  purpose  of  levying  customs  imposts  which  are  or  may 
hereafter  be  established,  and  also  to  be  used  in  shipping  manifests,  consular  invoices, 
entries,  clearance  petitions,  and  other  customs  documents  ;  but  not  to  effect  in  any 
manner  the  right  of  each  nation  to  levy  the  import  duties  now  in  force,  or  which  may 
hereafter  be  established. 

"  J.  Alfonso.  Charles  R.  Flint.  M.  Romero. 

"  H.  G.  Davis.  Salvador  de  Mendon^a.      CLfMACo  Calder6n." 

When  the  time  to  carry  this  motion  into  effect  arrived,  the  Bureau 
of  American  Republics,  misunderstanding  completely  its  object, 
printed,  while  Mr.  Curtis  was  Director  of  the  Bureau,  a  list  of  com- 
mercial terms  in  the  four  languages  spoken  by  the  American  nations, 
with  a  parallel  blank  column.  This  work  was  printed  for  the  purpose 
of  submitting  it  to  the  respective  governments  for  their  remarks, 
additions,  and  revisions,  and  when  they  all  had  been  heard  from,  then 
to  give  it  to  the  public  as  an  official  work;  but  Mr.  Curtis's  successor 
did  not  quite  wait  to  hear  such  views,  and  the  book  was  issued  as  it 
finally  came  out,  something  like  a  vocabulary  or  dictionary  of  com- 
mercial terms  used  in  the  American  countries,  which  was  published  in 
three  volumes  under  the  name  of  The  Commercial  Nomenclature  of  the 
American  Republics,  and  which,  while  it  is  a  very  commendable  Avork 
and  very  useful  in  the  mercantile  intercourse  between  the  American 
countries,  is  by  no  means  what  my  motion  intended  or  what  I  had  in 
view. 

Discussion  of  Other  Subjects  by  the  Conference. — The  Conference 
took  up,  besides,  several  other  subjects  which,  although  important  in 
themselves,  appear  in  a  secondary  light  when  compared  with  those  I 
have  mentioned.  I  refer  to  the  recommendation  favoring  a  uniform 
system  of  weights  and  measures;  and  those  to  adopt  uniform  and 
liberal  rules  for  the  valuation  of  merchandise  at  the  custom-houses;  to 
simplify  the  import  and  consular  dues;  to  adopt  any  of  the  South 
American  conventions  for  sanitary  purposes;  to  establish  railways  and 
lines  of  steamers  among  the  several  nations;  to  negotiate  extradition 
treaties  ;  to  establish  an  American  international  bank  for  the  purpose 
of  carrying  on  the  exchanges  then  made  through  London.  The  rec- 
ommendations of  the  Conference  bearing  on  those  subjects  were  in- 
serted in  the  different  publications  of  the  Conference,  and  I  therefore 
deem  it  unnecessary  to  say  anything  more  about  them. 

Final  Results  of  the  Conference. — The  most  important  result  of  the 
Conference — and  I  mention  it  in  the  first  place  because  all  the  others 


jFinal  IResults  of  tbc  Conference.  671 

depended  on  the  ratification  of  the  respective  agreements  by  the 
American  governments,  which  generally  was  not  given,  while  the  one 
I  refer  to  was  and  is  an  effective  one  and  likely  to  exercise  great 
influence  for  some  time  to  come  —  was  the  mutual  acquaintance 
through  the  representatives  of  the  different  nations,  which,  situated 
far  apart  and  without  easy  and  close  communication  among  them- 
selves, were  almost  unknown  to  each  other.  The  constant  intercourse 
of  the  delegates  for  nearly  six  months,  and  their  daily  discussion  of 
important  questions  affecting  the  paramount  interests  of  their  re- 
spective countries,  was  to  many  of  them  quite  a  surprising  revelation 
of  the  importance  and  progress,  resources  and  education  of  the  several 
states  represented  in  the  Conference.  There  is,  therefore,  no  mistake 
in  regarding  as  its  first  and  best  result  the  sentiment  of  mutual  respect 
and  consideration  with  which  each  delegate  was  inspired  for  his  col- 
leagues and  for  the  nations  represented  by  them;  and  so  far  as  the 
United  States  is  concerned,  this  result  was  accepted  and  acknowledged 
not  only  by  its  delegates,  but  also  by  its  government  and  people  who 
from  day  to  day  were  informed  of  the  doings  of  the  Conference. 

The  second  result  in  importance  is  the  agreement  on  arbitration, 
which  would  have  been,  if  ratified  by  the  various  nations,  a  measure 
of  transcendent  importance.  This  of  itself  would  have  been  enough 
to  make  the  Conference  highly  memorable  and  fruitful. 

The  other  results  of  the  Conference,  although  important  in  them- 
selves, are  not  so  far-reaching  as  those  that  I  have  already  mentioned. 

At  first  sight  it  might  appear  that  the  results  of  the  Conference 
were  disappointing;  but  I  think  it  can  be  safely  said  that  its  success 
was  greater  than  there  was  any  reason  to  expect.  Almost  all  of 
the  Latin- American  nations  came  to  Washington  with  a  fear  that  the 
United  States  intended  to  dictate  to  them  by  means  of  its  great 
power  and  its  material  superiority,  and  they  went  back  satisfied  that, 
so  far  from  this  being  the  case,  this  country  had  only  sentiments  of 
respect  and  consideration  for  her  sister-republics,  and  that  its  aim  had 
simply  been  to  accomplish  what  was  of  mutual  advantage  to  all,  she 
acting  on  the  same  footing  as  the  smallest  of  the  nations  represented. 

On  the  other  hand,  I  believe  that  the  Latin-American  Republics 
have  left  on  the  Government  and  the  people  of  the  United  States  a 
more  lasting  and  favorable  impression  than  they  had  before  been  able 
to  make.  The  occasion  afforded  an  opportunity  to  the  people  of  the 
United  States  to  form  a  better  idea  of  the  civilization  and  the  material 
progress  of  the  Latin- American  countries,  and  of  the  worth  and  patriot- 
ism of  their  sons;  and  soon  afterwards  it  became  an  admitted-  fact 
that  liberality  of  action,  mutual  regard,  and  a  good  understanding 
are  almost  a  necessity  among  the  American  nations.  Remembering 
that  great  results  in  behalf  of  mankind  cannot  be  reached  in  a  day,  and 


672  Zbc  IPan=Hmcrican  Gonfcrence. 

much  less  when  success  depends  on  the  action  of  several  countries 
affected  by  different  influences  and  conditions,  I  have  no  doubt  that 
the  meeting  in  Washington  of  an  assembly  of  all  the  American  nations 
was  as  greatly  advantageous  both  to  the  Government  and  the  people 
who  promoted  the  meeting  as  to  the  Governments  and  countries  who 
participated  in  the  same  more  for  its  future  than  for  its  present  results. 

Conclusion. — I  sincerely  hope  that  the  preceding  paper  will  be  taken 
as  a  proof  of  my  interest  in  anything  affecting  closer  social,  political, 
and  commercial  relations  between  the  United  States  and  her  sister 
American  Republics,  even  in  case  that  all  the  views  which  I  have  ex- 
pressed and  I  hold  in  good  faith  are  not  accepted  as  sound  or  correct. 

The  documents  which  are  included  in  the  following  Appendix,  I 
consider  as  the  complement  of  this  paper. 


» 


APPENDIX. 

I  now  append  the  most  important  of  the  several  documents 
mentioned  in  the  foregoing  paper,  which  I  consider  useful  to  form 
a  complete  idea  of  what  is  stated  in  the  same,  namely  :  i.  Act  of  May 
24,  1888,  Convening  the  American  International  Conference  ;  2.  List 
of  Delegates,  Secretaries,  and  Attaches  ;  3.  List  of  Committees  ;  4.  Ex- 
Senator  Henderson  and  the  Arbitration  Project  ;  5.  Facsimile  Copy  of 
the  Amendments  made  by  Mr.  Blaine  to  the  Argentine  Plan  of 
Arbitration  ;  6.  Arbitration  Plan  of  the  Pan-American  Conference  as 
reported  by  the  Committee  ;  7.  Right  of  Conquest  ;  8.  Treaty  of 
Arbitration  signed  by  the  Delegates  to  the  Pan-American  Conference, 
recommendation  to  European  Powers  to  accept  Arbitration,  and  re- 
commendation on  the  right  of  conquest  ;  9.  Recommendation  of 
Reciprocity  Treaties  ;  10.  Recommendation  on  Railway  Communi- 
cation ;  II.  Recommendation  of  the  meeting  of  an  American  Inter- 
national Monetary  Commission  ;  12.  Censure  from  Mexican  Press 
and  a  Mexican  Writer  because  a  Mexican  Delegate  did  not  follow 
in  the  footsteps  of  the  Argentines  ;  13.  My  answer  to  Senor  Pierra 
published  in  Las  Novedades,  of  New  York,  of  July  7,  1890. 

I.     ACT  OF  MAY  24,  1888,  CONVENING  THE  AMERICAN  INTER- 
NATIONAL   CONFERENCE. 

An  Act  authorizing  the  President  of  the  United  States  to  arrange  a  Conference 
between  the  United  States  of  America  and  the  Republics  of  Mexico,  Central  and  South 
America,  Hayti,  San  Domingo,  and  the  Empire  of  Brazil. 

Beit  enacted  by  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representaves  of  the  United  States  of 
America  in  Congress  assembled,  That  the  President  of  the  United  States  be,  and  he  is 
hereby,  requested  and  authorized  to  invite  the  several  Governments  of  the  Republics 
of  Mexico,  Central  and  South  America,  Hayti,  San  Domingo,  and  the  Empire  of 
Brazil,  to  join  the  United  States  in  a  Conference  to  be  held  at  Washington,  in  the 
United  States,  at  such  time  as  he  may  deem  proper,  in  the  year  eighteen  hundred  and 
eighty-nine,  for  the  purpose  of  discussing  and  recommending  for  adoption  to  their 
respective  Governments  some  plan  of  arbitration  for  the  settlement  of  disagreements 
and  disputes  that  may  hereafter  arise  between  them,  and  for  considering  questions 
relating  to  the  improvement  of  business  intercourse  and  means  of  direct  communica- 
tion between  said  countries,  and  to  encourage  such  reciprocal  commercial  relations  as 
will  be  beneficial  to  all  and  secure  more  extensive  markets  for  the  products  of  each  of 
said  countries. 

Sec.  2.  That  in  forwarding  the  invitations  to  the  said  Governments  the  President 
of  the  United  States  shall  set  forth  that  the  conference  is  called  to  consider  : — 

First.  Measures  that  shall  tend  to  preserve  the  peace  and  promote  the  prosperity 
of  the  several  American  states. 

Second.  Measures  toward  the  formation  of  an  American  customs  union,  under 
which  the  trade  of  the  American  nations  with  each  other  shall,  so  far  as  possible  and 
profital)le,  be  promoted. 

673 


674       XTbe  ipaii  Hmerican  Conference  :  BppenMy. 

Third.  The  establishment  of  regular  and  frequent  communication  between  the 
ports  of  the  bcveral  American  States  and  the  ports  of  each  other. 

Fourth.  The  establishment  of  a  uniform  system  of  customs  regulations  in  each 
of  the  independent  American  States  to  govern  the  mode  of  importation  and  exporta- 
tion of  merchandise  and  port  dues  and  charges,  a  uniform  method  of  determining  the 
classification  and  valuation  of  such  merchandise  in  the  ports  of  each  country,  and  a 
uniform  system  of  invoices,  and  the  subject  of  the  sanitation  of  ships  and  quarantine. 

Fifth.  The  adoption  of  a  uniform  system  of  weights  and  measures,  and  laws 
to  protect  the  patent  rights,  copyrights,  and  trade-marks  of  citizens  of  either  country 
in  the  other,  and  for  the  extradition  of  criminals. 

Sixth.  The  adoption  of  a  common  silver  coin,  to  be  issued  by  each  Government, 
the  same  to  be  legal  tender  in  all  commercial  transactions  between  the  citizens  of  all 
the  American  States. 

Seventh.  An  agreement  upon  and  recommendation  for  adoption  to  their  respec- 
tive Governments  of  a  definite  plan  of  arbitration  of  all  questions,  disputes,  and 
differences  that  may  now  or  hereafter  exist  between  them,  to  the  end  that  all  difficul- 
ties and  disputes  between  such  Nations  may  be  peacefully  settled  and  wars  prevented. 

Eighth.  And  to  consider  such  other  subjects  relating  to  the  welfare  of  the 
several  States  represented  as  may  be  presented  by  any  of  said  States  which  are  hereby 
invited  to  participate  in  said  Conference. 

Sec.  3.  That  the  sum  of  seventy-five  thousand  dollars,  or  so  much  thereof  as  may 
be  necessary,  is  hereby  appropriated,  out  of  any  money  in  the  Treasury  not  otherwise 
appropriated,  the  same  to  be  disbursed  under  the  direction  and  in  the  discretion  of  the 
Secretary  of  State,  for  expenses  incidental  to  the  Conference. 

Sf;c.  4.  That  the  President  of  the  United  States  shall  appoint,  by  and  with  the 
advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate,  ten  delegates  to  said  Conference,  who  shall  serve  with- 
out compensation  other  than  their  actual  necessary  expenses,  and  the  several  other 
States  participating  in  said  Conference  shall  be  represented  by  as  many  delegates  as 
each  may  elect.  Provided,  however,  That  in  the  disposition  of  questions  to  come  before 
said  Conference  no  State  shall  be  entitled  to  more  than  one  vote. 

Sfx.  5.  That  the  Secretary  of  State  shall  appoint  such  clerks  and  other  assistants 
as  shall  be  necessary,  at  a  compensation  to  be  determined  by  him,  and  provide  for  the 
daily  publication  by  the  Public  Printer,  in  the  English,  Spanish,  and  Portuguese 
languages,  of  so  much  of  the  proceedings  of  the  Conference  as  it  shall  determine,  and 
upon  the  conclusion  of  said  Conference  shall  transmit  a  report  of  the  same  to  the 
Congress  of  the  United  States,  together  with  a  statement  of  the  disbursements  of  the 
appropriation  herein  jirovided  for. 

Approved,  May  24,  1888.  

2.     LIST  OF  DELEGATES,  SECRETARIES,  AND  ATTACHES. 
(Arranged  in  order  of  precedence,  as  determined  by  lot,  November  20,  1889.) 
President,  James  G.  Blaine. 

!H.  Remsen  Whitehouse, 
Fidel  G.  Pierra,' 
Jose  Ignacio  Rodriguez  (succeeding  Mr.  Pierra). 
Hayti.  Nicaragua. 

Delegates :  Delegate  : 

Arthur  Laforestrie,'  Horacio  Guzman. 

Hannibal  Price."  Secretary: 

Secretary :  R.  Mayorga. 

H.  Aristide  Preston. 
'  Resigned  February  14,  1S90.     '  To  March  5,  i8go.      '  From  April  i,  i8go. 


Xist  of  3)elegates,  Secretaries,  ant)  Bttacbes.      675 


Peru. 
Delegate  : 

Felix  C.  C.  Zegarra. 
Secretary  : 

Leopoldo  Oyague  y  Soyer. 
Jt/ac/t/  : 

Manuel  Elguera. 

Guatemala. 
Delegate  : 

Fernando  Cruz. 
Secretary  : 

Domingo  Estrada. 
AttacAe: 

Javier  A.  Arroyo. 

Uruguay. 
Delegate  : 

Alberto  Nin. 
Secretaries  : 

Difinisio  Ramos  Montero, 

Henry  Dauber. 

Colombia. 

Delegates  : 

Jose  M.  Hurtado, 

Carlos  Martinez  Silva, 

Climaco  Calderon. 
Secretary  : 

Julio  Rengifo. 

Akgenti.ne  Republic. 
Delegates  : 

Roque  Saenz  Pena, 

Manuel  Quintana. 
Secretaries  : 

Federico  Pinedo, 

Ernesto  Bosch. 

Costa  Rica. 

Delegate  : 

Manuel  Arag6n. 
Secretary  : 
Joaquin  Bernardo  Calvo. 

Paraguay. 
Delegate  : 

Jose  S.  Decoud. 

Brazil. 
Delegates  : 

Lafayette  Rodrigues  Pereira,  ' 
J.  G.  do  Amaral  Valente, 
Salvador  de  Mendon^a. 

'  Resigned 


Secretaries  : 

Jose  Augusto  Ferreira  de  Costa, 

Joaquim  de  F'reitas  Vasconcellos. 
Attach/s  : 

Alfredo  de  Moraes  Gomes  Ferreira, 

Mario  de  Mendon9a. 

Honduras. 
Delegate  : 

Jeronimo  Zelaya. 
Secretaries  : 

E.  Constantino  Fiallos, 

Richard  Villafranca. 

Mexico. 
Delegates  ■ 

Matias  Romero, 
Enrique  A.  Mexia. 
Secretary  : 

Enrique  Santibaiiez. 

Boi  IVIA, 
Delegate  : 

Juan  F.  Velarde. 
Secretary  : 

Melchor  Obarrio. 
Attache  : 

Alcibiades  Velarde, 

Mariano  Velarde. 

United  States. 
Delegates  : 

John  B.  Henderson, 

Cornelius  N.  Bliss, 

Clement  Studebaker, 

T.  Jefferson  Coolidge, 

William  Henry  Trescot, 

Andrew  Carnegie, 

Morris  M.  Estee, 

John  F.  Hanson, 

Henry  G.  Davis, 

Charles  R.  Flint. 
Secretaries  : 

Edmund  W.  P.  Smith, 

Edward  A.  Trescot. 


Venezuela. 


Delegates  : 


Nicanor  Bolet  Peraza, 
Jose  Andrade, 
Francisco  Antonio  Silva. 
Secretary  : 

Nicanor  Bolet  Monagas. 
November  27,  18S9. 


676       Ubc  Ipan  Bmerican  Conference :  HppenMj, 


Chili. 
Delegates  : 

Emilio  C.  Varas, 

Jose  Alfonso. 
Secretaries  . 

Carlos  Zanartu, 

Paulino  Alfonso, 

Domingo  Pefia  Toro. 

Salvador. 

Delegate  : 

Jacinto  Castellanos. 


Secretary  : 

Samuel  Valdivieso. 
Attache  : 

J.  Arrieta  Rossi. 

Ecuador. 

Delegate  : 

Jose  Maria  Placido  Caamano. 
Secretary  : 

Antonio  Eciieverria. 


Executive  Officer  : 

William  Eleroy  Curtis. 
Disbursitig  Officer  : 

Haughwout  Howe. 
Sergeants-at-Arms  : 
John  G.  Bourke,  Captain,  U.  S.  Army, 
Henry    R.    Lemly,    First    Lieutenant 
U.  S.  Army. 
Surgeon  : 

H.   C.   Yarrow,  Acting  Assistant  Sur- 
geon, U.  S.  Army. 
Consulting  Engineer  to  the  Committee  on 
Railway  Communication  : 
George    A.    Zinn,     First    Lieutenant, 
Corps  of  Engineers. 
Official  Interpreters  : 
Jose  Ignacio  Rodriguez, 
Arthur  W.  Fergusson. 


Publication  Clerk  : 

Carlos  Federico  Adams-Michelena. 

Translators  : 
Mary  F.  Foster, 
Ambrosio  J.  Gonzalez, 
Marathon  M.  Ramsey, 
Jose  R.  Villalon, 
J.  Vicente  Serrano, 
Miss  M.  E.  Torrence. 

Official  Stenographers  : 
Hudson  C.  Tanner, 
Manuel  Trillanes, 
Mauro  Duran, 
Walter  C.  Bryne. 

Stenographers  : 
John  T.  Suter,  Jr. 
Imogen  A.  Hanna. 


3.     LIST  OF  COMMITTEES 

(Appointed  December  13,  1889.) 

Executive  Committee. 
Mr.  Zegarra,  First  Vice-President,  of  Peru.       Mr.  Hurtado,  of  Colombia. 
Mr.    Romero,  Second  Vice-President,  of       Mr.  Mendon^a,  of  Brazil. 

Mexico.  The    President    of    the    Conference,    ex- 

Mr.  Bliss,  of  the  United  States.  officio. 

Secretary,  William  Eleroy  Curtis. 


Mr.  Valente,  of  Brazil. 

Mr.  Henderson,  of  the  United  States. 

Mr.  Saenz  Pena,  of  the  Argentine  Repub 

lie. 
Mr.  Romero,  of  Mexico. 


Committee  071  Customs  Union. 

Mr.  Martinez  Silva,  of  Columbia. 
Mr.  Alfonso,  of  Chili. 
Mr.  Guzman,  of  Nicaragua. 
Mr.  Bolet  Peraza,  of  Venezuela. 


Secretary,  J.  Vicente  Serrano. 


Xist  of  Committees.  677 

Committee  on  Communication  on  the  Atlantic. 

Mr.   Saenz  Pena,    of  the  Argentine  Re-       Mr.  Mendon9a,  of  Brazil, 
public.  Mr.  Decoud,  of  Paraguay. 

Mr.  Coolidge,   of  the  United  States.  Mr.  Laforestrie,  of  Hayti. 

Secretary,  Arthur  \V.  Fergusson. 


Committee  on  Cornmunicatioii  on  the  Pacific. 

Mr.  Caamano,  of  Ecuador.  Mr.  Castellanos,  of  Salvador. 

Mr.  Varas,  of  Chili.  Mr.  Mexia,  of  Mexico. 

Mr.  Estee,  of  the  United  States. 

Secretary,  Arthur  W.  Fergusson. 


Committee  on  Communication  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  Caribbean  Sea. 

Mr.  Aragon,  of  Costa  Rica.  Mr.  Hanson,  of  the  United  States. 

Mr.  Guzman,  of  Nicaragua.  Mr.  Antonio   Francisco   Silva,  of  Vene- 

Mr.  Calderon,  of  Colombia.  zuela. 

Secretary ,  William  Eleroy  Curtis. 


Committee  on  Railway  Communications. 

Mr.  Velarde,  of  Bolivia.  Mr.  Andrade,  of  Venezuela. 

Mr.  Davis,  of  the  United  States.  Mr.  Caamano,  of  Ecuador. 

Mr.  Mexia,  of  Mexico.  Mr.  Zegarra,  of  Peru. 

Mr.  Cruz,  of  Guatemala.  Mr.  Varas,  of  Chili. 

Mr.  Zelaya,  of  Honduras.  Mr.  Quintana,  of  the  Argentine  Republic. 

Mr.  Castellanos,  of  Salvador.  Mr.  Nin,  of  Uruguay. 

Mr.  Carnegie,  of  the  United  States.  Mr.  Valente,  of  Brazil. 

Mr.  Aragon,  of  Costa  F.ica.  Mr.  Decoud,  of  Paraguay. 

Mr.  Martinez  Silva,  of  Colombia.  Mr.  Guzman,  of  Nicaragua. 
Secretary,  Arthur  W.  Fergusson. 

Committee  on  Customs  Regulations. 

Mr.  Nin,  of  Uruguay.  Mr.  Mendon9a,  of  Brazil. 

Mr.  Alfonso,  of  Chili.  Mr.  Davis,  of  the  United  States. 

Mr.  Romero,  of  Mexico.  Mr.  Aragon,  of  Costa  Rica. 

Mr.  Calderon,  of  Colombia.  Mr.  Bolet  Peraza,  of  Venezuela. 

Mr.  Flint,  of  the  United  States. 

Secretary,  Edmund  W.  P.  Smith. 

Committee  on  Port  Dues. 

Mr.  Bolet  Peraza,  of  Venezuela.  Mr.  Nin,  of  Uruguay. 

Mr.  Laforestrie,  of  Hayti.  Mr.  Mendon9a,  of  Brazil. 

Mr.  Varas,  of  Chili.  Mr.  Quintana,  of  the  Argentine  Republic. 

Mr.  Studebaker,  of  the  United  States.  Mr.  Guzman,  of  Nicaragua. 

Secretary,  Edmund  W.  P.  Smith. 


678        Cbc  ipan=a!nericau  Conference  :  BppenDij. 

Comniittfi  on  Sanitary  Res^ulations. 

Mr.  Ciuzman,  of  Nicaragua.  Mr.  Aiidrade,  of  Venezuela. 

Mr.  Valente,  of  Brazil.  Mr.  Laforcstrie,  of  Hayti. 

Mr.  Zegarra,  of  Peru.  Mr.  Nin,  of  Uruguay. 

Mr.  Hanson,  of  the  United  States. 

Secretary,    Henry  K.  I.enily,  U.  S.  A. 

Committee  on  Patents  and  Trade-Marks. 

Mr.  Decoud,  of  Paraguay.  Mr.  Calderon,  of  (Colombia. 

Mr.  Carnegie,  of  the  United  States. 

Secretary,   Ediiuiiid  W.  P.  Smith. 

Committee  on    Weights  and  Measures. 

Mr.  Castellanos,  of  Salvador.  Mr.  Studebaker,  of  the  United  States. 

Mr.  Antonio  Francisco  Silva,  of  Venezuela. 

Secretary,  Edmund  W.  1'.  Smith. 

Committee  on  Extradition. 

Mr.  Zelaya,  of  Honduras.  Mr.   Saenz    Pena,   of  the  Argentine  Re- 

Mr.  Trescot,  of  the  United  States.  public. 

Mr.  Quintana,  of  the  Argentine  Republic. 
Secretary,  Jose  Ignacio  Rodriguez. 

Committee  on  Monetary  Convention. 

Mr.  Mexia,  of  Mexico.  Mr.  Coolidge,  of  the  United  States. 

Mr.  Estee,  of  the  United  States.  Mr.  Velarde,  of  Bolivia. 

Mr.  Martinez  Silva,  of  Colombia.  Mr.  Zelaya,  of  Honduras. 

Mr.  Alfonso,  of  Chili. 

Secretary,  J-  Vicente  Serrano. 


Committee  on  Banking. 

Mr.  Hurtado,  of  Colombia.  Mr.  Flint,  of  the  United  States. 

Mr.  Mendon9a,  of  Brazil.  Mr.  Arag(')n,  of  Costa  Rica. 

Mr.  Varas,  of  Chili. 

Secretary,  Henry  R.  Eemly,  U.  S.  A. 


Commit/ee  on  International  Law. 

Mr.  Cruz,  of  Guatemala.  Mr.  Alfonso,  of  Chili. 

Mr.  Quintana,  of  the  Argentine  Republic.        Mr.  Caamauo,  of  Ecuador. 
Mr.  Trescot,  of  the  United  States. 

Secretary,  Jose  Ignacio  Rodriguez. 


/IDr.  1ben^er£?or^  an&  tbe  Brbitration  iproject.      679 

Comviiltce  on  General  IVelfare. 
Mr.  Henderson,  of  the  United  States.  Mr.  Hurtado,  of  Columbia. 

Dr.  Quintana,  of  the  Argentine  Republic.        Mr.  Valente,  of  Brazil. 
Mr.  Velarde,  of  Bolivia.  Mr.  Cruz,  of  Guatemala. 

Mr.  Bolet  Peraza,  of  Venezuela. 

Secretary,  Edmund  \V.  P.  Smi'.h. 

Committee  on  Rules. 
Mr.  Alfonso,  of  Chili.  Mr.  Romero,  of  Mexico. 

Mr.  Quintana,  of  the  Argentine  Republic.        Mr.  Castellanos,  of  Salvador. 
Mr.  Trescot,  of  the  United  States.  Mr.  Valente,  of  Brazil. 

Mr.  Caamaiio,  of  Ecuador. 

Committee  on  Credentials. 
Mr.  Romero,  of  Mexico.  Mr.  Coolidge,  of  the  United  States. 

Mr.  Quintana,  of  the  Argentine  Republic. 


4.     EX-SENATOR    HENDERSON   AND    THE    ARBITRATION    PROJECT 
OF  THE  PAN-AMERICAN  CONFERENCE. 

From  the  N'orth  American  Review,  April,  iSg8. 

In  The  North  American  Revieiv  for  September  and  October,  i8go,  I  published  a 
paper  on  the  Pan-American  Conference,  which  had  then  just  met,  and  wherein  I  tried 
to  give  an  idea  of  what  took  place  in  the  same,  from  the  point  of  view  of  one  of  the 
Latin-American  delegates,  which  I  thought  would  be  of  interest  for  the  government  and 
citizens  of  the  United  States,  especially  in  case  that  at  a  future  time  a  similar  Conference 
should  be  convened.  In  the  second  part  of  that  paper,  speaking  about  the  arbitration 
project  reported  by  the  Committee  on  General  Welfare  of  that  Conference,  of  which 
ex-Senator  Henderson,  the  first  of  the  United  States  delegates,  was  the  Chairman,  I 
mentioned  the  fact  that  said  project  was  reported  in  the  last  session  of  the  Conference, 
and  therefore  too  late  for  a  fair  discussion,  and  judging  from  what  I  had  heard  at  the 
time,  especially  from  an  Argentine  delegate,  member  of  the  same  Committee,  and 
from  the  natural  disposition  of  Mr.  Henderson  to  be  deliberate  and  careful  in  anything 
he  does,  I  thought,  and  expressed  it  in  rather  harsh  terms  in  the  first  edition  of  this 
paper,  that  he  was  responsible  for  the  delay  of  the  Committee  on  General  Welfare  in 
reporting  to  the  Conference  the  arbitration  project. 

When  my  article  was  published,  Mr.  Henderson  informed  me  that  I  had  done 
him  an  injustice,  and  that  he  was  in  no  way  responsible  for  that  delay.  I  assured  him 
that  I  did  not  have  any  intention  to  be  unfair  with  him  or  with  anybody  else  connected 
with  the  Conference,  and  that  if  he  would  do  me  the  favor  of  writing  a  memorandum 
of  the  case,  I  would  publish  it  at  once  as  a  correction  of  my  statement.  He  did  not 
do  so  at  the  time,  and  when  I  prepared  a  second  edition  of  this  paper,  I  begged  of  him 
again  to  make  his  statement  of  the  case,  and  he  kindly  sent  me  a  letter  dated  on  the 
14th  instant,  containing  the  history  of  his  connection  with  the  arbitration  project  pre- 
sented by  the  Committee  of  which  he  was  chairman,  with  two  annexes  referred  to  by 
him,  all  of  which  I  am  glad  in  justice  to  Mr.  Henderson  to  append  to  this  paper. 

M.  Romero. 
Washington,  February  24,  iSgS. 


68o       XTbe  pan*Bmerican  Contcrence  :  Bppen&ij. 

Washington,  D.  C,  February  14,  iSgS. 
My  Dear  Mr.  Romero  : 

In  compliance  with  my  promise  to  that  effect,  I  herewith  forward  you  a  brief 
explanation  of  the  action  of  the  Committee  on  General  Welfare  in  the  International 
Conference  on  the  subject  of  arbitration. 

In  February,  1S90,  two  plans  for  arbitrating  controversies  between  the  American 
Republics  were  pending,  one  known  as  the  plan  of  the  Argentine  and  Brazilian  dele- 
gates, and  the  other  as  that  of  the  United  States. 

The  Argentine-Brazilian  plan  is  enclosed,  marked  A.  The  plan  offered  by  my- 
self is  enclosed  and  marked  B. 

At  a  meeting  of  the  Committee,  held  on  February  19,  iSgo,  it  was  unanimously 
agreed  that  the  general  principle  of  arbitration  for  the  settlement  of  disputes  should  be 
accepted. 

Dr.  Quintana,  of  the  Argentine  Republic,  then  propounded  the  following  propo- 
sition to  be  voted  on  by  the  Committee,  to  wit :  "  Shall  arbitration  include  all  ques- 
tions of  controversy  present  and  future  ?  " 

The  discussion  which  followed  its  introduction  drew  forth  the  admission  of  its 
friends  that  its  adoption  was  intended  to  operate  as  an  approval  of  the  principles 
enunciated  in  the  5th,  6th,  7th,  and  Sth  clauses  of  the  Argentine-Brazilian  scheme  of 
arbitration. 

A  declaration  of  this  character  was,  of  course,  offensive  to  the  representatives 
from  Chili ;  and  would  necessarily  make  all  the  states,  under  any  general  plan  of  arbi. 
tration,  parties  to  the  controversy  between  Chili  on  the  one  side  and  Peru  and  Bolivia  on 
the  other.  Its  adoption,  in  my  judgment,  meant  even  more  than  this.  It  would  sug- 
gest an  invitation  to  wage  wars  by  pledging  to  the  aggressor  total  immunity  against 
any  possible  loss  of  territory  as  the  result  of  such  wars. 

My  first  object  was  to  exclude  the  construction  so  palpably  offensive  to  Chili.  I 
therefore  moved  to  amend  the  proposition  as  follows,  to  wit :  "Shall  arbitration  in- 
clude all  nezv  questions  of  dispute  which  may  arise  after  these  articles  shall  be  accepted, 
whether  growing  out  of  disagreements,  past  or  present?"  The  vote  on  this  (my 
amendment)  was  as  follows  : 

Ayes — H  enderson . 

Noes — Cruz,  Velarde,  Hurtado,  Quintana,  Valente,  Bolet  Peraza. 

When  the  Committee  reached  the  question  of  the  formation  of  the  tribunals  of 
arbitration,  I  offered  the  plan  embodied  in  the  first  four  articles  of  the  bill  or  ordi- 
nance presented  by  me  and  herein  referred  to  as  B. 

Ayes — Henderson  and  Hurtado. 

Noes — Cruz,  Velarde,  Valente,  Quintana,  and  Bolet  Peraza. 

Dr.  Quintana  then  proposed  the  third  and  fourth  articles  of  the  Argentine-Bra- 
ziliar  plan,  and  his  proposition  was  adopted  by  the  same  vote  as  the  one  last  recorded, 
the  ayes  and  noes  being  of  course  reversed. 

It  will  be  seen  that  my  views  were  entirely  overruled,  and  that  such  was  the 
understanding  of  the  Committee;  and  thereupon  Mr.  Velarde,  of  Bolivia,  moved  a 
special  committee,  consisting  of  Quintana,  Hurtado,  and  Cruz,  "  to  put  into  shape 
and  form  the  articles  voted  upon."  The  Committee  again  met  on  February'  27,  1890, 
to  receive  the  report  of  the  sub-committee.  The  secretary's  report  of  the  proceed- 
ings of  the  Committee  on  this  occasion  reads  as  follows  :  "  Mr.  Quintana,  Chairman 
(of  sub-committee),  stated  that,  as  it  was  understood  that  a  plan  would  be  presented 
by  the  Honorable,  the  Secretary  of  State,  on  arbitration,  to  the  various  members  of 
the  Committee  on  General  Welfare,  the  sub-committee  had  deemed  it  advisable  to 
defer  its  report  until  said  plan  had  been  duly  considered ;  but  his  committee  (sub) 
■would    endeavor  to  present  its  report    before   Mr.   Henderson's  departure  for   the 


/IDr.  IF^en^crson  ant)  tbe  Hrbitratlon  {project.       68 1 

West."  Immediately  after  this  announcement  Mr.  Valente  again  called  up  the 
Argentine-Brazilian  plan,  and  moved  that  Articles  2,  6,  7,  and  8  thereof  be  considered 
and  adopted. 

I  at  once  moved  to  amend  Article  6  by  inserting  between  the  words  "  convey" 
and  "  any  "  the  words  "  to  the  offending  nation."  I  also  moved  to  amend  Article  7 
by  striking  out  "  the  "  between  the  words  "  to"  and  "  hostilities  "  in  the  first  line,  and 
in  the  fourth  line  of  Article  7  to  insert  between  the  words  "  territory"  and  "  they" 
the  words  "  to  the  offending  nation."  I  also  moved  to  amend  the  first  line  of  Article 
8  by  striking  out  the  word  "  whether"  and  inserting  the  word  "  when,"  and  in  the 
same  line  to  strike  out  the  words  "or  the  consequence"  and  insert  the  words  "and 
purpose."  After  long  discussion  the  original  resolutions,  together  with  my  amend- 
ments as  aforesaid,  were  referred  to  the  sub-committee  to  be  considered  and  reported 
on  as  early  as  practicable. 

If  my  motions  had  been  adopted  Section  Six  would  have  read  as  follows,  to  wit : 

"  Sixth.  In  cases  of  war  a  victory  of  arms  shall  not  convey  to  the  offending 
nation  any  rights  to  the  territory  of  the  conquered." 

And  Section  Seven  would  have  read  as  follows,  to  wit : 

"  Seventh.  The  treaties  of  peace  which  put  an  end  to  hostilities  may  fix  the  pe- 
cuniary indemnifications  which  the  belligerents  may  owe  to  each  other,  but  if  they 
contain  cessions  or  abandonment  of  territory  to  the  offending  nation,  they  will  not  be 
concluded,"  etc. 

And  Section  Eight  would  have  read  as  follows,  to  wit : 

"Eight.  Acts  of  Conquest,  when  the  object  and  purpose  of  the  war,  shall  be 
considered  to  be  in  violation  of  the  public  law  of  America." 

I  now  declare  to  you  that  the  great  delay  of  my  Committee  on  General  Welfare 
to  make  report  on  the  subject  of  arbitration  was  wholly  and  entirely  caused  by  the 
failure  of  this  sub-committee  to  formulate  the  plan  or  scheme  of  arbitration  for  the 
action  of  the  Conference.  Why  this  delay  was  adopted  as  the  seeming  policy  of  this 
sub-committee  I  have  no  reason  to  assign.  It  was  appointed  on  February  19th,  and 
did  not  report  until  April  gth.  This  neglect  is  not,  in  any  sense,  chargeable  to  me. 
I  repeatedly  called  on  Dr.  Quintana  and  the  other  members  of  the  Committee,  both 
before  going  to  St.  Louis  and  after  my  return,  and  urged  immediate  action  in  order 
that  ample  time  might  be  given  to  the  Conference  for  consideration  of  so  important  a 
subject.  My  views  had  been  overruled  and  the  whole  subject  removed  from  my 
charge  by  the  deliberate  action  of  the  Committee.  Principles  had  been  enunciated  by 
the  Committee  as  the  basis  of  action  by  the  sub-commiltee  to  which  I  could  never 
give  my  assent.  At  my  solicitation  much  of  this  objectionable  matter  was  rejected  and 
thrown  out  by  Mr.  Blaine  as  wholly  impracticable  and  impossible  of  acceptance  by  the 
people  of  the  United  States.  So  far  from  Mr.  Blaine's  commanding  or  even  request- 
ing me  or  my  colleagues  to  support  the  Argentine-Brazilian  plan,  he  at  all  times  con- 
sidered it  in  its  original  form  as  wholly  indefeasible,  if  not  absurd. 

Yours  truly, 

J.  B.  Henderson, 


A. — PLAN    OF    ARBITRATION    SUBMITTED    BY    THE    MEMBERS    FROM    ARGENTINE    AND 
1 

BRAZIL. 

Considering,  That  the  international  policy  of  the  American  Conference  should  be 
1  characterized  by  reciprocal  principles  and  declarations  of  mutual  security  and  respect 
I      among  all  the  states  of  the  continent ; 


682        XTbc  lI>an=Bmertcan  Conterence  :  BppenMj. 

That  this  feeling  of  security  should  be  inspired  from  the  very  moment  in  which 
the  representatives  of  the  three  Americas  meet  for  the  first  time,  so  as  to  show  that 
their  acts  and  resolutions  are  in  accordance  with  sentiments  of  mutual  respect  and 
cordiality  ; 

The  Conference  being  also  desirous  of  giving  assent  to  the  principles  which,  to 
the  honor  of  the  strong  states,  have  been  established  by  public  law  for  the  support  of 
the  weak,  and  which  are  confirmed  by  the  ethics  of  nations  and  proclaimed  by  hu- 
manity, it  is  hereby  declared  : 

First.  That  international  arbitration  is  a  principle  of  American  public  law,  to 
which  the  nations  in  this  Conference  bind  themselves,  for  decision,  not  only  in  their 
questions  on  territorial  limits,  but  also  in  all  those  in  which  arbitration  be  compatible 
with  sovereignty. 

Second.  The  armed  occupation  of  the  disputed  territory,  without  having  first  re- 
sorted to  arbitration,  shall  be  considered  contrary  to  the  present  declarations  and  to 
the  engagements  entered  into  thereby,  but  resistance  offered  to  such  act  of  occupation 
shall  not  have  the  same  character. 

Third.  The  arbitration  may  take  place  in  an  unipersonal  form  whenever  the 
states  agree  to  the  election  of  only  one  arbitrator  ;  but  if  it  takes  place  in  a  collective 
form,  there  shall  be  appointed  an  equal  number  of  judges  by  each  party,  with  power 
to  elect  an  umpire  in  case  of  disagreement  ;  said  election  to  be  made  at  the  first  meet- 
ing of  the  Tribunal. 

Fourth.  The  election  of  arbitrators  shall  not  be  subject  to  any  limitations  or 
exclusions  ;  it  may  devolve  either  on  the  governments  represented  in  this  Conference, 
or  on  any  other  government  deserving  the  confidence  of  the  parties,  and  also  on  scien- 
tific corporations,  or  on  high  functionaries  either  of  the  interested  states  themselves  or 
of  other  neutral  states. 

Fifth.  The  present  declarations  are  applicable  not  only  to  differences  which  in 
the  future  may  arise  in  the  relations  of  the  states,  but  also  to  those  which,  in  a  direct 
form,  are  now  in  actual  discussion  between  the  governments  ;  but  the  rules  to  be 
made  shall  have  no  bearing  upon  the  arbitrations  already  constituted. 

Sixth.  In  cases  of  war,  a  victory  of  arms  shall  not  convey  any  rights  to  the  terri- 
tory of  the  conquered. 

Seventh.  The  treaties  of  peace  which  put  an  end  to  the  hostilities  may  fix  the 
pecuniary  indemnifications  which  the  belligerents  may  owe  to  each  other,  but  if  they 
contain  cessions  or  abandonment  of  territory  they  will  not  be  concluded,  as  far  as  this 
particular  point  is  concerned,  without  the  previous  evacuation  of  the  territory  of  the 
conquered  power  by  the  troops  of  the  other  belligerent. 

Eighth.  Acts  of  conquest,  whether  the  object  or  the  consequence  of  the  war, 
shall  be  considered  to  be  in  violation  of  the  public  law  of  America. 

Washington,  yanuary  i§,  iSgo. 


B. — ARBITR.\TION  PROJECT  SUBMITTED  BY  MR.  HENDERSON  TO  THE  COMMITTEE  OF 
GENERAL  WELFARE  OF  THE  INTERNATIONAL  AMERICAN  CONFERENCE  ON  FEB- 
RUARY   19,     T89O. 

I.  If  any  of  the  nations  assenting  to  these  articles  shall  have  cause  of  complaint 
against  another,  it  shall  cause  formal  notice  thereof  to  be  given  to  the  offending  nation, 
specifying  in  detail  the  origin  and  character  of  such  complaint  and  also  the  redress 
which  it  seeks. 


/IDr.  1ben&er5on  anD  tbe  Brbitration  project.       683 

2.  The  nation  receiving  notice  of  such  complaint  shall  as  soon  as  practicable,  and 
within  a  period  not  exceeding  three  months  thereafter,  furnish  a  full  and  explicit  answer 
to  such  complaint,  and  cause  the  same  to  be  delivered  to  the  State  Department  or  other 
especially  accredited  agent  of  the  complaining  nation. 

3.  If  within  three  months  from  the  time  of  delivering  such  answer  no  agreement 
shall  have  been  made  for  the  final  settlement  of  the  questions  in  dispute,  then  each  of 
said  nations  shall  appoint  five  members  of  a  Joint  High  Commission,  who  shall  meet 
together  as  soon  as  possible  after  their  appointment  for  the  purpose  of  hearing  and 
considering  the  questions  of  difference.  They  shall  adopt  for  themselves  rules  of  pro- 
cedure and  notify  each  nation  thereof  ;  and  they  shall  hear  and  consider  the  case  pre- 
sented by  each,  and  within  six  months  from  the  time  of  their  first  meeting  they  shall 
report  to  the  nations  interested  the  result  of  their  deliberations. 

If,  in  determining  any  question  coming  before  them,  the  members  of  the  Joint 
High  Commission  fail  to  agree,  they  shall  select  an  umpire  who  shall  then  and  there- 
after become  a  member  of  the  Commission. 

4.  Whenever  the  Joint  High  Commission,  appointed  as  hereinbefore  provided, 
shall  fail  to  agree,  or  where  the  nations  appointing  them  shall  fail  to  accept  and  abide 
by  their  decision,  either  or  both  of  the  contending  nations  may  give  notice  of  such 
failure  to  all  the  nations  signing  these  articles  and  becoming  parties  thereto,  and  there 
shall  then  be  formed  a  High  Tribunal  of  Arbitration  in  manner  following,  to  wit : 
Each  nation  receiving  the  said  notice  shall  immediately  transmit  to  the  nations  in  con- 
troversy the  names  of  four  persons,  to  be  selected  by  the  Executive  Department  of  the 
Government  so  selecting  them,  and  from  the  list  of  such  persons  the  nations  in  con- 
troversy, beginning  with  the  complaining  nation,  shall  alternately  strike  out  one  name 
until  the  number  shall  be  reduced  to  nine,  which  nine  persons  shall  constitute  a 
Tribunal. 

The  Tribunal  thus  constituted  shall,  by  writing  signed  by  the  members  or  by  a 
majority  of  them,  appoint  a  time  and  place  of  meeting  and  give  notice  thereof  to  the 
parties  in  controversy  ;  and  at  such  time  and  place,  or  at  other  times  and  places  to 
which  an  adjournment  may  be  had,  it  shall  determine  the  rules  of  its  proceedings  and 
thereupon  hear  the  parties  and  decide  between  them  ;  and  the  decision  when  made  or 
signed  by  the  majority  of  the  members  thereof  and  delivered  to  the  nations  in  contro- 
versy, shall  be  final  and  conclusive. 

If  any  nation  receiving  the  notice  and  request  to  appoint  members  of  such  Tri- 
bunal shall  fail  to  transmit  the  names  of  the  four  persons  as  herein  provided  within 
two  months  after  receipt  of  notice  to  do  so,  then  the  states  in  controversy  shall  each 
appoint  two  persons  in  their  places,  who  shall  be  subject  to  ultimate  rejection  in  the 
same  manner  as  those  appointed  by  the  neutral  states  ;  and  if  either  of  the  parties  to 
the  controversy  shall  fail  to  signify  its  rejection  of  a  name  from  the  list,  as  herein  re- 
quired, within  one  month  after  request  from  the  other  to  do  so,  such  other  may  reject 
for  it.  If  any  of  the  persons  selected  to  constitute  this  Tribunal  shall  die,  or  for  any 
cause  fail  to  serve,  the  vacancy  shall  immediately  be  filled  by  the  nation  making  the 
original  appointment. 

5.  Each  nation  signing  these  articles  as  a  party  binds  itself  to  unite  in  forming  a 
Joint  High  Commission  and  a  High  Tribunal  of  Arbitration  in  all  proper  cases  and 
to  submit  to  the  decisions  thereof,  when  constituted  and  conducted  as  herein  required. 

6.  If  any  of  the  said  nations  shall  begin  and  prosecute  war  against  another  wrong- 
fully and  in  disregard  of  the  provisions  hereby  adopted  for  the  preservation  of  peace, 
such  nation  shall  have  no  right  to  insist  on  the  performance  of  neutral  duties  by  the 
governments  of  any  of  the  other  states  ;  and  in  such  a  case  the  offending  nation  shall 
have  no  lawful  right  to  take  or  hold  properly,  real  or  personal,  by  way  of  conquest, 
from  its  adversary. 


684 


U\K  ipan^Emerican  Contercnce  :  HppenMj. 


5.     FACSIMILE  COPY  OF  THE  AMENDMENTS  MADE    BY   MR.    BLAINE 
THE  ARGENTINE  PLAN  OF  ARBITRATION. 


Jt' 


/t.an*<\^ 


The  delegates  c^  the  Republics  of  North,  South  and  Cen- 
tral America  t»n}  Llitr  Owpuljlic  uf  llay04,  assembled  in  the  In- 
ternational American  Conference  — 


Believing  that  war  Is  the  most  costly,   the  most  iiji»€k4ri»' 
■facliovyi  and  the  mos  t  yonloup  oyycrlincnt  for  the  ^aJOMUJSBt 
SGti.leTr.enL.  of  international  differences   - 

that  the  gravth  of  moral  principle  in  the 


world  has   induced  a  public  opinion  that  there  are  no  ques- 


tions of   international   interest  which  cannot  be  ]ircm]p1ilj  nnd' 
amicably  s>«wfe4«4  by  the   intervention  of   iirpsrtial  counsel  - 
fenjuurcfged  bj  bho  g^ieiat  buiL'flL   tU  liiUJiV.lM  W?ll6'?HKte 

11  III-      Pi        ^m.»Hl( 

spootJyo^^^^rios^^^frw  fruii  lliu  (J UIUI Idling  tJUlltlu'al  !n- 


■fg-f-flc-^o    QTof^    o>-)t|nnp-1pTrf^nt.!^   Y7hi>.h    rl -Jrf  nT»li.  ul.1  ini'    r^mnt.-rir^'g    -  ■%  ■ 

espeuiall^  fUVui'iiblO   tu  till'  ^UbSJ  tit  uL lull  of  Ai  blLl'Ut  luii  fo»> 

&qr^^;  li iL cU 4^  tjii»»i:-j^'>iuiidl;y  iiiid  C(ydiai  association  In 
Wie  pi'Jsmil   Ounfm  (ij.^Q_Jjhat  the  American  Republics,   sharing 
alike  the  principles,   the  ^^^^^  obligations  and  respcnsi- 
bilities   of  popular  constitutional  government,  and  bound  to» 
gcther  by  vast,    l^si^^iu  increasing,   amf  woi'   uuiLUiiti'dt  11!^ 
common   interests,   may  within  their  own  circle,   establish  peace 
on  earih  and  good  will  ta.vards  men  — ^   ^*    fit4^^C^C'y^>^    -^ 


(Tommtttee's  plan  on  Hrbitration. 


aoearfmond  t  o  all 


685 


iro  niiciornfiil-rnt  f 1   ^  1  Titr  a  unifwrn  treaty  of  Arbitration 


in  the  articles  following: 

6.     PLAN  OF  ARBITRATION. 

REPORT    OF    THE    COMMITTEE    ON   GENERAL   WELFARE,     SUBMITTED    TO    THK    CONFER- 
ENCE, APRIL  14,   1890. 

The  delegates  from  North,  Central,  and  South  America  in  Conference  Assembled  : 

Believing  that  war  is  the  most  costly,  the  most  cruel,  the  most  fruitless,  and  the 
most  dangerous  expedient  for  the  settlement  of  international  differences  ; 

Believing  that  the  growth  of  moral  principle  in  the  world  has  awakened  a  public 
opinion  in  favor  of  the  amicable  adjustment  of  all  questions  of  international  interest 
by  the  intervention  of  impartial  counsel  ; 

Animated  by  a  realization  of  the  great  moral  and  material  benefits  that  peace 
offers  to  mankind,  and  that  the  existing  conditions  of  the  several  nations  is  especially 
propitious  for  the  adoption  of  arbitration  as  a  substitute  for  armed  struggles  ; 

Believing  that  the  American  Republics,  sharing  alike  the  principles,  the  obliga- 
tions, and  the  responsibilities  of  popular  constitutional  government,  and  bound  to- 
gether by  vast  and  increasing  mutual  interests,  may,  within  their  own  circle,  do  much 
to  establish  peace  on  earth  and  good  will  to  men  ; 

And  considering  it  their  duty  to  declare  their  assent  to  the  high  principles  which 
tradition  has  authorized,  public  reason  supports,  and  the  whole  of  mankind  proclaims, 
in  protection  of  the  weak  states,  in  honor  of  the  strong,  and  to  the  benefit  of  all ; 

Do  solemnly  recommend  all  the  Governments  by  which  they  are  accredited  to 
celebrate  a  uniform  treaty  of  arbitration  in  the  articles  following,  namely  : 

Article  I.  The  Republics  of  North,  Central,  and  South  America  hereby  adopt 
arbitration  as  a  principle  of  American  international  law  for  the  settlement  of  all  differ- 
ences, disputes,  or  controversies  that  may  arise  between  them. 

Article  II.  Arbitration  shall  be  obligatory  in  all  controversies  concerning  diplo- 
matic rights  and  privileges,  boundaries,  territories,  indemnities,  the  right  of  navigation, 
and  the  validity,  construction,  and  enforcement  of  treaties. 

Article  III.  Arbitration  shall  be  equally  obligatory  in  all  cases,  other  than 
those  mentioned  in  the  foregoing  article,  whatever  may  be  their  origin,  nature,  or 
occasion,  with  the  single  exception  mentioned  in  the  next  following  article. 

Article  IV.  Such  exception  shall  be  when,  in  the  judgment  of  any  nation  in- 
volved in  the  controversy,  its  independence  might  be  endangered  by  the  result  of 
arbitration  ;  for  such  nation,  arbitration  shall  be  optional,  but  it  shall  be  obligatory 
upon  the  adversary  pov/er. 

Article  V.  All  controversies,  or  differences,  with  the  exception  stated  in  Ar- 
ticle IV.,  whether  pending  or  hereafter  arising,  shall  be  submitted  to  arbitration,  even 
though  they  may  have  originated  in  occurrences  antedating  the  present  treaty. 


686        Ube  lpan=Hmcrican  Conference  :  BppenMj. 

Article  VI.  No  question  shall  be  revived  by  virtue  of  this  treaty  concerning 
which  a  definite  agreement  shall  already  have  been  reached.  In  such  cases  arbitra- 
tion shall  be  resorted  to  only  for  the  settlement  of  questions  concerning  the  validity, 
interpretation,  or  enforcement  of  such  agreement. 

Article  VII.  Any  government  may  serve  in  the  capacity  of  arbitrator  which 
maintains  friendly  relations  with  the  nation  opposed  to  the  one  selecting  it.  The 
office  of  arbitrator  may  also  be  entrusted  to  tribunals  of  justice,  to  scientific  bodies,  to 
public  officials,  or  to  i)rivate  individuals,  whether  citizens  or  not  of  the  states  selecting 
them. 

Article  VIII.  The  court  of  arbitration  may  consist  of  one  or  more  persons.  If 
of  one  person,  tlie  arbitrator  shall  be  selected  jointly  by  the  nations  concerned.  If  of 
several  persons,  their  selection  may  be  jointly  made  by  the  nations  concerned.  Should 
no  choice  be  made,  each  nation  claiming  a  distinct  interest  in  the  question  at  issue 
shall  have  the  right  to  appoint  one  arbitrator  on  its  own  behalf. 

Article  IX.  Whenever  the  court  shall  consist  of  an  even  number  of  arbitrators, 
the  nations  concerned  shall  appoint  an  umpire,  who  shall  decide  all  questions  upon 
which  the  arbitrators  may  disagree.  If  the  nations  interested  fail  to  agree  in  the 
selection  of  an  umpire,  such  umpire  shall  be  selected  by  the  arbitrators  already  ap- 
pointed. 

Article  X.  The  appointment  of  an  umpire,  and  his  acceptance,  shall  take  place 
before  the  arbitrators  enter  upon  the  hearing  of  the  questions  in  dispute. 

Article  XI.  The  umpire  shall  not  act  as  a  member  of  the  court,  but  his  duties 
and  powers  shall  be  limited  to  the  decision  of  questions  upon  which  the  arbitrators  shall 
be  unable  to  agree. 

Article  XII.  Should  an  arbitrator,  or  an  umpire,  be  prevented  from  serving  by 
reason  of  death,  resignation,  or  other  cause,  such  arbitrator  or  umpire  shall  be  replaced 
by  a  substitute,  to  be  selected  in  the  same  manner  in  which  the  original  arbitrator  or 
umpire  shall  have  been  chosen. 

Article  XIII.  The  court  shall  hold  its  sessions  at  such  place  as  the  parties  in 
interest  may  agree  upon,  and  in  case  of  disagreement  or  failure  to  name  a  place  the 
court  itself  may  determine  the  location. 

Article  XIV.  When  the  court  shall  consist  of  several  arbitrators,  a  majority 
of  the  whole  number  may  act,  notwithstanding  the  absence  or  withdrawal  of  the  minority. 
In  such  case  the  majority  shall  continue  in  the  performance  of  their  duties  until  they 
shall  have  reached  a  final  determination  of  the  questions  submitted  for  their  consid- 
eration. 

Article  XV.  The  decision  of  a  majority  of  a  whole  number  of  arbitrators  shall 
be  final  both  on  the  main  and  incidental  issues,  unless  in  the  agreement  to  arbitrate  it 
shall  have  been  expressly  provided  that  unanimity  is  essential. 

Article  XVI.  The  general  expenses  of  arbitration  proceedings  shall  be  paid  in 
equal  proportion  by  the  governments  that  are  parties  thereto  ;  but  the  expenses  in- 
curred by  either  party  in  the  preparation  and  prosecution  of  its  case  shall  be  defrayed 
by  it  individually. 

Article  XVII.  Whenever  disputes  arise  the  nations  involved  shall  appoint 
courts  of  arbitration  in  accordance  with  the  provisions  of  the  preceding  articles. 
Only  by  the  mutual  and  free  consent  of  all  such  nations  may  those  provisions  be  disre- 
garded, and  courts  of  arbitration  appointed  under  different  arrangements. 

Article  XVIII.  This  treaty  shall  remain  in  force  for  twenty  years  from  the  date 
of  the  exchange  of  ratifications.  After  the  expiration  of  that  period  it  shall  continue 
in  operation  until  one  of  the  contracting  parties  shall  have  notified  all  the  others  of  its 
desire  to  terminate  it.  In  the  event  of  such  notice  the  treaty  shall  continue  obliga- 
tory upon  the  party  giving  it  for  at  least  one  year  thereafter,  but  the  withdrawal  of 


Committee's  plan  on  IRiobt  of  Conquest  687 

one  or  more  nations  shall  not  invalidate  the  treaty  with  respect  to  the  other  nations 
concerned. 

Article  XIX.  This  treaty  shall  be  ratified  by  all  the  nations  approving  it,  ac- 
cording to  their  respective  constitutional  methods  ;  and  the  ratifications  shall  be  ex- 
changed in  the  city  of  Washington  on  or  before  the  first  day  of  May,  A.D.  1891. 
Any  other  nation  may  accept  this  treaty  and  become  a  party  thereto  by  signing  a  copy 
thereof  and  depositing  the  same  with  the  Government  of  the  United  States  :  where- 
upon the  said  Government  shall  communicate  this  fact  to  the  other  contracting  parties. 

In  testimony  whereof  the  undersigned  plenipotentiaries  have  hereunto  affixed 
their  signatures  and  seals. 

Done  in  the  city  of  Washington,  in  copies  in  English,  Spanish,  and  Por- 

tuguese, on  this  day  of  the  month  of  ,  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and 

ninety. 

John  B.  Henderson,  Manuel  Qitintana, 

Juan  Francisco  Velarde,  N.  Bolet  Peraza, 

J.  M.  HuRTADO,  J.  G.  do  Amaral  Valente, 

Fernando  Cruz. 
Washington,  April  g,  iSgo. 


7.     THE  RIGHT  OF  CONQUEST. 

supplementary   report   of   the   committee   on   general   WKI.I'ARE. 

Whereas  there  is  in  America  no  territory  which  can  be  deemed  res  nullius  ;  and 

Whereas,  in  view  of  this,  a  war  of  conquest  of  one  American  nation  against 
another  would  constitute  a  clearly  unjustifiable  act  of  violence  and  spoliation  ;  and 

Whereas,  the  possibilities  of  aggressions  upon  national  territory  would  inevitably 
involve  a  recourse  to  the  ruinous  system  of  war  armaments  in  time  of  peace  ;  and 

Whereas,  the  Conference  feels  that  it  would  fall  short  of  the  most  exalted  con- 
ception of  its  mission  were  it  to  abstain  from  embodying  its  pacific  and  fraternal 
sentiments  in  declarations  tending  to  promote  national  stability,  and  guarantee  just 
international  relations  among  the  nations  of  the  continent : 

Be  it  therefore  resolved  by  the  International  American  Conference, 
That  it  earnestly  recommends  to  the  Governments  therein  represented  the  adoption  of 
the  following  declarations  : 

First.  That  the  principle  of  conquest  shall  never  hereafter  be  recognized  as 
admissible  under  American  public  law. 

Second.  That  all  cessions  of  territory  made  subsequent  to  the  present  declaration 
shall  be  absolutely  void  if  made  under  threats  of  war  or  the  presence  of  an  armed 
force. 

Third.  Any  nation  from  which  such  cessions  shall  have  been  exacted  may 
demand  that  the  question  of  the  validity  of  the  cessions  so  made  shall  be  submitted  to 
arbitration. 

Fourth.  Any  renunciation  of  the  right  to  have  recourse  to  arbitration  shall  be 
null  and  void  whatever  the  time,  circumstances,  and  conditions  may  be  under  which 
such  renunciation  shall  have  been  effected. 

Manuel  Quintana, 

Juan  Francisco  Velarde, 

N.  Bolet  Peraza, 

The  delegations  from  Colombia,  Brazil,  and  Guatemala  approve  the  preamble  and 

the  first  article  or  declaration  of  the  resolutions. 

J.   M.   Hurtado, 

J.  G.  do  Amaral  Valentk, 

Fernando  Cruz. 


688       Zbc  lpan*american  Conference  :  BppenOij. 

3.     TREATY  OF  ARBITRATION  SIGNED  BY  THE  DELEGATES  TO 
THE  PAN-AMERICAN  CONFERENCE. 

I. — TREATY  OP'  ARBITRATION. 

The  Delegates  from  North,  Central,  and  South  America  in  Conference  assembled  : 

Believing  that  war  is  the  most  cruel,  the  most  fruitless,  and  the  most  dangerous 
expedient  for  the  settlement  of  international  differences  ; 

Recognizing  that  the  growth  of  the  moral  principles  which  govern  political 
societies  has  created  an  earnest  desire  in  favor  of  the  amicable  adjustment  of  such 
differences  ; 

Animated  by  the  conviction  of  the  great  moral  and  material  benefits  that  peace 
offers  to  mankind,  and  trusting  that  the  existing  conditions  of  the  respective  nations 
are  especially  propitious  for  the  adoption  of  arbitration  as  a  substitute  for  armed 
struggles ; 

Convinced  by  reason  of  their  friendly  and  cordial  meeting  in  the  present  Confer- 
ence, that  the  American  Republics,  controlled  alike  by  the  principles,  duties,  and 
responsibilities  of  popular  Government,  and  bound  together  by  vast  and  increasing 
mutual  interests,  can,  within  the  sphere  of  their  own  action,  maintain  the  peace  of  the 
continent,  and  the  good-will  of  all  its  inhabitants  ; 

And  considering  it  their  duty  to  lend  their  assent  to  the  lofty  principles  of  peace 
which  the  most  enlightened  public  sentiment  of  the  world  approves  ; 

Do  solemnly  recommend  all  the  Governments  by  which  they  are  accredited  to 
conclude  a  uniform  treaty  of  arbitration  in  the  articles  following  : 

Article  I. — The  Republics  of  North,  Central,  and  South  America  hereby  adopt 
arbitration  as  a  principle  of  American  international  law  for  the  settlement  of  the  dif- 
ferences, disputes,  or  controversies  that  may  arise  between  two  or  more  of  them. 

Article  II. — Arbitration  shall  be  obligatory  in  all  controversies  concerning  dip- 
lomatic and  consular  privileges,  boundaries,  territories,  indemnities,  the  right  of  navi- 
gation, and  the  validity,  construction,  and  enforcement  of  treaties. 

Article  III. — Arbitration  shall  be  equally  obligatory  in  all  cases  other  than 
those  mentioned  in  the  foregoing  article,  whatever  may  be  their  origin,  nature,  or  ob- 
ject, with  the  single  exception  mentioned  in  the  next  following  article. 

Article  IV. — The  sole  questions  excepted  from  the  provisions  of  the  preceding 
articles  are  those  which,  in  the  judgment  of  any  one  of  the  nations  involved  in  the 
controversy,  may  imperil  its  independence.  In  which  case,  for  such  nation,  arbitra- 
tion shall  be  optional  ;  but  it  shall  be  obligatory  upon  the  adversary  power. 

Article  V. — All  controversies  or  differences,  whether  pending  or  hereafter 
arising,  shall  be  submitted  to  arbitration,  even  though  they  may  have  originated  in 
occurrences  antedating  the  present  treaty. 

Article  VI. — No  question  shall  be  revived  by  virtue  of  this  treaty  concerning 
which  a  definite  agreement  shall  already  have  been  reached.  In  such  cases  arbitration 
shall  be  resorted  to  only  for  the  settlement  of  questions  concerning  the  validity,  inter- 
pretation, or  enforcement  of  such  agreements. 

Article  VII. — The  choice  of  arbitrators  shall  not  be  limited  or  confined  to 
American  States.  Any  government  may  serve  in  the  capacity  of  arbitrator  which 
maintains  friendly  relations  with  the  nation  opposed  to  the  one  selecting  it.  The  office 
of  arbitrator  may  also  be  intrusted  to  tribunals  of  justice,  to  scientific  bodies,  to  public 
officials,  or  to  private  individuals,  whether  citizens  or  not  of  the  States  selecting  them. 

Article  VIII. — The  court  of  arbitration  may  consist  of  one  or  more  persons. 


Ureatv?  ot  Brbitration.  689 

If  of  one  person,  he  shall  be  selected  jointly  by  the  nations  concerned.  If  of  several 
persons,  their  selection  may  be  jointly  made  by  the  nations  concerned.  Should  no 
choice  be  agreed  upon,  each  nation  showing  a  distinct  interest  in  the  question  at  issue 
shall  have  the  right  to  appoint  one  arbitrator  on  its  own  behalf. 

Article  IX. — Whenever  the  court  shall  consist  of  an  even  number  of  arbitrators, 
the  nations  concerned  shall  appoint  an  umpire,  who  shall  decide  all  questions  upon 
which  the  arbitrators  may  disagree.  If  the  nations  interested  fail  to  agree  in  the  selec- 
tion of  an  umpire,  such  umpire  shall  be  selected  by  the  arbitrators  already  appointed. 

Article  X. — The  appointment  of  an  umpire,  and  his  acceptance,  shall  take  place 
before  the  arbitrators  enter  upon  the  hearing  of  the  questions  in  dispute. 

Article  XI. — The  umpire  shall  not  act  as  a  member  of  the  court,  but  his  duties 
and  powers  shall  be  limited  to  the  decision  of  questions,  whether  principal  or  inciden- 
tal, upon  which  the  arbitrators  shall  be  unable  to  agree. 

Article  XII. — Should  an  arbitrator  or  an  umpire  be  prevented  from  serving  by 
reason  of  death,  resignation,  or  other  cause,  such  arbitrator  or  umpire  shall  be  replaced 
by  a  substitute  to  be  selected  in  the  same  manner  in  which  the  original  arbitrator  or 
umpire  shall  have  been  chosen. 

Article  XIII. — The  court  shall  hold  its  sessions  at  such  place  as  the  parties  in 
interest  may  agree  upon,  and  in  case  of  disagreement  or  failure  to  name  a  place  the 
court  itself  may  determine  the  location. 

Article  XIV. — When  the  court  shall  consist  of  several  arbitrators,  a  majority  of 
the  whole  number  may  act  notwithstanding  the  absence  or  withdrawal  of  the  minority. 
In  such  case  the  majority  shall  continue  in  the  performance  of  their  duties  until  thejr 
shall  have  reached  a  final  determination  of  the  questions  submitted  for  their  con- 
sideration. 

Article  XV. — The  decision  of  a  majority  of  the  whole  number  of  arbitrators 
shall  be  final  both  on  the  main  and  incidental  issues,  unless  in  the  agreement  to  arbi- 
trate it  shall  have  been  e.xpressly  provided  that  unanimity  is  essential. 

Article  XVI. — The  general  expenses  of  arbitration  proceedings  shall  be  paid  in 
equal  proportions  by  the  governments  that  are  parties  thereto  ;  but  expenses  incurred 
by  either  party  in  the  preparation  and  prosecution  of  its  case  shall  be  defrayed  by  it 
individually. 

Article  XVII. — Whenever  disputes  arise  the  nations  involved  shall  appoint 
courts  of  arbitration  in  accordance  with  the  provisions  of  the  preceding  articles.  Only 
by  the  mutual  and  free  consent  of  all  of  such  nations  may  those  provisions  be  disregarded, 
and  courts  of  arbitration  appointed  under  different  arrangements. 

Article  XVIII. — This  treaty  shall  remain  in  force  for  twenty  years  from  the  date 
of  the  exchange  of  ratifications.  After  the  expiration  of  that  period,  it  shall  continue 
in  operation  until  one  of  the  contracting  parties  shall  have  notified  ail  the  others  of  its 
desire  to  terminate  it.  In  the  event  of  such  notice  the  treaty  shall  continue  obligatory 
upon  the  party  giving  it  for  one  year  thereafter,  but  the  withdrawal  of  one  or  more 
nations  shall  not  invalidate  the  treaty  with  respect  to  the  other  nations  concerned. 

Article  XIX. — This  treaty  shall  be  ratified  by  all  the  nations  approving  it,  ac- 
cording to  their  respective  constitutional  methods  ;  and  the  ratifications  shall  be  ex- 
changed in  the  city  of  Washington  on  or  before  tlie  first  day  of  May,  A.D.  1891. 

Any  other  nation  may  accept  this  treaty  and  become  a  party  thereto,  by  signing  a 
copy  thereof  and  depositing  the  same  with  the  Government  of  the  United  States  ; 
whereupon  the  said  Government  shall  communicate  this  fact  to  the  other  contracting 
parties. 


690       Z\K  pan^Bmcrican  Conference  :  H|.">pen^iJ. 

In  testimony  whereof  the  luuiersigned  plenipntentiaries  have  hereunto  aftixed  their 
signatures  and  seals. 

Done  in  the  city  of  Washington,  in  copies  in  English,  Spanish,  and  Portu 

guese,    on  this    zSth    day  of   the  month  of    April,    one  thousand  eight  hundred  and 
ninety. 
Juan  Fr.\nxisco  Vel.arde,  Jacinto  Castellanos, 

For  the  Republic  of  Bolivia.  ^  For  Salvador. 

James  G.  Bi.aine, 
J.  M.  P.  C.WVMANO,  Pqj.  ^,^g  United  States  of  America. 

For  the  Republic  of  Ecuador.  (gigned  .-.fter  April  28,  .890,  on  receipt  of 

Fernando  Cruz,  instructions.) 

For  the  Republic  of  Guatemala.  Salvador  de  Mendonc^a, 

,T  -,  For  the  United  States  of  Brazil. 

Hannibal  Price, 

For  the  Republic  of  Haiti.  N.  Bolet  Peraza, 

Jost  Andrade, 
Jeronimo  Zelaya,  ■'     ^       ,      ,,    .     J  o 

For  Honduras  ^°''  ^''^  United  States  of  Venezuela. 

H.  GuzmAn,  Alberto  Nin, 

For  Nicaragua.  For  the  Oriental  Republic  of  Uruguay. 

II. — recommendation    to    EUROPEAN    POWERS    TO    ACCEPT    ARBITRATION. 

The  Internatio7ial  Amei-ican  Conference  Resolves  :  That  this  Conference,  having 
recommended  arbitration  for  the  settlement  of  disputes  among  the  Republics  of  Amer- 
ica, begs  leave  to  express  the  wish  that  controversies  between  them  and  the  nations  of 
Europe  may  be  settled  in  the  same  friendly  manner. 

It  is  further  recommended  that  the  government  of  each  nation  herein  represented 
communicate  this  wish  to  all  friendly  powers. 

III. — RECOMMENDATION   OF   THE   CONFERENCE   REGARDING   THE  RIGHT  OF  CONQUEST. 

Whereas  the  International  American  Conference  feels  that  it  would  fall  short  of 
the  most  exalted  conception  of  its  mission  were  it  to  abstain  from  embodying  its  pacific 
and  fraternal  sentiments  in  declarations  tending  to  promote  national  stability  and 
guarantee  just  international  relations  among  the  nations  of  the  continent  :  Be  it  there- 
fore 

Resolved,  That  it  earnestly  recommends  to  the  Governments  therein  represented 
the  adoption  of  the  following  declarations  : 

First.  That  the  principle  of  conquest  shall  not,  during  the  continuance  of  the 
Treaty  of  Arbitration,  be  recognized  as  admissible  under  American  public  law. 

Second.  That  all  cessions  of  territory  made  during  the  continuance  of  the  Treaty 
of  Arbitration  shall  be  void,  if  made  under  threats  of  war  or  the  presence  of  an  armed 
force. 

Third.  Any  nation  from  which  such  cessions  shall  be  exacted  may  demand  that 
the  validity  of  the  cessions  so  made  shall  be  submitted  to  arbitration. 

Fourth.  Any  renunciation  of  the  right  to  arbitration  made  under  the  conditions 
named  in  the  second  section  shall  be  null  and  void. 


9.     RECOMMENDATION    ADOPTED    BY    THE    PAN-AMERICAN    CON- 

FERENCE  ON    APRIL  10,   iSgo,  IN  FAVOR  OF   RECIPROCITY 

TREATIES. 

The  Committee  on  Customs  Union  has  made  a  careful  study  of  the  questions  sub- 
mitted to  its  consideration  by  the  International  American  Conference,  in  reference  to 
forming  a  customs  union  among  the  several  nations  of  this  continent. 


IRecommenOation  In  iFavor  of  IReciprocitv.         691 

It  is  generally  understood  by  customs  union  the  establishing  among  the  several  na- 
tions of  a  single  customs  territory,  to  wit,  that  the  nations  forming  the  union  shall  col- 
lect import  duties  on  foreign  goods,  under  substantially  the  same  tariff  laws ;  divide 
the  proceeds  thereof  in  a  given  proportion,  and  mutually  receive,  free  of  duty,  their 
respective  natural  or  manufactured  products. 

The  acceptance  of  this  plan  would  demand,  as  a  previous  requirement,  a  change 
in  the  fundamental  laws  of  the  countries  accepting  the  union.  Even  after  they  were 
ready  to  make  such  changes,  a  great  many  other  difficulties,  almost  insurmountable, 
would  have  to  be  overcome  ;  as,  for  instance,  fixing  the  representation  of  each  nation 
at  the  international  assembly  empowered  to  frame  a  common  tariff  and  amend  it  in  the 
future.  The  territorial  extent,  the  populations,  and  the  national  wealth  differ  so  much 
among  the  American  Republics  that  if  these  conditions  should  be  taken  as  the  basis  of 
representation  at  said  assembly,  the  small  States  would  not  have  sufficient  protection 
for  their  interests  ;  and,  if  all  the  nations  were  admitted  as  sovereign  on  an  equal  foot- 
ing, the  large  ones  would  be  insuftciently  protected.  It  might  be  necessary,  to  obviate 
this  difficulty,  to  create  two  bodies,  one  representing  the  population  and  the  other  the 
States,  in  the  manner  in  which  a  like  problem  was  solved  in  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States  of  America.  But  this  step  would,  in  the  opinion  of  the  committee,  re- 
quire a  partial  sacrifice  of  the  national  sovereignty  of  the  American  nations,  and  more 
radical  changes  in  their  respective  constitutions  than  in  its  judgment  they  are  willing 
to  accept. 

If  by  customs  union  is  meant  the  free-trade  between  the  American  nations  of  all 
their  natural  or  manufactured  products,  which  is,  properly  speaking,  unrestricted  reci- 
procity, the  committee  believes  it  is  in  principle  acceptable,  because  all  measures  look- 
ing to  the  freedom  of  commerce  must  necessarily  increase  the  trade  and  the  deveioj)- 
ment  of  the  material  resources  of  the  countries  accepting  that  system,  and  it  would  in 
all  probability  bring  about  as  favorable  results  as  those  obtained  by  free-trade  among 
the  different  States  of  this  Union. 

But  while  the  committee  believes  that  such  a  union  is  at  present  impracticable  as 
a  continental  system,  among  other  reasons  because  the  import  duties  levied  on  foreign 
trade  constitute  the  main  sources  of  revenue  of  all  the  American  nations,  and  such  of 
them  as  are  not  manufacturing  countries  would  thus  lose  more  or  less  of  such  revenue, 
on  which  they  depend  in  a  great  measure  to  defray  their  national  expenses  ;  while  the 
manufacturing  countries,  such  as  the  United  States  of  America,  would  have  to  aban- 
don, at  least  partially,  the  protective  policy  which  they  have  adopted  to  more  or  less 
extent,  and  they  do  not  seem  yet  prepared  to  change  that  system.  Besides,  a  reci- 
procity treaty  mutually  advantageous  between  two  contiguous  countries  might  prove 
onerous  if  extended  to  all  as  a  continental  compact,  especially  as  the  products  of  many 
of  the  American  Republics  are  similar.  Therefore,  while  these  obstacles  are  in  the 
way,  it  seems  premature  to  propose  free-trade  among  the  nations  of  this  hemisphere. 

But  although  it  is  not  easy,  in  the  opinion  of  the  committee,  to  reach  at  once  un- 
restricted reciprocity,  that  end  might  be  obtained  gradually  and  partially.  The  first 
and  most  efficient  step  in  that  direction  is  the  negotiation  of  partial  reciprocity  treaties 
among  the  American  nations,  whereby  each  may  agree  to  remove  or  diminish  their  re- 
spective import  duties  on  some  of  the  natural  or  manufactured  products  of  one  or  more 
of  the  other  nations  in  exchange  for  similar  and  equivalent  advantages,  as,  if  the 
mutual  concessions  were  not  equivalent,  the  treaties  would  soon  become  odious,  and 
could  not  last  but  for  a  limited  time,  and  would  discredit  the  system.  If  after  this  has 
been  tried  for  some  reasonable  time  a  good  result  should  follow,  as  it  is  to  be  expected, 
the  number  of  articles  on  the  free  list  might  be  enlarged  in  each  case,  from  time  to 
time,  until  they  attain,  through  the  develoimient  of  the  natural  elements  of  wealth, 
other  sources  of  revenue  or  an  increase  of  the  existing  ones,  which  would  allow  the 


692        Ubc  paii^Hmerican  Conference  :  BppenMj. 

contracting  nations  to  reach  unrestricted  reciprocity  or  a  free-trade  among  some  or  all 
the  American  nations. 

KECOMMENOATION    OF   THE   CONFERENCE. 

Therefore  the  committee  proposes  : 

To  recommend  to  such  of  the  Governments  represented  in  the  Conference  as  may 
be  interested  in  the  concluding  of  partial  reciprocity  commercial  treaties,  to  negotiate 
such  treaties  with  one  or  more  of  the  American  countries  as  it  may  be  in  their  interest 
to  make  then.,  under  such  a  basis  as  may  be  acceptable  in  each  case,  taking  into  con- 
sideration the  special  situation,  conditions,  and  interests  of  each  country,  and  with  a 
view  to  promote  their  common  welfare. 


10.     RECOMMENDATION     OF     THE     PAN-AMERICAN     CONFERENCE 

Ari'ROVED    ON    FEBRUARY    26,     1898,    ON    RAILWAY 

COMMUNICATION. 

REPORT   OF   THE   COMMITTEE   ON    RAILWAY   COM.MUNICATION. 

The  International  American  Conference  is  of  the  o])inion : 

First.  That  a  railroad  connecting  all  or  a  majority  of  the  nations  represented  in 
this  Conference  will  contribute  greatly  to  the  development  of  cordial  relations  between 
said  nations  and  the  growth  of  their  material  interests. 

Second.  That  the  best  method  of  facilitating  its  execution  is  the  appointment  of 
an  international  commission  of  engineers  to  ascertain  the  possible  routes,  to  determine 
their  true  length,  to  estimate  the  cost  of  each,  and  to  compare  their  respective  advan- 
tages. 

1  hird.  That  the  said  commission  should  consist  of  a  body  of  engineers  of  whom 
each  nation  should  appoint  three,  and  which  should  have  authority  to  divide  into  sub- 
commissions  and  appoint  as  many  other  engineers  and  employees  as  may  be  considered 
necessary  for  the  more  rapid  execution  of  the  work. 

Fourth.  That  each  of  the  Governments  accepting  may  appoint,  at  its  own  ex- 
pense, commissioners  or  engineers  to  serve  as  auxiliaries  to  the  sub-commissions  charged 
with  the  sectional  surveys  of  the  line. 

Fifth.  That  the  railroad,  in  so  far  as  the  common  interests  will  permit,  should 
connect  the  principal  cities  lying  in  the  vicinity  of  its  route. 

Sixth.  That  if  the  general  direction  of  the  line  cannot  be  altered  without  great 
inconvenience,  for  the  purpose  mentioned  in  the  preceding  article,  branch  lines  should 
be  surveyed  to  connect  those  cities  with  the  main  line. 

Seventh.  That  for  the  purpose  of  reducing  the  cost  of  the  enterprise  the  existing 
railways  should  be  utilized  as  far  as  is  practicable  and  compatible  with  the  route  and 
conditions  of  the  continental  railroad. 

Eighth.  That  in  case  the  results  of  the  survey  demonstrate  the  practicability  and 
advisability  of  the  railroad,  proposals  for  the  construction  either  of  the  whole  line  or 
of  sections  thereof  should  be  solicited. 

Ninth.  That  the  construction,  management,  and  operation  of  the  line  should  be 
at  the  expense  of  the  concessionaires,  or  of  the  persons  to  whom  they  sublet  the  work 
or  transfer  their  rights,  with  all  due  formalities,  the  consent  of  the  respective  Govern- 
ments being  first  obtained. 

Tenth.     That  all  materials  necessary  for  the  construction  and  operation  of  the 


TRccommen^atlon  on  Bmerican  /IDonctar\?  "Qnion.    693 

railroad  should  be  exempt  from  import  duties,  subject  to  such  regulations  as  may  be 
necessary  to  prevent  the  abuse  of  this  privilege. 

Eleventh.  That  all  personal  and  real  property  of  the  railroad  employed  in  its 
construction  and  operation  should  be  exempt  from  all  taxation,  either  national,  provin- 
cial (State),  or  municipal. 

Twelfth.  That  the  execution  of  a  work  of  such  magnitude  deserves  to  be  further 
encouraged  by  subsidies,  grants  of  land,  or  guarantee  of  a  minimum  of  interest. 

Thirteenth.  That  the  salaries  of  the  commission,  as  well  as  the  expense  incident 
to  the  preliminary  and  final  surveys,  should  be  assumed  by  all  the  nations  accepting, 
in  proportion  to  population  according  to  the  latest  ofticial  census,  or,  in  the  absence  of 
a  census,  by  agreement  between  their  several  Governments. 

Fourteenth.  That  the  railroad  should  be  declared  forever  neutral  for  the  purpose 
of  securing  freedom  of  traffic. 

Fifteenth.  That  the  approval  of  the  surveys,  the  terms  of  the  proposals,  the  pro- 
tection of  the  concessionaires,  the  inspection  of  the  work,  the  legislation  affecting  it, 
the  neutrality  of  the  road,  and  the  free  passage  of  merchandise  in  transit,  should  be 
(in  the  event  contemplated  by  article  eighth)  the  subject  of  special  agreement  between 
all  the  nations  interested. 

Sixteenth.  That  as  soon  as  the  Government  of  the  United  States  shall  receive 
notice  of  the  acceptance  of  these  recommendations  by  the  other  Governments,  it  shall 
invite  them  to  appoint  the  commission  of  engineers  referred  to  in  the  second  article,  in 
order  that  it  may  meet  in  the  city  of  Washington,  at  the  earliest  possible  date. 

Juan  Francisco  Velarde.  H.  G.  Davis. 

E.  A.  Mexia.  Fernando  Cruz. 
Jer6nimo  Zelaya.  Jacinto  Castellanos. 
Andrew  Carnegie.  Carlos  Martinez  Silva. 
Jos6  Andrade.  J.  M.  P.  CaamaSo. 

F.  C.  C.  Zegarra.  E.  C.  Varas. 

Manuel  Quintana.  J.  G.  do  Amaral  Valente. 

Jose  S.  Decoud.  H.  GuzmXn. 


II.  MR.  BLAINE'S  REPORT  TO  THE  PRESIDENT,  CONTAINING  THE 
RECOMMENDATIONS  OF  THE  INTERNATIONAL  AMERICAN 
CONFERENCE  OF  APRIL  7,  1890,  ON  AN  AMERICAN  INTERNA- 
TIONAL MONETARY  UNION. 

Department  of  State, 

Washington,  July  10,  iSgo. 
The  President  : 

The  International  American  Conference,  recently  in  session  at  this  capital, 
adopted  the  following  report : 

"  The  International  American  Conference  is  of  opinion  that  great  advantages 
would  accrue  to  the  commerce  between  the  nations  of  this  continent  by  the  use  of  a 
coin  or  coins  that  would  be  current  at  the  same  value  in  all  the  countries  represented 
in  this  Conference,  and  therefore  recommends — 

"  (i)     That  an  international  American  monetary  union  be  established. 

"  (2)  That  as  a  basis  for  this  union  an  international  coin  or  coins  be  issued  which 
shall  be  uniform  in  weight  and  fineness,  and  which  may  be  used  in  all  the  countries 
represented  in  this  Conference. 

"  (3)     That  to  give  full  effect  to  this  recommendation  there  shall  meet  in  Wash- 


694        XTbe  pan=Hmcrican  Gonterencc  :  BppcnMy. 

ington  a  commission  composed  of  one  delegate  or  more  from  each  nation  represented 
in  this  Conference,  which  shall  consider  the  quantity,  the  kind  of  currency,  the  uses  it 
shall  have,  and  the  value  and  proportion  of  the  international  silver  coin  or  coins,  and 
their  relations  to  gold. 

"  (4)  That  the  Government  of  the  United  States  shall  invite  the  commission  to 
meet  in  Washington  within  a  year  from  the  date  of  the  adjournment  of  this  Conference." 

It  was  hoped  and  expected  by  the  Conference  that  the  recommendations  would 
be  transmitted  to  Congress  with  a  recommendation  that  the  several  nations  interested 
be  invited  to  send  delegates  to  a  meeting  of  the  international  American  monetary 
union  at  Washington  on  the  first  Wednesday  of  January  next  ;  that  authority  be 
granted  for  the  appointment  of  three  delegates  on  the  part  of  the  United  States,  and 
that  an  appropriation  be  made  to  meet  the  necessary  expenses. 

Respectfully  submitted. 

James  G.  Blaine. 


12.     CENSURE  OF  A  MEXICAN  DELEGATE  BY  THE  MEXICAN  PRESS 
AND  A  PROMINENT  WRITER. 

Senor  Don  Francisco  Sosa,  a  prominent  literary  man  of  Mexico, 
published  in  the  third  volume  of  La  Revista  Nacional  de  Ciencias  y 
Letras  a  biographical  sketch  of  Senor  Don  Nicanor  Bolet  Peraza,  a 
delegate  from  Venezuela,  in  which  he  censured  him  and  myself  for  not 
having  followed  in  the  footsteps  of  the  Argentine  delegates  in  the 
discussion  before  the  International  American  Conference.  He  said 
among  other  things  the  following  : 

As  our  countryman,  Mr.  Romero,  has  a  great  love  for  his  native  land,  he  vehe- 
mently desires  to  see  her  great  and  prosperous  ;  but  he  has  not  been  able  to  entirely 
shake  off  the  influence  tlfat  American  habits  have  exerted  on  his  mind.  That  is  the 
reason  why,  during  the  Conference,  neither  Bolet  Peraza  nor  Romero  were  among 
those  who  in  round  periods,  with  loud  emphasis,  and  with  the  fire  natural  to  the  great 
orators  of  Spanish  America,  united  their  efforts  with  the  Argentine  Delegates,  Quin- 
tana  and  Saenz  Peiia,  zealous  guardians  of  the  autonomy,  and  legitimate  and  sacred 
rights  of  Latin  America.  To  them,  that  is  to  say,  to  Bolet  Peraza  and  Romero,  the 
fraternal  feelings  of  this  great  Republic  are  above  suspicion,  and  no  fear  should  be 
entertained,  that,  under  the  cloak  of  union,  the  stronger  might  dominate  the  weaker, 
and  quia  dominat  leo,  become  the  arbiter  of  their  destinies,  the  judge  of  their  contro- 
versies, in  fine  be  their  lord  and  master. 

When  Senor  Sosa's  paper  came  to  my  knowledge,  I  wrote  to  him, 
on  June  lo,  1890,  a  letter  in  which  I  explained  my  conduct  in  the 
Conference,  and  from  which  I  insert  the  following  extracts  : 

The  opinions  of  the  Latin-American  Delegates  were  expressed  in  two  different 
ways.  The  first  was  during  the  excursion,  to  which  they  had  been  invited  by  the 
Government  of  the  United  States,  as  its  guests,  and  were  received  as  such  by  all  the 
cities  of  this  country  that  they  visited  ;  and  the  second  as  representatives  of  their 
Governments,  at  the  International  American  Conference 

In  the  first  case,  do  you  consider  that  it  would  have  been  proper  and  polite  to 


Censure  of  iflD.  IRomero  bv  Senor  Sosa.  695 

make  any  comparison  between  what  the  Delegates  were  seeing  here  and  what  they 
left  in  their  countries,  even  if  what  they  left  at  home  was  superior  to  what  they  found 
here?  The  greater  the  advancement  and  progress  of  their  respective  countries,  the 
more  impropriety  there  would  have  been  to  make  reference  to  them  under  such 
circumstances,  as  all  comparisons  are  odious.  The  fact  that  we  were  Delegates  did 
not  deprive  us  of  the  attributes  of  gentlemen,  and  when  a  gentleman  invites  another  to 
his  house,  and  attends  to  him  as  his  guest,  it  would  be  at  least  very  poor  taste  on  the 
part  of  the  person  invited  to  expatiate  to  his  host  on  the  superiority  of  his  own  house- 
hold, and  on  the  condition  of  his  own  business  affairs  as  compared  with  what  he  finds 
where  he  is  in  the  capacity  of  a  guest.  That  is  so  very  true,  that  the  Argentine  Dele- 
gate himself,  who  was  situated  in  a  more  advantageous  position  than  ourselves,  as  I  will 
explain  farther  on,  did  not  deem  it  proper  to  say  a  single  word  at  several  banquets  and 
receptions  at  which  he  was  present. 

Notwithstanding  this,  as  I  desired  to  avail  myself  of  some  opportunity  to  make 
a  few  remarks  before  some  one  of  the  distinguished  audiences  of  this  country  regarding 
the  commercial  relations  between  Mexico  and  the  United  States,  I  read  at  the  banquet 
given  by  the  "  Spanish- American  Commercial  Union,"  of  New  York,  on  the  20th  of 
December,  i8Sg,  in  honor  of  the  Delegates,  an  address,  which  I  suppose  you  may  have 
seen,  as  it  was  published  in  all  the  papers  of  that  city,  wherein,  without  offending  any 
one,  and  with  the  utmost  moderation,  as  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  instead  of  being 
censured  it  was  well  received  by  nearly  all  the  newspapers  of  this  country,  I  made  some 
remarks  which  can  favorably  compare  in  frankness  and  vigor  with  the  speeches 
delivered  during  the  excursion  and  in  the  meetings  of  the  Conference. 

If  we  now  turn  our  attention  to  what  the  Delegates  said  at  the  meetings  of  the 
Conference,  it  seems  proper  to  state  that  there  were  two  sets  of  Delegates  :  one  com- 
prising gentlemen  who  had  no  permanent  position  near  this  Government,  but  who 
merely  came  to  this  country  to  stay  during  the  meetings  of  the  Conference  ;  and  the 
other  comprising  gentlemen  who,  besides  being  Delegates,  were  representatives  per- 
manently accredited,  and  who  at  the  end  of  the  sessions  of  the  Conference  would 
have  to  stay  here  and  continue  discussing  official  matters  of  importance  with  the 
Government  of  the  United  States,  and  whose  duty  it  was  to  preserve  cordial  personal 
relations  with  the  members  of  this  Government,  not  to  jeopardize  the  success  of 
very  important  affairs  of  their  respective  countries.  This  second  class  of  Delegates 
could  still  be  subdivided  into  two  classes,  the  first  of  which  comprised  those  who 
represented  countries  that,  owing  to  their  being  situated  at  the  extreme  southern 
portion  of  the  American  Continent,  with  scarcely  any  commercial,  political,  or  social 
relations  with  the  United  States,  and  having  no  questions,  affairs,  or  complications  of 
any  kind,  enjoyed  greater  freedom  to  express  their  opinions  without  reservation  or 
circumlocution,  and  who  made  free  use  of  such  freedom,  in  such  a  way  that  they 
pleased  even  the  most  exacting  ;  and  the  second  class  was  composed  of  representatives 
of  countries  situated  near  the  United  States — and  in  one  instance,  of  a  country  ad- 
joining it  throughout  a  large  extent  of  territory,  and  connected  by  several  trunk  rail- 
way lines,  as  is  the  case  with  Mexico — with  intimate  relations  of  every  kind,  who  had  to 
look  beyond  the  immediate  results  of  the  Conference,  and  who  could  not,  through 
misplaced  patriotism  or  improper  egotism,  compromise  not  only  the  affairs  pending 
before  the  Conference  but  the  more  weighty  ones  that   were  daily  being  discussed 

between  their  respective  countries  and  the  United  States 

A  very  well-known  proverb  says  that  "  speech  is  silver  but  silence  is  gold,"  and  if 
this  is  not  always  true,  it  is  so  when  prudence  succeeds  in  overcoming  a  desire  to  ob- 
tain a  victory  by  words,  merely,  which  is  often  only  a  temporary  one.  Be  it  as  it 
may,  I  think  that  in  diplomacy  especially,  men  are  judged  by  their  deeds  and  not  by 
their  words. 


696       Xlbe  ipan^Hmerlcan  Conference  :  BppenMj. 

You  think  that  the  long  residence  of  Mr.  Bolet  Peraza  and  myself  in  this  country 
renders  us  unable  "  to  shake  off  entirely  the  influence  exercised  uj^on  us  by  our  long 
residence  in  this  country,"  and  you  imagine  that  on  that  account  we  have  not  been 
"  zealous  defenders  of  the  autonomy  and  sacred  rights  of  Latin- America,"  and  by  in- 
terpreting our  minds  you  attribute  to  us  the  opinion  that  we  believe  that  "  the  fraternal 
feelings  of  this  great  Republic  are  above  suspicion  "  and  that  "  no  fear  should  be  en- 
tertained that  under  the  cloak  of  union  the  stronger  might  dominate  the  weaker,  and 
quia  dominor  leo,  become  the  arbiter  of  their  destinies,  the  judge  of  their  con- 
troversies, in  fine  be  their  lord  and  master." 

I  am  very  sure  that  if  you  were  better  informed  regarding  what  took  place  at  the 
Conference,  you  would  not  have  written  those  phrases,  which  are  not  only  unjust,  but 
that  have  no  foundation  to  stand  upon. 


13.     M.   ROMERO'S  ANSWER    TO  SENOR  PIERRA'S  ATTACKS. 

(From  Las  Novedades,  New  York,  July  7,  1890.)' 

In  a  letter  signed  by  Mr.  Fidel  G.  Pierra,  dated  at  Washington,  on  March  lo, 
1890,  addressed  to  the  editor  of  La  Nacion,  of  Buenos  Ayres,  published  on  the  4th  of 
May  following,  several  assertions  are  made,  some  incorrect  and  some  slanderous,  regard- 
ing incidents  which  occurred  in  the  International  American  Conference,  and  more 
especially  respecting  some  of  its  Delegates.  Had  he  referred  to  a  matter  of  less 
importance,  I  would  not  condescend  to  notice  the  utterances  of  a  man  so  blinded  by 
his  self-esteem  that,  not  satisfied  with  the  censure  that  he  brought  upon  himself  and 
with  having  placed  some  Delegates  in  an  unpleasant  position,  now  wishes  to  avenge 
his  supposed  grievances  on  others,  although  I  am  sure  that  his  utterances  cannot  reach 
the  gentlemen  he  attempts  to  offend  ;  but  as  this  incident  refers  to  serious  and  grave 
matters,  in  which  the  cordial  relations  and  good  understanding  of  all  the  American 
nations  are  involved,  I  think  it  advisable,  as  an  eye-witness  of  the  events  connected 
with  the  Conference,  to  make  some  corrections  of  the  letter  already  mentioned. 

No  wonder,  then,  that  La  Nacion,  of  Buenos  Ayres,  upon  inserting  that  letter  in 
its  columns,  "leaves  the  responsibility  of  the  article  to  its  author,"  and  that  it  does  not 
confine  itself  to  this,  but  states  that  the  time  for  fully  judging  the  Conference  is  not 
yet  at  hand,  since,  even  supposing  that  it  had  not  attained  any  material  results,  a  thing 
which  cannot  yet  be  known,  it  believes,  and  rightly,  too,  that  the  Conference  must 
produce  moral  results  which  must  be,  perforce,  favorable. 

Senor  Pierra' s  Personality. — I  shall  begin  with  the  personality  of  Mr.  Pierra. 
This  gentleman,  who,  owing  to  the  fact  that  he  had  a  commission  house  in  New  York, 
and  therefore  something  to  lose,  it  would  seem  should  act  with  some  caution  and 
circumsjiection,  has  descended  to  a  level  upon  which  probably  no  person  having  a 
mercantile  or  social  position  would  like  to  place  himself,  for  not  only  does  he  show 
that  he  is  as  little  loyal  to  a  government  he  has  served  and  from  whom  he  has  received 
a  salary,  by  revealing  matters  of  which  he  probably  had  knowledge  by  virtue  of  his 
office,  but  he  attacks,  without  reason,  the  very  persons  who  appointed  him  to  perform 
its  duties. 

'  As  Senor  Pierra  wrote  and  published  his  letter  in  Spanish,  my  answer  to  him 
was  also  written  in  Spanish,  and  the  one  inserted  here  is  a  translation  from  the 
original  publication.  My  letter  appeared  in  Las  Novedades  without  any  headings ; 
but  as  it  is  somewhat  lengthy  and  embraces  several  subjects,  I  thought  it  better,  for 
the  convenience  of  the  reader,  to  add  to  it  some  side  headings.  Extracts  of  my  letter 
were  published  by  several  papers  of  the  United  States. 


/ID.  IRomero's  Hnswer  to  Sr.  pierra's  Httacfts.     697 

In  the  capacity  of  Secretary  of  the  Spanish- American  Union  of  New  York,  he  ac- 
companied the  Delegates  on  the  excursion  to  which  the  Government  of  the  United 
States  invited  them,  having  received  ample  remuneration  for  this  service.  During 
this  excursion  he  was  in  touch  with  the  greater  number  of  the  Delegates,  and  having 
the  advantage  of  knowing  this  country  and  of  speaking  Spanish  and  English,  he  tried 
to  render  them  services  which  would  make  them  grateful  to  him,  and  which  paved  the 
way  to  his  election  as  Secretary. 

Nis  Appointment  as  Spanish  Secretary  of  the  Conference. — The  Conference 
resolved  upon  the  appointment  of  two  Secretaries,  both  versed  in  the  English  and 
Spanish  languages,  one  to  take  charge  of  the  Spanish,  and  the  other  of  the  English 
work.  By  request  of  the  Department  of  State  I  proposed  for  English  Secretary,  on 
the  25th  of  November  last,  Mr.  Remsen  Whitehouse,  whose  appointment  was 
unanimously  agreed  to.  But  before  making  this  nomination,  I  took  care  to  per- 
sonally speak  to  all  the  Delegates,  or  at  least  to  one  member  from  each  Delegation, 
explaining  the  motives  which  led  me  to  suggest  the  nomination,  and  to  know  if  a 
unanimous  agreement  could  be  reached  thereon.  What,  then,  was  my  surprise,  when, 
without  extending  to  me  the  courtesy  shown  by  me  to  my  colleagues,  immediately  after 
the  election  of  Mr.  Whitehouse,  one  of  the  Spanish-American  Delegates  nominated  Mr. 
Pierra  for  Spanish  Secretary  !  This  circumstance,  or  rather  the  desire  to  show  that  I 
resented  what  I  considered  an  uncalled-for  slight  on  the  part  of  a  colleague,  made  me 
give  my  vote  against  the  election  of  Mr.  Pierra;  although,  not  to  offend  his  sus- 
ceptibility, I  stated  clearly  that  my  vote  did  not  imply  any  want  of  confidence  in  the 
ability  or  integrity  of  the  candidate,  and  I  explained  the  reasons  that  impelled  me  to 
vote  as  I  did.  This  vote,  however,  severely  wounded  the  self-esteem  of  Mr.  Pierra, 
who  considered  it  as  a  mortal  offence,  and  this  is  the  only  explanation  I  can  find  for 
his  utterances  regarding  me. 

It  is  true  that  Mr.  Pierra  was  not  appointed  Secretary  to  the  Conference  by  the 
Government  of  the  United  States,  but  by  the  vote  of  the  Delegates  ;  but,  besides  hav- 
ing the  vote  of  the  Delegates  from  this  country  in  his  favor  in  the  election,  and  that 
for  this  reason  he  should  consider  himself  as  much  under  obligations  to  them  as  to  all 
the  others  who  voted  for  him,  there  is  the  circumstance  that  Section  V.  of  the  law  pur- 
suant to  which  the  Conference  was  called  together,  provided  that  the  Secretary  of 
State  of  the  United  States  should  designate  the  employees,  and  that  Mr.  Blaine, 
through  deference  to  the  Latin-American  Delegates,  consented  that  the  appointment 
of  Secretaries  should  be  made  by  the  Conference  itself  ;  but  these  employees,  being 
paid  by  the  United  States  Government,  contracted  obligations  regarding  it,  which,  I 
think,  have  been  completely  ignored  by  Mr.  Pierra. 

Although  aware  of  his  abilities,  it  was  natural  that  in  a  new,  arduous,  and  com- 
plicated matter,  he  should  at  first  make  mistakes,  although  of  little  consequence,  and 
for  the  purpose  of  showing  him  that  I  was  not  actuated  by  any  personal  feeling  against 
him,  I  refrained  on  many  occasions  from  criticising  at  the  meetings  of  the  Conference 
the  inaccuracies  or  errors  that  I  discovered  in  the  minutes  prepared  by  him,  and  in 
order  to  avoid  wounding  his  sensitiveness,  called  his  attention  to  them  in  a  personal 
and  private  way. 

Mr.  Pierra' s  Resignations. — Mr.  Pierra,  who  probably  imagined  that,  because  he 
had  the  position  of  Secretary  to  the  Conference,  he  was  entitled  to  the  same  privileges 
as  the  Delegates,  commenced  to  experience  some  disappointments,  as  when  he  discov- 
ered that  he  could  not  consult  directly  with  Mr.  Blaine  upon  what  he  might  have  to 
propose  regarding  the  business  of  the  Secretary's  office,  but  had  to  do  it  through  the 
official  whom  the  Secretary  of  State  had  appointed  to  serve  as  intermediary  in  matters 
of  routine,  that  is,  through  Mr.  William  E.  Curtis,  and  this  circumstance  wounded  his 
pride  to  such  an  extent  that  he  repeatedly,  verbally  as  well  as  in  writing,  presented  his 


698       "Cbc  il>an=Hmcrican  Conference  :  BppenMj. 

resignation  to  the  Executive  Committee,  of  which,  unfortunately,  in  so  far  as  this  inci- 
dent is  concerned,  I  was  a  member.  He  set  forth  the  reasons  he  had  for  resigning, 
which  were  principally  two  :  first,  because  he  thought  he  was  not  treated  with  due 
consideration,  but  was  rather  annoyed,  and  that  he  was  not  provided  with  competent 
employees  ;  and  second,  because  he  believed  he  did  not  receive  sufficient  pecuniary 
remuneration. 

As  a  member  of  the  Executive  Committee,  I  did  all  I  could  to  induce  Mr.  Pierra  not 
to  insist  in  his  resignation  and  to  remove  the  difficulties  which  had  i^rompted  him  to  pre- 
sent it,  excepting  the  one  regarding  the  salary  which  had  been  assigned  him  by  the 
Department  of  State, — of  ten  dollars  a  day,  or  three  hundred  a  month, — because  this  was 
the  highest  salary  paid  any  of  the  employees,  (for  salaries  are  as  a  rule  low  in  this  country, 
and  that  of  three  hundred  dollars  was  equal  to  or  greater  than  those  paid  to  the  second 
and  third  Assistant  Secretaries  of  State),  and  above  all  because  as  the  Latin-American 
nations  did  not  pay  the  salaries  it  would  have  been  improper  for  their  representatives  to 
ask  for  an  increase  of  the  same.  On  the  29th  of  January,  iSgo,  Mr.  Pierra  was  paid  his 
salary  up  to  the  31st  of  that  month,  and  on  the  following  day  he  returned  the  money, 
stating  in  writing  that  the  Executive  Committee  knew  the  reasons  for  his  non-accept- 
ance of  it.  On  the  14th  of  February  he  presented  his  formal  resignation,  and  at  the 
meeting  held  by  the  Executive  Committee  to  consider  it,  I  advised  that  it  should  not  be 
accepted,  and  I  even  made  up  my  mind  to  speak  with  the  Secretary  of  State  upon  the 
subject,  with  the  view  of  overcoming  the  reasons  advanced  by  Mr.  Pierra.  I  can  state 
without  divulging  any  secret  or  agreement,  that  I  was  the  only  member  of  the  Execu- 
tive Committee  who  did  not  favor  the  immediate  acceptance  of  his  resignation,  as  the 
only  means  to  avoid  the  difficulties  he  had  created  for  himself  and  for  the  Delegates 
who  were  his  personal  friends.  Mr.  Blaine  expressed  the  desire  that  the  resignation  be 
not  accepted,  and  offered  to  do  all  he  could  to  retain  Mr.  Pierra  as  Secretary,  although 
he  suggested  the  impossibility  of  paying  him  a  larger  salary  for  the  reasons  already 
stated,  and  because  he  believed  that  a  higher  salary  might  cause  serious  inconveniences, 
as  the  auditing  officers  of  the  Treasury  Department  might  find  it  too  high,  and  thereby 
subject  the  Secretary  of  State  to  criticism  and  open  censure. 

It  would  take  too  long  to  relate  all  the  other  incidents  which  occurred  in  this  con- 
nection, and  I  shall  simply  say  that  some  of  the  Latin-American  Delegates,  believing 
that  Mr.  Pierra  might  be  the  victim  of  supposed  intrigues  on  the  part  of  Mr.  Curtis, 
took  up  his  defence  with  great  earnestness  in  the  matter  of  the  resignation  ;  they  ad- 
dressed him  a  letter  asking  that  he  should  not  resign  his  position  of  Secretary  and  made 
other  efforts  to  retain  him  in  that  office.  Deceived  by  these  manifestations  of  good  will 
he  thought,  probably,  that  he  could  treat  the  United  States  Government,  whose  employee 
he  was.  with  contempt,  and  he  determined  to  withdraw  his  resignation,  upon  the  condi- 
tion that  he  be  allowed  to  serve  without  pay.  As  this  condition  was  incompatible  with 
the  dignity  of  the  Conference,  the  Executive  Committee  decided  that  it  could  not  be 
accepted,  but  without  saying  anything  regarding  the  resignation  proper,  and  upon  be- 
ing informed  of  the  decision  Mr.  Pierra  wrote  another  communication  in  which  he 
withdrew  the  objectionable  part  of  the  preceding  one,  and  thereupon  received  the 
salary  which  he  had  before  declined. 

At  this  stage  of  the  incident  the  Executive  Committee  met  again  and  directed  me  to 
draft  a  report  containing  a  sfatement  of  what  had  taken  place,  and  reporting  in  favor  of 
accepting  the  resignation  of  Mr.  Pierra.  I  wrote  such  report  setting  forth  exactly  what 
had  transpired  ;  but  instead  of  recommending  the  acceptance  of  his  resignation,  I  recom- 
mended that  it  be  not  accepted.  This  part  was  changed  by  the  majority  of  the  Com- 
mittee who  thought  it  advisable,  in  view  of  the  stage  the  subject  had  reached,  not  to 
make  any  recommendation  as  to  the  acceptance  of  the  resignation,  but  rather  to  leave 
the  whole  matter  to  the  decision  of  the  Conference,  and  the  committee  made  other 


I 


/ID.  IRomero'5  Bnswer  to  Sr.  ipierra's  Bttacl^s.     699 

amendments  in  the  last  paragraph  of  my  draft  of  the  report,  which,  carefully  examined. 
are  less  favorable  to  Mr.  Pierra  than  the  phrases  I  had  written. 

The  amendments  introduced  in  my  report  appear  in  the  original  text  of  that  docu- 
ment, and  are  well  known  to  the  other  members  of  the  Committee.  For  greater  clear- 
ness I  here  insert  both  texts.     Mine  reads  thus  : 

"  But  s&  from  letters  which  some  Honorable  Delegates  have  addressed  to  this  gen- 
tleman,  and  from  resolutions  introduced  in  the  Conference,  it  appears  that  there  are 
several  Honorable  Delegates  who  earnestly  desire  that  Mr.  Pierra  return  to  perform 
the  duties  of  Secretary,  and  who  believe  that,  if  returning,  he  will  permanently  remain, 
the  Committee  does  not  desire  to  oppose  the  wishes  of  these  Honorable  Delegates  and 
consequently  it  proposes  that  Mr.  Pierra  be  allowed  to  withdraw  his  resignation  and 
return,  to  perform  the  duties  of  Spattish-American  Secretary  of  the  Conference." 

This  was  modified  by  the  majority  of  the  Committee,  so  as  to  read  as  follows  : 

"  But  it  appears  from  resolutions  introduced  in  this  Conference,  and  other  docu- 
ments^ that  some  of  the  Delegates  earnestly  desire,  because  they  think  the  business  of 
the  Conference  would  be  facilitated  thereby,  that  Mr.  Pierra  should  return  to  his  duties 
as  Secretary,  believing,  also,  that  his  return  would  be  permanent.  The  Committee, 
therefore,  not  wishing  to  oppose  the  desires  of  the  said  Delegates,  refers  the  matter  to 
the  decision  of  the  Conference  without  reco7?imendation." 

The  other  statements  in  the  report  written  by  me  were  perfectly  correct,  for,  had 
it  been  otherwise,  the  report  would  not  have  been  signed  by  the  other  Spanish-Ameri- 
can members  of  the  Committee,  who  were  earnest  friends  of  Mr.  Pierra,  and  one  of 
whom  had  signed  the  letter  to  which  I  have  alluded,  in  which  he  was  requested  that 
he  should  not  leave  his  office  as  Secretary. 

The  Conference  terminated  this  incident  by  authorizing  the  Executive  Commit- 
tee, upon  motion  of  a  Delegate  from  the  United  States,  to  decide  what  they  might 
think  best  regarding  Mr.  Pierra's  resignation.  Such  resignation  was  accepted  by  the 
Committee,  without  any  action  or  interference  whatever  on  my  part,  and  thus  Mr. 
Pierra  ceased  to  be  Secretary. 

My  efforts  to  retain  Mr.  Pierra  as  Secretary. — From  his  letter  to  La  Nacion,  of 
Buenos  Ayres,  I  infer  that  he  considers  me  as  the  instigator  of  his  withdrawal,  and 
that  he  qualifies  my  efforts  to  retain  him  as  Secretary  as  refined  intrigues  ;  whereas  if 
I  had  any  hand  at  all  in  his  leaving  the  office,  it  was  that  of  delaying  it  for  some  time, 
and  to  obtain  that  his  withdrawal  should  take  place  in  a  less  disagreeable  way  for  him 
than  it  otherwise  might  have  been.  If  his  separation  had  been  due  to  my  intrigues, 
as  he  indicates,  this  would  be  a  very  serious  charge  against  the  intelligence,  not  only 
of  all  the  members  of  the  Conference,  but  more  especially  of  the  three  Latin-Ameri- 
cans who  were  members  of  the  Executive  Committee,  two  at  least  of  whom,  as  I  have 
already  stated,  were  personal  friends  of  Mr.  Pierra,  who  would  have  become  the  instru- 
ments of  my  supposed  intrigues,  or  against  their  loyalty  had  they  made  themselves  my 
accomplices.  Besides  the  Delegates  signing  the  report,  Mr.  Mendon9a,  a  Delegate 
from  Brazil,  was  a  member  of  the  Committee,  whose  signature  does  not  appear  on 
that  document  because  he  was  not  present  at  the  meeting  on  that  day  ;  but  as  is  well 
known  to  the  other  members  of  the  Committee,  ke  expressed  from  the  very  first  the 
most  decided  opinions  in  favor  of  the  acceptance  of  the  resignation. 

Mr.  Pierra's  Imputations. — I  shall  say  very  little  regarding  the  personal  imputa- 
tions which  Mr.  Pierra  hurls  against  me.  He  attributes  to  me  the  desire  to  be  elected 
President  of  the  Conference,  whereas,  as  he  himself  acknowledges,  the  President  had 
to  be  a  Delegate  from  the  United  States.  And  this  could  not  have  been  otherwise 
without  committing  an  act  of  serious  discourtesy  towards  the  inviting  Government. 
Since  I  was  not  an  United  States  Delegate,  how  could  the  idea  of  being  elected  Presi- 
dent of  the  Congress  ever  h.ave  been  entertained  by  me  ?    Had  1  entertained  the  desire  to 


700       XTbe  ipaus^amevican  Conference  :  appends. 

preside  over  the  Conference,  I  could  have  attained  it  by  failing  to  ask  my  colleague 
to  refrain  from  voting  for  me  in  the  election  for  Vice-President,  which  was  a  tie,  and 
thus  the  vote  of  Mexico  would  have  decided  it  in  my  favor. 

Mr.  Pierra  asserts  that  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  that  position  I  interpreted 
erroneously  the  remarks  made  by  the  United  States  Delegates.  This  assertion  implies 
not  only  a  slander  on  me,  but  an  insult  to  all  the  other  delegates  who  were  present, 
whom  it  would  be  necessary  to  consider  as  childishly  inexpert  or  ignorant,  to  have 
been  the  victims  of  such  a  gross  deception.  Many  of  the  Latin-Americans  spoke 
English  better  than  I — for  I  am  the  first  to  recognize  that  I  do  not  know  it  perfectly, 
as  Mr.  Pierra  slates,  and  I  should  add  that  I  have  never  boasted  of  being  a  linguist, 
and,  on  the  contrary,  have  always  been  aware  that  I  do  not  possess  the  gift  of  elo- 
quence nor  that  of  languages — and  all  the  other  Delegates  who  did  not  speak  English, 
spoke  French.  Among  the  American  IJ)elegates  there  was  one,  Mr.  Flint,  who  spoke 
Spanish  correctly,  and  at  least  one  more,  Mr,  Trescot,  who  understood  it  sufficiently 
well,  and  two  or  three  more,  like  Mr.  Coolidge  and  Mr.  Carnegie,  who  spoke  French 
correctly.  All  the  Delegates  were  in  intimate  and  constant  communication  with  each 
other,  and  under  these  circumstances  it  was  not  possible  that  what  was  said  to  me  by 
the  United  States  Delegates  could  be  intentionally  misinterpreted  by  me,  for  if  I  were 
capable  of  such  an  abuse,  I  would  have  been  corrected  and  reproved  on  the  spot. 

My  efforts  to  avoid  misunderstandings  among  the  Delegates. — The  fact  of  my 
having  resided  in  this  country  for  a  longer  time  than  any  other  of  the  Latin-Ameri- 
can Delegates,  and  of  being  personally  acquainted  with  most  of  the  United  States 
Delegates  long  before  the  meeting  of  the  Conference,  and  perhaps  also  because  I  was 
the  member  of  the  Latin-American  Diplomatic  Corps  who  had  resided  longest  in 
Washington,  they  applied  to  me  in  the  beginning  of  the  session  in  order  to  make 
known  their  desires  and  wishes  to  the  other  Delegates.  This  state  of  things, 
which  I  by  no  means  sought,  and  which  I  only  considered  as  a  service  to  the  Latin- 
American  Delegates  who  did  not  speak  English,  which  I  could  not  refuse,  is  the 
foundation  for  Mr.  Pierra  to  assert  that  I  made  distorted  interpretations  and  that  I 
interfered  in  matters  with  which  he  thinks  I  had  nothing  to  do. 

The  difficulty  of  understanding  each  other,  owing  to  the  lack  of  good  interpreters, 
especially  during  the  first  sessions  of  the  Conference,  was  the  cause  of  misunderstand- 
ings, which  might  have  even  assumed  a  disagreeable  character,  among  the  Latin- 
American  Delegates  and  their  colleagues  of  the  United  States.  As  I  could  readily  see 
the  cause  of  such  misunderstandings — owing  to  the  limited  knowledge  I  have  of  both 
languages,  which,  although  imperfect,  as  avered  by  Mr.  Pierra,  enables  me  to  under- 
stand sufficiently  all  that  is  said  in  English,  and  to  make  myself  understood,  although 
imperfectly,  in  that  language — I  essayed  to  prevent  it,  making  the  necessary  explana- 
tions, sometimes  to  the  United  States  Delegates  when  the  misunderstandings  were  on 
their  side,  and  sometimes  to  the  Latin-Americans.  I  thought  that  I  rendered  in  this 
way  a  service  to  my  colleagues,  assuming  a  task  somewhat  disagreeable,  which  I  was 
really  not  called  upon  to  perform,  and  which  probably  I  should  not  have  accepted  had 
I  been  guided  by  selfish  motives.  These  efforts  on  my  part  to  prevent  misunderstand- 
ings and  to  render  services  to  some  of  my  colleagues,  which,  had  I  been  in  their  place,  I 
would  have  greatly  appreciated,  serve  also  as  a  foundation  for  Mr.  Pierra's  imputation 
that  I  desired  to  become  a  righter  of  wrongs,  redresser  of  injuries,  etc.,  etc.  When  the 
Delegates  knew  and  understood  each  other  better,  when  the  interpreters  improved,  and 
when  I  saw  that  there  was  no  necessity  for  explanations  nor  interference  on  my  part, 
I  ceased  completely  to  assume  the  task  or  render  the  services  which  I  had  undertaken 
at  the  beginning  of  the  sessions  of  the  Conference.  I  believe  that  all  the  Delegates 
can  bear  witness  that,  instead  of  trying  to  divide  them,  as  Mr.  Pierra  asserts,  my 
purpose   was   to   unite  them  and   prevent    misunderstandings   among   them,    which 


/ID.  IRomero's  Snswer  to  Sr.  ipierra's  attacl?s.     701 

principally  arose  from  the  lack  of  knowledge  of  the  respective  languages  and  the 
customs  of  the  countries  represented. 

Alleged  subsidy  of  N'eiv  York  Papers. — Mr.  Pierra  asserts  that  I  pay  newspapers 
in  New  York  to  eulogize  me.  I  will  merely  refute  that  other  slander  by  saying  that 
I  never  purchased  a  single  eulogy  nor  have  I  ever  paid  a  Spanish  or  Anglo-American 
paper  issued  at  New  York,  or  at  any  other  place,  a  single  cent  beyond  the  subscription 
price  when  I  was  a  subscriber. 

I  think  the  praise  which  Mr.  Pierra  extends  to  the  Latin-American  Delegates  is 
well  merited,  and  that  even  in  some  cases  it  falls  short.  But  it  seems  strange  that 
only  two  out  of  the  twenty-three  Latin-Americans  who  met  in  the  Conference  failed  to 
deserve  his  praise,  and  that  those  two  should  be  the  only  Delegates  who  denied  him 
their  votes  for  Secretary  ;  respecting  one  of  them,  Mr.  Mexia,  my  colleague,  he  does 
not  see  fit  to  say  one  word  for  or  against,  but  regarding  me,  he  unbosoms  himself  to 
his  full  satisfaction. 

Mr.  Sutton's  Memorandum.^ — I  had  no  knowledge  of  the  private  instructions 
which  Mr.  Pierra  asserts  were  addressed  by  the  Department  of  State  to  the  United 
States  Delegates  regarding  the  election  of  President.  I  had  been  assured  by  well- 
informed  persons  that  the  document,  which  Mr.  Pierra  obtained  probably  in  his 
capacity  as  Secretary,  and  whose  publication  with  the  object  he  gives  should  be  con- 
sidered, at  the  very  least,  as  an  act  of  discourtesy,  was  not  written  in  the  Department 
of  State,  and  much  less  bore  the  character  of  private  instructions,  but  that  it  was 
prepared  by  an  employee  to  whom  the  Secretary  of  State  gave  in  charge  the  work  pre- 
liminary to  the  meeting  of  the  Conference.  When  carefully  examined  we  find,  on  the 
other  hand,  that  it  contains  nothing  new,  nothing  irregular,  nor  anything  which  might 
be  considered  as  offensive  to  the  rights  and  interests  of  the  Latin-American  nations 
represented  in  the  Conference,  for  the  reason  that  it  only  states  that  the  office  of  Presi- 
dent of  the  Conference  belonged,  as  an  act  of  courtesy,  usual  among  civilized  nations, 
to  a  representative  of  the  United  States. 

Conclusion. — I  think  it  unnecessary  to  consider  the  other  statements  contained  in 
Mr.  Pierra's  letter  which  do  not  refer  to  me  personally,  although  I  expect  later  to 
have  the  opportunity  to  make  some  explanations  regarding  the  proceedings  of  the  Con- 
ference, which  will  show,  although  indirectly,  the  biased  and  untenable  character  of 
Mr.  Pierra's  assertions. 

'  The  document,  to  which  Senor  Pierra  gave  such  great  importance,  was  the  Sut- 
ton Memorandum,  to  which  I  refer  on  page  639  of  this  book.  I  had  not  heard  any- 
thing at  all  about  that  paper,  until  after  Seiior  Pierra's  letter  reached  Washington, 
and  then  on  inquiry  I  found  out  what  appears  both  in  my  answer  to  Seiior  Pierra,  and 
in  the  preceding  paper. 


702 


SupiUcincnt  to  tbc  jFrce  Zone  paper. 


SUPPLEMENT  TO  THE  FREE  ZONE  PAPER. 

Since  this  paper  went  to  press,  the  Congress  of  the  United  States 
has  acted  again  on  the  Free  Zone  question,  causing  important  congres- 
sional documents  to  come  out,  and  the  House  of  Representatives 
passed  a  Joint  Resolution  repealing  the  Joint  Resolution  of  March 
I  St,  189S.  I  have  also  received  valuable  official  information  from  the 
Mexican  Government  bearing  on  the  amount  of  foreign  merchandise, 
not  from  the  United  States,  imported  into  the  Free  Zone,  during  the 
fiscal  years  1S95-96  and  1S96-97.  I  have  thought  proper,  therefore, 
to  embrace  that  information,  as  well  as  the  action  of  Congress  and 
papers  referred  to,  in  the  present  supplement. 

Foreign  Commodities  Imported  into  the  Free  Zone. — \Vith  a  view  of 
finding  out  the  exact  value  of  foreign  merchandise,  except  the  products 
and  manufactures  of  the  United  States  imported  into  the  Mexican 
Free  Zone,  with  the  payment  of  eighteen  and  one  half  per  cent,  of  the 
full  import  duties,  and  in  that  way  show  what  is  the  exact  amount  of 
that  trade,  I  requested  the  Mexican  Government  to  prepare  a  state- 
ment of  the  extent  of  that  trade  from  the  ofificial  data  furnished  by  the 
respective  custom  houses,  which  I  received  after  my  paper  on  the  sub- 
ject had  been  printed. 

We  have  twelve  custom  houses  on  our  frontier  with  the  United 
States,  between  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  Grande  River  and  the  Pacific 
Ocean.  Seven  of  them,  Mier,  Guerrero,  Camargo,  Boquillas,  La 
Morita,  Tijuana  and  Sdsabe  imported  during  the  two  fiscal  years  1895- 
96  and  1896-97  only  foreign  merchandise,  the  product  and  manufacture 
of  the  United  States,  and  none  from  Europe  or  any  other  country. 
The  importations  from  the  other  five  custom  houses  were  as  follows: 


CUSTOM  HOUSES. 

YEARS. 

VALUE. 

18^  PER  CENT. 

OF  DUTIES 

PAID. 

TOTAL 

DUTIES. 

Matamoros 

1895-96 
1896-97 
1S95-96 
1896-97 

1895-96 
1896-97 

1895^96 
1896-97 
1895-96 
1896-97 

$49,124 
210,862 

21,660 
34,620 

102,507 

41,460 
6,161 

$14,919.01 
48,530.31 

14,969.65 

18,643.14 

i5.3S8.57 

$80,643.33 

Laredo  de  Tamaulipas 

Piedras  Negras  : 

(Ciudad  Porfirio  Diaz)  . .  . 

El  Paso  del  Norte'  : 

(Ciudad  Juarez) 

262,326.00 

2,813-43 

5,278.27 

100,773.70 

Nogales 

75,164.26 
8,017.21 

Total 

$466,394 

$112,450.68 

$535,016.20 

•  In  the  figures  of  the  El  Paso  del  Norte  custom  house  are  embraced   both  the  commodities 
imported  from  the  United  States  and  those  arrived  in  transit  from  Veracruz,  Tampico,  and  Guaymas. 


S'oreiGu  CommoMties  "ffrnporteO  into  tbe  3f ree  Zone,     703 

I  regret  that  the  data  sent  by  the  Matamoros,  Laredo,  and  El  Paso 
del  Norte  custom  houses  do  not  state  separately  the  importation  of 
foreign  merchandise  not  from  the  United  States,  during  the  fiscal 
years  1895-96  and  1896-97,  but  give  the  figures  of  both  years  to- 
gether. To  avoid  the  delay  necessary  to  have  this  data  revised,  I 
will  take  as  the  importation  of  each  year,  one  half  of  the  importation 
of  the  two  years.  The  total  value  of  foreign  merchandise,  not  pro- 
duced or  manufactured  in  the  United  States,  imported  into  the  Mexi- 
can Free  Zone  during  the  two  years  mentioned  was  $466,394,  which 
would  give  an  average  for  one  year  of  $233,197.  A  large  portion  of 
these  commodities,  fifty  per  cent,  of  them  at  least,  goes  to  places  in 
Mexico  outside  of  the  Free  Zone  limits  in  so  far  as  those  imported  by 
the  Laredo  and  El  Paso  del  Norte  custom  houses  are  concerned,  and 
about  twenty-five  per  cent,  of  those  imported  by  the  Piedras  Negras 
and  Nogales  custom  houses,  leaving  in  those  districts  about  seventy- 
five  per  cent. ;  and  supposing  that  all  the  merchandise  imported  by  the 
Matamoros  custom  house  is  consumed  in  the  Free  Zone  of  that  locality, 
the  value  of  the  merchandise  left  in  the  Free  Zone  would  be  $141,868. 
But  out  of  this  amount  ought  to  be  deducted  such  commodities  as  are 
consumed  in  the  Free  Zone,  which  would  be  at  least  fifty  per  cent., 
and  that  will  leave  $70,934,  which  might  be  smuggled  into  the  adjoin- 
ing countries,  the  largest  portion  of  which  will  likely  go  into  Mexico; 
but  supposing  that  all  should  be  smuggled  into  the  United  States,  which 
I  consider  is  not  at  all  probable,  the  value  of  merchandise  smuggled 
into  this  country  would  have  been  $70,934,  which  at  the  average  rate  of 
duty  in  the  United  States  in  the  year  ending  June  30,  1896,  was  39.95 
per  cent.,  and  the  average  for  the  following  year  ending  June  30,  1897, 
which  was  42.17  per  cent.,  making  an  average  rate  of  41.06  per  cent, 
would  amount  $29, 125.50  as  the  loss  suffered  by  the  United  States 
Treasury  on  account  of  the  Mexican  Free  Zone. 

Even  supposing  that  all  the  commodities  imported  into  the  Mexi- 
can Free  Zone  should  be  smuggled  into  the  United  States,  which  is 
certainly  almost  an  impossibility,  because  some  of  them  are  consumed 
in  the  Free  Zone,  and  the  largest  portion  if  smuggled  at  all  is  smuggled 
into  Mexico,  the  value  of  merchandise  smuggled  into  this  country  dur- 
ing each  of  the  mentioned  fiscal  years  would  be  $233,197,  which  at 
the  average  duty  paid  in  this  country  during  the  said  years  of  41.06 
per  cent,  would  amount  to  $95,750.97. 

This  information,  which  is  official  and  therefore  correct,  corrobo- 
rates Secretary  of  the  Treasury  Fairchild's  Report  of  March  i,  1888, 
and  which  I  give  in  full  in  the  foregoing  paper,  and  sustains  my  con- 
tention of  how  much  the  smuggling  which  can  be  carried  on  from 
Mexico  to  the  United  States  on  account  of  the  Free  Zone  has  been 
exaggerated,  even  in  case  that  every  cent  of  European  manufactures 
imported  to  the  Free  Zone  was  smuggled  into  this  country. 


704  Supplement  to  tbe  JFree  Zone  paper. 

Action  of  the  Fifty-fifth  Con^^ress  on  the  Free  Zone. — The  members 
of  Congress  from  Texas  renewed  their  efforts  during  the  ist  Session 
of  the  Fifty-fifth  Congress  to  rei)eal  the  Joint  Resolution  approved 
March  i,  1895,  forbidding  the  transi)ortation  of  goods  in  bond  into  the 
Free  Zone  of  Mexico,  and  Mr.  Samuel  B.  Cooper,  representing  the  2d 
District  of  Texas,  introduced  by  request  on  March  20,  1897,'  a  Joint 
Resolution  to  that  effect,  which  was  referred  to  the  Committee  on  Ways 
and  Means  and  ordered  to  be  printed.  As  the  ist  Session  of  the 
Fifty-fifth  Congress  was  specially  devoted  to  the  tariff,  and  for  that 
reason  the  Speaker  did  not  appoint  any  committees  until  the  end  of 
the  session,  excepting  the  one  on  Ways  and  Means,  who  had  to  report 
the  tariff  bill,  this  Committee  did  not  take  any  action  on  Mr.  Cooper's 
resolution  until  the  2d  Session  of  the  Fifty-fifth  Congress,  when,  on 
March  11,  1898,  it  was  favorably  reported  by  the  Committee,  referred 
to  the  House  Calendar  and  ordered  to  be  printed.  When  the  Com- 
mittee had  thus  to  take  some  action  on  the  subject  of  the  Free  Zone, 
not  being  familiar  with  the  bearings  of  that  institution  on  the  interests 
of  the  United  States,  they  addressed,  on  January  21,  1898,  a  commu- 
nication to  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  asking  his  views  on  said 
resolution. 

Secretary  Gage  sent  to  the  Hon.  Nelson  Dingley,  Chairman  of  the 
Ways  and  Means  Committee  of  the  House,  on  January  26,  1898,*  his 

'  Fifty-fifth  Congress,  2d  Session,  H.  Res.  27.  [Report  No.  702.]  In  the  House 
of  Representatives,  March  20,  1897,  Mr.  Cooper  of  Texas,  (by  request)  introduced  the 
following  joint  resolution  ;  which  was  referred  to  the  Committee  on  Ways  and  Means 
and  ordered  to  be  printed.  March  ii,  1898,  referred  to  the  House  Calendar  and 
ordered  to  be  printed. 

"  Joint  resolution.  To  repeal  the  joint  resolution  in  reference  to  the  Free  Zone  : 
"  Resolved  by  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  of  the  United  States  of 
America  in  Congress  assembled.  That  the  joint  resolution  entitled  '  Joint  resolution  in 
reference  to  the  Free  Zone  along  the  northern  frontier  of  Mexico  and  adjacent  to  the 
United  States,'  approved  March  first,  eighteen  hundred  and  ninety-five,  be,  and  the 
same  is  hereby,  repealed,  and  the  full  operation  of  section  three  thousand  and  five  of 
the  Revised  Statutes  as  existing  prior  to  the  adoption  of  such  joint  resolution  is  hereby 
revived." 

*"  Treasury  Department,  Office  ok  the  Secretary, 
"  Washington,  D.  C,  January  26,  i8g8. 

"  Sir  :  I  have  the  honor  to  acknowledge  the  receipt  of  a  letter,  dated  the  2ist 
instant,  from  the  clerk  of  your  committee,  with  which  was  transmitted,  for  an  expres- 
sion of  my  views  thereon.  House  joint  resolution  27,  providing  for  the  repeal  of  the 
joint  resolution  in  reference  to  the  Free  Zone. 

"  On  the  2d  of  February  last,  in  reply  to  a  letter  from  you,  inclosing,  for  an  ex- 
pression of  the  views  of  this  Department  thereon,  House  joint  resolution  222,  which  is 
substantially  the  same  as  that  under  consideration,  you  were  advised  that  there  is 
abundant  opportunity  for  the  perpetration  of  frauds  on  the  revenue  by  reason  of  the 
Free  Zone  of   Mexico,  and  until  the  privileges  pertaining  to  said  Zone  are  abolished 


Bction  of  tbe  55tb  Gongress  on  tbe  jfree  ^onc,    705 

answer  to  the  Committee's  inquiries,  stating  that  on  the  2d  of  February, 
1897,  he  had  given  the  views  of  the  Department  on  the  Joint  Resolu- 
tion introduced  for  the  same  purpose  by  Mr.  Cobb  on  December  18, 
1896,  and  he  repeated  his  opinion  that  the  only  practical  result  of  the 
Act  of  March  i,  1895,  "  had  been  the  loss  of  business  to  American 
railway  companies  by  reason  of  the  diversion  of  the  traffic  to  points  in 
the  Free  Zone,  by  way  of  Mexican  seaports."  He  also  reiterated  such 
views  as  he  had  expressed  before,  to  the  effect  that  he  saw  no  objec- 
tion to  the  passage  of  Mr.  Cooper's  Joint  Resolution.  Secretary  Gage's 
letter,  expressing  the  views  of  the  Treasury  Department  officials,  further 
stated  "  that  there  is  abundant  opportunity  for  the  perpetration  of 
frauds  on  the  revenue  by  reason  of  the  Free  Zone  of  Mexico,  and  that 
until  the  privileges  pertaining  to  the  said  Zone  are  abolished  by  the 
Mexican  Government,  the  danger  to  the  revenue  will  continue  to  exist. " 

Mr.  James  L.  Slayden,  another  member  of  Congress  from  Texas, 
representing  the  12th  Congressional  District,  embracing  San  Antonio, 
introduced  in  the  House  of  Representatives,  on  January  31,  1898,' 
during  its  2d  Session,  a  Joint  Resolution,  having  in  view  the  same 
object  as  Mr.  Cooper's,  namely,  to  repeal  the  Joint  Resolution  ap- 
proved March  i,  1895,  forbidding  the  transportation  of  goods  in  bond 
to  the  Free  Zone  in  Mexico,  and  his  resolution  was  also  referred  to 
the  Committee  on  Ways  and  Means. 

General  Grosvenor,  a  member  of  the  Committee,  to  whom  both 
resolutions  were  referred,  introduced  in  the  House  on  February  16, 

by  the  Mexican  Government  the  danger  to  the  revenue  will  continue  to  exist.  The 
opinion  was  also  expressed  that  the  only  practical  result  of  the  legislation  which  it 
is  intended  to  repeal  has  been  loss  of  business  to  American  railway  companies  by 
reason  of  the  diversion  of  the  traffic  to  points  in  the  Free  Zone  by  way  of  Mexican 
seaports.  The  views  then  expressed  are  reiterated,  and  I  see  no  objection  to  the 
passage  of  House  resolution  No.  27. 

"  Respectfully  yours, 

"  L.  J.  Gage,  Secretary." 
"  Hon.  Nelson  Dingley, 
"  Chairman  Committee  on  Ways  and  Means,  House  of  Representatives." 

'  Fifty-fifth  Congress,  2d  Session,  H.  Res.  139.  In  the  House  of  Representatives, 
January  31,  1898,  Mr.  Slayden  introduced  the  following  joint  resolution  ;  which  was 
referred  to  the  Committee  on  Ways  and  Means  and  ordered  to  be  printed  : 

"  Joint  Resolution.  To  repeal  joint  resolution  numbered  twenty,  approved  March 
first,  eighteen  hundred  and  ninety-five,  forbidding  the  transportation  of  goods  in  bond 
to  the  Free  Zone  in  Mexico. 

"  Resolved  by  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  of  the  United  States  of 
America  in  Congress  assembled.  That  joint  resolution  numbered  twenty,  approved 
March  first,  eighteen  hundred  and  ninety-five,  which  authorized  and  directed  the 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury  to  suspend  the  operation  of  section  three  thousand  and  five 
of  the  Revised  Statutes,  having  reference  to  the  transportation  of  goods,  wares,  and 
merchandise  in  bond  to  the  Free  Zone  in  Mexico  be.  and  the  same  is  hereby,  repealed." 


7o6  Supplement  to  tbe  jfree  Zone  paper. 

1898/  on  behalf  of  that  Committee,  a  Resolution  asking  "  the  Secre- 
tary of  the  Treasury  to  inform  the  House  whether  frauds  upon  the 
customs  of  the  United  States  have  been,  and  are  being,  committed 
through  the  Free  Zone  of  Mexico  by  reason  of  the  existence  of  the 
same  and  the  existing  laws  and  regulations,  and  if  so,  that  said  Secre- 
tary report  what,  if  any,  change  in  law  or  regulations  is  necessary  to 
protect  the  revenues  of  the  United  States  from  such  frauds." 

General  Grosvenor's  Resolution  having  been  approved  by  the  House 
after  some  explanations  made  by  him,  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury 
answered  the  same,  in  a  communication  addressed  on  March  11,  1898,' 


'  Fifty-fifth  Congress,  2d  Session,  House  of  Representatives.  Resolution  No. 
226.  In  the  House  of  Representatives.  February  16,  189S. — Ordered  to  be  printed. 
Mr.  Grosvenor  submitted  the  following  resolution  : 

'^Resolved  by  the  House  of  Reprcsent-^tives,  That  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury 
be,  and  he  is,  requested  to  inform  the  House  whether  frauds  upon  the  customs  of  the 
United  States  have  been,  and  are  being,  committed  through  the  Free  Zone  of  Mexico, 
or  by  reason  of  the  existence  of  the  same  and  the  existing  laws  and  regulations,  and  if 
so,  that  said  Secretary  report  what,  if  any,  change  in  law  or  regulations  is  necessary  to 
protect  the  revenues  of  the  United  States  from  such  frauds." 

-'  Fifty-fifth  Congress,  2d  Session,  House  of  Representatives.  Document  No.  342. 
Mexico  Free  Zone.  Letter  from  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  transmitting  a  re])ly 
to  the  House  resolution  of  the  i6th  ultimo  in  regard  to  frauds  upon  the  customs 
through  the  Free  Z(me  of  Mexico.  March  14,  i8g8. — Referred  to  the  Committee  on 
Ways  and  Means  and  ordered  to  be  printed. 

"  Treasury  Department,  Office  of  the  Secretary, 
"  Washington,  D.  C,  March  11,  i8gS. 

"  Sir  :  1  have  the  honor  to  acknowledge  the  receipt  of  copy  of  a  resolution,  dated 
the  ifjth  ultimo,  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  wherein  I  am  directed  to  inform  the 
House  whether  frauds  upon  the  customs  of  the  United  States  have  been  and  are  being 
committed  through  the  free  zone  of  Mexico  or  by  reason  of  the  existence  of  the  same, 
and  the  existing  laws  and  regulations  ;  and,  if  so,  that  I  report  what,  if  any,  changes 
in  law  or  regulations  are  necessary  to  protect  the  revenues  of  the  United  States  from 
such  frauds. 

"  In  reply  I  have  to  state  that  no  doubt  there  is  opportunity  for  the  perpetration 
of  frauds  upon  the  revenue  by  reason  of  the  continuance  of  the  free  zone  of  Mexico, 
and  until  the  privileges  pertaining  to  said  zone  are  abolished  by  the  Mexican  Govern- 
ment the  danger  to  our  revenue  will  continue  to  exist.  On  March  i,  1895,  a  joint 
resolution  authorizing  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  to  suspend  the  operation  of  section 
3005,  Revised  Statutes,  in  so  far  as  the  same  permits  goods,  wares,  and  merchandise 
to  be  transported  in  bond  through  the  United  States  into  the  free  zone  of  Mexico  so 
long  as  said  zone  exists,  was  approved,  but  the  only  apparent  result  of  such  resolution 
has  been  loss  of  business  to  American  railway  companies,  by  reason  of  the  diversion  of 
the  trafific  to  places  in  the  free  zone  by  way  of  Mexican  seaports.  In  March,  1888,  an 
investigation  was  made  with  the  view  to  ascertaining  the  value  of  merchandise  which 
passed  through  the  United  States  to  Mexico  during  the  preceding  year.  As  a  result 
of  the  inquiries  it  was  found  that  the  total  value  of  foreign  merchandise  passing  in 
transit  was  $497,654,  and  in   addition   to  that   amount  merchandise  of  the   value  of 


action  of  tbe  55tb  Conoress  on  tbe  jfree  Zone,    707 

to  the  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  in  which  he  reiterated 
his  views  "  that  there  is  opportunity  for  the  perpetration  of  frauds  on 
the  revenue  of  the  United  States  by  reason  of  the  continuance  of  the 
Free  Zone  of  Mexico,  and  that  until  the  privileges  pertaining  to  the 
said  Zone  are  abolished  by  the  Mexican  Government  the  danger  to  our 
revenue  will  continue  to  exist."  I  have  to  remark  that  the  Secretary 
of  the  Treasury  only  said  that  dangers  existed  for  the  perpetration  of 
frauds,  and  he  did  not  aver  that  frauds  were  actually  perpetrated,  as 
was  the  ground  taken  by  his  predecessors.  Secretary  Gage  also 
reiterated  in  that  report  the  views  expressed  in  his  former  letter  of 
January  26,  1898,  that  "  the  adoption  of  the  Resolution  of  March  i, 
1895,  has  caused  a  loss  of  business  to  American  railway  companies  by 
reason  of  the  diversion  of  the  traffic  to  points  in  the  Free  Zone  by  way 
of  Mexican  seaports."  Secretary  Gage  referred  also  to  the  Report  of 
Secretary  Fairchild  of  March  i,  1898,  which  I  have  given  in  full  in 
the  foregoing  paper,  and  stated  that  "  the  official  records  of  the 
frontier  ports,  while  showing  the  quantity  and  value  of  goods  exported 
to  Mexico,  do  not  indicate  the  proportionate  quantity  or  value  of  the 
merchandise  sent  to  the  Free  Zone  of  Mexico,"  and  concluded  by 
saying  that  he  was  not  prepared  to  suggest  any  changes  in  the  existing 
law  regulations  which  may  be  necessary  to  protect  the  revenues  of  the 
United  States  from  the  perpetration  of  frauds  with  the  existence  of  the 
Free  Zone  of  Mexico. 

$194,774  was  withdrawn  from  warehouse  and  exported  to  Mexico,  making  a  total  of 
$692,428,  of  which  $211,589  was  dutiable. 

"Since  the  passage  of  the  joint  resolution  above  referred  to,  no  merchandise  is 
forwarded  through  the  United  States  to  places  in  the  free  zone  under  the  regulations 
which  were  made  pursuant  to  the  provisions  of  section  3005  of  the  Revised  Statutes, 
but  goods  destined  for  Mexico  arriving  at  the  seaports  are  allowed  to  be  forwarded  to 
ports  on  the  Southwestern  frontier  after  appraisement  and  entry  at  the  port  of  first 
arrival.  Entry  of  such  merchandise  for  exportation  to  Mexico  is  made  at  the  port  of 
exit.  The  official  records  of  said  ports,  while  showing  the  quantity  and  value  of  goods 
exported  to  Mexico,  do  not  indicate  the  proportionate  quantity  or  value  of  the  mer- 
chandise sent  to  the  free  zone  of  that  country.  This  information,  if  desired,  may  be 
obtained  by  special  inquiries  at  the  several  ports  on  the  Southwestern  border. 

"  In  reply  to  the  request  for  a  report  as  to  any  changes  in  existing  law  or  regula- 
tions which  may  be  necessary  to  protect  the  revenues  of  the  United  States  from  the 
perpetration  of  frauds  through  the  existence  of  the  free  zone  of  Mexico,  I  have  to  state 
that  officers  of  this  department  stationed  on  the  border  have  from  time  to  time  been  in- 
structed to  be  specially  vigilant  in  protecting  the  revenue  against  the  unlawful  introduc- 
tion of  goods  from  places  in  the  free  zone,  and  I  am  unable  to  indicate  any  measure 
which  would  afford  additional  protection  to  the  revenues  of  the  United  States  against 
the  smuggling  of  merchandise  from  the  free  zone.  I  am,  however,  of  opinion  that  the 
joint  resolution  approved  March  i,  1895,  should  be  repealed. 

"  Respectfully  yours, 

"  L.  J.  Gage,  Secretary." 
The  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Representatives." 


7o8  Supplement  to  tbe  ifree  2:onc  paper. 

When  I  saw  in  the  Congy-essional  Record  oi  February  i6,  1898,  Mr. 
Grosvenor's  Resolution,  1  thought  it  proper  to  submit  both  to  Mr. 
Grosvenor  himself,  and  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  the  press 
proofs  of  my  paper  on  the  Free  Zone,  as  it  contained  full  and  impartial 
statements  on  the  subject,  and  in  doing  so  I  informed  both  of  them 
that  I  was  well  aware  that  I  had  no  right  to  interfere  in  the  internal 
legislation  of  this  country,  and  that  therefore  I  did  not  ask  for  nor 
suggest  anything  at  all,  my  object  being  merely  to  allow  them  the  op- 
portunity of  reading  a  complete,  and,  in  my  opinion,  impartial  state- 
ment of  the  Free  Zone  question,  so  that  they  could  understandingly 
make  up  their  minds  on  the  subject  and  arrive  at  a  fair  and  just  con- 
clusion. 

My  paper  does  not  seem  to  have  made  much  impression  upon  Sec- 
retary Gage,  if  he  really  had  an  opportunity  of  reading  it  carefully,  as, 
after  it  had  been  in  his  possession  several  days,  he  reiterates  in  his 
Report  of  March  11,  1898,  the  same  views  that  he  and  his  predecessors 
had  before  expressed  upon  the  opportunity  of  committing  frauds  upon 
the  revenue  of  the  United  States  as  allowed  by  the  Mexican  Free 
Zone. 

The  Committee  on  Ways  and  Means  of  the  House  did  me  the  honor 
to  ask  my  consent  to  insert  in  their  Report  my  paper  on  the  Free 
Zone,  and  as  my  object  in  writing  and  publishing  it  was  to  dispel  mis- 
apprehensions existing  here  on  that  subject,  which  were  in  the  way  of 
a  better  understanding  between  the  two  countries,  I  was  very  glad  that 
my  paper  should  be  published  in  an  official  document,  as  in  that  way 
it  could  be  within  the  reach  of  Senators,  Members  of  Congress,  and 
other  high  officials  of  this  Government,  for  whose  benefit  it  was 
specially  written. 

The  Committee  on  Ways  and  Means  presented  on  March  11,  1898,' 

'  Fifty-fifth  Congress,  2d  Session,  House  of  Representatives.  Report  No.  702. 
Mexican  Free  Zone.  March  11,  1S98,  referred  to  the  House  Calendar  and  ordered 
to  be  printed.  Mr.  Grosvenor,  from  the  Committee  on  Ways  and  Means,  submitted 
the  following  report.     [To  accompany  H.  Res.  27.] 

"  The  Committees  on  Ways  and  Means,  to  whom  was  referred  the  joint  resolution 
(H.  Res.  27)  '  to  repeal  the  joint  resolution  in  reference  to  the  Free  Zone,'  having  had 
the  same  under  consideration,  beg  leave  to  report  : 

"  By  section  3005  of  the  Revised  Statutes,  the  right  of  'free'  transportation  in 
bond  is  accorded  to  adjoining  countries  through  the  United  States  and  upon  its  rail- 
roads and  other  transportation  systems,  under  regulations  made  by  the  Secretary  of 
the  Treasury.  This  right  extended  to  the  Republic  of  Mexico.  The  Republic  of 
Mexico,  in  the  exercise  of  its  sovereignty,  created  a  district  of  territory  along  its  en- 
tire frontier  bordering  on  the  United  States,  about  13  miles  wide,  in  which  territory 
goods  and  merchandise  were  and  are  admitted  free  of  duty.  It  is  called  and  known 
as  the  '  Free  Zone  '  or  '  Zona  Libre.'  This  right  of  shipment  was  enjoyed  until 
March  i    1S95,  when  a  joint  resolution  was  passed  authorizing  and  directing  the  Secre- 


Bction  of  tbe  55tb  Conaress  on  tbe  jfvcc  Zone.    709 

their  Report  on  Mr.  Cooper's  Resolution,  and  that  Report  was  accom- 
panied by  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury's  letter  of  January  26,  1898, 
to  which  I  have  already  referred,  and  by  my  paper  on  the  Free  Zone 
as  it  appears  in  this  book. 

T/ie  House  of  Representatives  repeals  t/ie  Joint  Resolution  of  March  ist, 
189^. — On  May  4,  1898,  Mr.  Grosvenor  on  behalf  of  the  Committee  on 
Ways  and  Means  of  the  House  of  Representatives  moved  to  consider 
Mr.  Cooper's  resolution.  Messrs.  Grosvenor,  Dingley,  and  Slayden 
sustained  the  privileged  character  of  the  resolution,  while  the  motion 
was  opposed  by  three  representatives  from  Texas,  Messrs.  Lanham, 
Bailey,  and  Stephens,  who  contended  that  the  resolution  was  not  priv- 
ileged; but  the  Speaker  having  decided  in  favor  of  the  Committee's 

tary  of  the  Treasury  to  suspend  this  right  so  far  as  the  Free  Zone  was  concerned,  and 
in  pursuance  thereof  the  Secretary  did  suspend  said  right. 

"  The  reason  for  the  passage  of  that  joint  resolution  (vol.  28,  United  States  Statutes 
at  Large,  page  973,  No.  23)  was  to  prevent  what  was  represented  as  a  large  '  smuggling' 
trade  back  into  the  United  States  from  the  '  free '  goods  admitted  into  this  zone.  Earnest 
protest  was  at  the  time  made  against  the  passage  of  the  resolution,  and  for  the  facts  bear- 
ing upon  the  matter  reference  is  here  made  to  Congressional  Record,  volume  27,  part 
4,  page  2850  et.  seq..  Fifty-third  Congress,  third  session.  Since  that  time  three  years 
have  elapsed,  and  the  purpose  for  which  the  resolution  was  passed  shows  that  it  has 
failed.  Mexico  has  not  repealed  the  '  Free  Zone,'  and  the  United  States  has  not  been 
better  protected.  On  the  contrary,  the  only  effect  of  the  resolution  has  been  to  drive 
from  our  own  transportation  lines  a  large  traffic  into  European  and  foreign  lines — a 
very  large  and  profitable  business — without  any  return  whatever.  The  goods  that 
should  and  would  be  shipped  in  bond  over  our  lines  into  the  territory  of  Mexico  are 
now  shipped  by  vessels  to  Vera  Cruz  and  other  Mexican  ports,  in  foreign  bottoms,  and 
over  the  Mexican  railroads  into  the  Free  Zone,  thus  depriving  our  railroads  of  their 
legitimate  business.  These  facts  have  been  submitted  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Treas- 
ury and  his  opinion  taken  upon  the  adoption  of  the  resolution  now  before  the  com- 
mittee, and  he  sees  no  objection  to  such  action.  His  letter,  dated  January  26,  1898, 
addressed  to  Hon.  Nelson  Dingley,  Chairman  Committee  on  Ways  and  Means,  is 
attached  hereto  and  made  a  part  hereof. 

"  We  therefore  recommend  the  adoption  of  the  joint  resolution  (No.  27)  now  be- 
fore the  Comniittee,  and  report  the  same  back  to  the  House  with  a  recommendation 
that  it  do  pass. 

"  The  subject  of  the  Free  Zone,  with  its  history  and  the  variety  of  historical  data 
connected  therewith,  is  a  very  interesting  subject  ;  and  inasmuch  as  it  affects  the  re- 
lations between  this  Government  and  the  Republic  of  Mexico,  and  inasmuch  as  the 
whole  subject-matter  is  one  of  great  interest,  the  committee  have  seen  fit  to  embody  in 
this  report  a  very  able  and  comprehensive  paper  prepared  by  Senor  Don  Matias 
Romero,  the  distinguished  representative  of  the  Republic  of  Mexico  at  this  capital. 
That  gentleman  has  had  ample  opportunity  to  know  whereof  he  writes  in  this  behalf, 
having  been  a  member  of  the  Mexican  Government  and  intimate  with  everything  con- 
nected with  the  subject.  Your  committee  take  pleasure,  therefore,  with  the  consent 
of  that  distinguished  gentleman,  in  here  presenting  his  paper  as  a  part  of  this  report. 
It  is  taken  from  the  proofs  of  a  series  of  papers  bearing  on  the  relations  between 
Mexico  and  the  United  States  that  the  Mexican  minister  is  now  about  to  publish  in 
book  form. 


7IO  Supplement  to  tbe  ifree  Zone  paper. 

contention,  the  resolution  was  taken  up  and  passed  in  Committee  of  the 
Whole,  During  the  short  discussion  which  took  place  previous  to  the 
passage  of  the  resolution,  the  members  from  Texas  representing  the 
districts  adjoining  the  Mexican  frontier  were  in  favor  of  the  same,  ex- 
cepting Mr.  Stephens,  who  contended  that  Mr.  Cooper  favored  it 
because  it  only  benefitted  the  railroads  to  the  prejudice  of  the  mer- 
chants on  the  frontier.  Messrs.  Slayden  and  Kleberg,  the  two  repre- 
senting the  districts  in  Texas  bordering  on  the  Rio  Grande,  excepting  El 
Paso  represented  by  Mr.  Stephens,  contended  that  the  Joint  Resolution 
of  March  i,  1895,  had  injured  the  interests  not  only  of  the  United  States 
railways  but  of  the  local  merchants  on  the  border,  and  that  they  all 
were  anxious  tor  the  repeal  of  such  Joint  Resolution. 

Mr.  Slayden  considered  the  Mexican  Free  Zone  as  a  real  advantage 
to  the  United  States  and  expressed  a  desire  that  it  should  be  extended 
to  a  larger  area,  so  as  to  increase  its  benefits,'  and  that  is  the  first  time 
that  I  have  heard  an  American  statesman  express  an  opinion  on  that 
subject  which  agrees  entirely  with  mine.  Mr.  Lanham  objected  to  the 
consideration  of  the  resolution,  but  did  say  that  he  was  not  opposed 
to  it  although  he  finally  so  voted,  and  the  only  one  who  spoke  against 
it  was  Mr.  Stephens,  who  contended  that  his  constituents  objected  to 
the  resolution. 

Mr.  Stephens's  only  argument  worthy  of  such  a  name  was  that, 
under  the  present  conditions,  the  United  States  merchants  on  the  fron- 
tier had  the  advantage  of  low  freight  rates,  because  there  are  several 
competing  lines  to  the  respective  border  towns,  while  the  merchants  on 
the  Mexican  side  of  the  frontier,  having  only  one  line  to  each  town, 
pay  high  rates  over  the  Mexican  roads  for  want  of  competition,  and 
that  it  was  not  wise  to  give  the  Mexican  merchants  the  advantage  of 
low  freight  rates  obtained  by  the  United  States  merchants  resulting 
from  the  present  law.  But  supposing  that  it  would  be  a  sound  prin- 
cipal to  regulate  railway  freight  rates  by  the  nationality  of  the  ship- 
pers, Mr.  Stephens  did  not  take  into  consideration  the  fact  that  the 
haul  from  Tampico  to  El  Paso,  Mexico,  which  is  the  furthest  town  on 
the  frontier  from  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  is  about  one  third  of  the  dis- 
tance of  the  haul  from  New  York  to  El  Paso,  Texas,  and  that  the  Mexi- 
can railroads  are  interested  in  establishing  their  freights  in  such  a  way 

'  The  following  is  an  extract  from  Mr.  Slayden's  speech  relating  to  this  subject : 
"  Mr.  Speaker  :  So  far  from  desiring  the  abolition  of  the  Free  Zone,  I  would,  if 
I  could,  exercise  any  influence  whatever  upon  the  Mexican  Government,  ask  it  to  ex- 
tend that  zone  three,  four,  or  five  hundred  miles  farther  back.  This  territoiy  adjacent 
to  us  has  a  duty  of  only  I7|  per  cent,  of  the  normal  Mexican  duty  ;  and  on  the  other 
side  it  backs  up  against  a  part  of  Mexico  which  has  a  tremendously  high  duty,  so  that 
the  extension  of  this  Free  Zone  would  certainly  be  a  benefit  to  the  trade  of  this  coun- 
try. Therefore,  I  say  that  so  far  from  asking  the  abolition  of  the  Free  Zone,  I  would 
vastly  prefer  to  have  it  extended  farther  back  into  the  interior." 


Hction  ot  tbe  55tb  Conaress  on  tbe  ifree  Zone,    711 

as  to  encourage  instead  of  destroying  their  business,  which  would  be 
the  result  if  exorbitantly  high  rates  were  collected. 

Mr.  Stephens  brought  my  paper  on  the  Free  Zone  into  the  discus- 
sion, saying  that  I  criticized  General  Grant  and  Mr.  Blaine  on  account 
of  their  views  on  the  Free  Zone,  while  I  only  stated  their  action  on  the 
subject  without  commenting  on  it  at  all.  Mr.  Grosvenor  closed  the 
discussion,  making  a  very  clear,  concise,  and  conclusive  speech;  the 
vote  resulted  in  the  approval  of  the  resolution  by  forty-eight  votes 
against  four.  Mr.  Grosvenor  mentioned  the  fact  that  two  different 
Secretaries  of  the  Treasury  had  expressed  their  opinion  in  favor  of 
the  repeal  of  the  resolution  of  March  i,  1895.  He  also  recognized  the 
right  of  the  Mexican  Government  to  establish  the  Free  Zone,  saying: 
"  It  is  a  matter  that  the  United  States  Government  cannot  control.  It 
is  the  prerogative  of  the  sovereignty  of  the  Mexican  Republic. 
This  is  a  matter  for  her.  It  is  not  our  revenue.  It  does  not  in  that 
way  affect  our  revenue,  theoretically,  at  least."  Although  Mr.  Gros- 
venor stated  that  he  was  himself  against  the  Free  Zone. 

Mr.  Stephens  seemed  to  be  under  the  impression  that  the  Committee 
on  Ways  and  Means  had  asked  my  opinion  on  the  subject,  and  that  I 
had  written  an  argument  for  their  benefit,  and  under  that  supposition 
he  complained  that  his  side  had  not  been  heard.  Mr.  Grosvenor  dis- 
posed conclusively  of  that  contention,  stating  what  appears  from  my 
paper,  namely,  that  it  was  written  and  published  long  before  the  Com- 
mittee on  Ways  and  Means  of  the  Fifty-fifth  Congress  took  up  that 
matter,  and  is  only  a  review  of  the  whole  question,  stating  the  con- 
tention on  both  sides,  for  the  benefit  of  those  who  desire  reliable 
information  on  the  subject. 

It  is  a  fact  which  cannot  be  denied  that  the  Joint  Resolution  of 
March  i,  1895,  was  passed  with  the  object  of  inducing  Mexico  to 
abolish  the  Free  Zone,  and  as  such  object  has  not  been  obtained  it  is 
beyond  all  question  that  the  purpose  of  that  legislation  has  entirely 
failed  and  brought  about  only  injury  to  the  railways  and  merchants  of 
the  United  States,  a  point  which  Mr.  Grosvenor  made  very  clear  in  his 
remarks. 

Far  from  having  any  interest  in  the  repeal  of  the  Joint  Resolution 
of  March  i,  1895,  Mexico  would  rather  let  it  remain  in  force,  as  it 
constitutes  a  real  benefit  to  the  Mexican  railways.  I  personally  was 
pleased  to  see  the  tenor  and  result  of  the  discussion  in  the  House,  be- 
cause it  showed  me  that  the  question  was  treated  more  intelligently  than 
ever  before,  and  because  it  showed  a  more  friendly  sentiment  toward 
Mexico  than  on  former  occasions.  Mr.  Slayden  qualified  in  his 
speech  the  Joint  Resolution  of  March  i,  1896,  as  a  "  deliberate  affront 
by  a  petty  annoyance  to  the  Republic  of  Mexico,  which  lies  on  yonder 
side  of  the  Rio  Grande." 


712  Siu^plcincnt  to  tbc  fvcc  Zone  paper. 

The  Joint  Resolution  as  approved  by  the  House  of  Representatives 
passed  to  the  Senate  and  was  referred  to  the  Committee  on  Finance, 
but  as  the  Senate  has  had  very  important  matters  to  consider  during 
the  present  session,  especially  those  affecting  the  war  with  Spain,  the 
House  Resolution  has  not  been  taken  u])  in  the  Senate  up  to  the  time 
that  this  paper  goes  to  press.  I  would  like  to  give  here  the  outcome 
of  this  incident,  that  is,  the  final  action  of  Congress  on  the  pending 
Joint  Resolution;  but  I  am  afraid  that  under  the  present  political  con- 
ditions of  this  country  no  conclusion  will  be  reached  for  some  time, 
and  it  would  not  be  reasonable  to  delay  indefinitely  the  printing  of  this 
volume  in  expectation  of  such  action. 

As  this  paper  goes  to  press  the  fifty-fifth  Congress  of  the  United 
States  has  closed  its  second  Session  without  the  Senate  having  taken 
any  action  on  the  Joint  Resolution  approved  by  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives to  repeal  the  Joint  Resolution  of  April  i,  1896. 


LIST  OF  PRESIDENT'S  MESSAGES  ON  MEXICO  SENT  TO  CONGRESS 
DURING  THE  PERIOD  OF  THE  FRENCH  INTERVENTION,  FROM 
1861  TO  1867,  PREPARED  BY  MR.  CLIFFORD  WARREN,  ASSISTANT 
LIBRARIAN  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  SENATE. 

1861. 

Official  instructions  from  Secretary  of  State  William  H.  Seward  to  Hon.  Thomas  Corwin, 
the  United  States  Minister  to  Mexico,  dated  April  6,  1861  : 

"  Taking  into  view  the  actual  condition  and  circumstances  of  Mexico,  as  well 
as  those  of  the  United  States,  the  President  is  fully  satisfied  that  the  safety,  wel- 
fare, and  happiness  of  the  latter  would  be  more  effectually  promoted  if  the  former 
should  retain  its  complete  integrity  and  independence,  than  they  could  be  by  any 
dismemberment  of  Mexico,  with  a  transfer  or  diminution  of  its  sovereignty,  even 
though  thereby  a  portion  or  the  whole  of  the  country  or  its  sovereignty  should  be 
transferred  to  the  United  States  themselves.  .  .  .  Mexico  really  has,  or  ought 
to  have,  no  enemies.  The  world  is  deeply  interested  in  the  development  of  her 
agricultural,  and  especially  her  mineral  and  commercial,  resources,  while  it  holds 
in  high  respect  the  simple  virtues  and  heroism  of  her  people,  and,  above  all,  their 
inextinguishable  love  of  civil  liberty. 

"  The  President,  therefore,  will  use  all  proper  influence  to  favor  the  restoration 
of  order  and  authority  in  Mexico.  ...  If,  on  the  other  hand,  it  shall  appear 
in  the  sequel  that  the  Mexican  people  are  only  now  resting  a  brief  season  to  re- 
cover their  wasted  energies  sufficiently  to  lacerate  themselves  with  new  domestic 
conflicts,  then  it  is  to  be  feared  that  not  only  the  Government  of  the  United  States 
but  many  other  governments  will  find  it  impossible  to  prevent  a  resort  to  that 
magnificent  country  of  a  class  of  persons,  unhappily  too  numerous  everywhere, 
who  are  accustomed  to  suppose  that  visionary  schemes  of  public  interest,  aggran- 
dizement, or  reform  will  justify  even  lawless  invasion  and  aggression. 

"  For  a  few  years  past,  the  condition  of  Mexico  has  been  so  unsettled  as  to 
raise  the  question  on  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic  whether  the  time  has  not  come 
when  some  foreign  power  ought,  in  the  general  interest  of  society,  to  intervene  to 
establish  a  protectorate  or  some  other  form  of  government  in  that  country  and 
guaranty  its  continuance  there.  Such  schemes  may  even  now  be  held  under  con- 
sideration by  some  European  nations.  .  .  .  You  will  not  fail  to  assure  the 
Government  of  Mexico  that  the  President  neither  has,  nor  can  ever  have,  any 
symj)athy  with  such  designs,  in  whatever  quarter  they  may  arise  or  whatever 
character  they  may  take  on."  (Foreign  Relations,  1861,  pages  65-70,  Senate 
Executive  Document  No.  i,  37th  Congress,  2d  Session.    6  pages.) 

713 


714         Xi5t  Of  lpre3iCtent*5  ^cssacies  on  /IDerico. 

President's  Message  to  the  House  of  Representatives,  December  9,  1861,  transmitting 
"  a  report  from  the  Secretary  of  State,  in  reply  to  the  resolution  of  the  House  of 
the  4th  instant,  relative  to  the  intervention  of  certain  European  powers  in  the  af- 
fairs of  Mexico,"  saying  that  "  it  would  be  inexpedient  at  this  juncture  to  make 
public  the  papers  referred  to."  (37th  Congress,  2d  Session,  House  Executive 
Document  No.  4.     i  page.) 

1862. 

President's  Message  to  the  Senate,  January  24,  1862,  communicating  "  a  dispatch 
which  has  just  been  received  from  Mr.  Corwin,  our  Minister  to  Mexico.  It  com- 
municates important  information  concerning  the  war  which  is  waged  against 
Mexico  by  the  combined  powers  of  Spain,  France,  and  Great  Britain."  (Senate 
Executive  Journal,  Vol.  12,  page  102.) 

President's  Message  to  the  Senate,  January  28,  1862,  submitting  for  ratification  a  treaty 
of  extradition  with  the  Mexican  Government ;  also  submitting  a  postal  convention 
with  Mexico,  and  correspondence  in  relation  thereto.  (Senate  Executive  Journal, 
Vol.  12,  page  102.) 

President's  Message  to  the  Senate,  Februarj'  27,  1862,  informing  the  Senate  that  Lieu- 
tenant-General  Scott  had  advised  the  President  that,  "  while  he  (Gen.  Scott)  would 
cheerfully  accept  a  commission  as  additional  Minister  to  Mexico,  with  a  view  to 
promote  the  interests  of  the  United  States  and  of  peace,  yet  his  infirmities  are 
such  that  he  could  not  be  able  to  reach  the  capital  of  that  country  by  any  existing 
mode  of  travel,  and  he  therefore  deems  it  his  duty  to  decline  the  important  mission 
I  had  proposed  for  him,"  etc.     (Senate  Executive  Journal,  Vol.  12,  page  136.) 

President's  Message  to  the  House  of  Representatives,  April  14,  1862,  enclosing  papers 
on  the  present  condition  of  Mexico.  (37th  Congress,  2d  Session,  House  Executive 
Document  No.  100.     434  pages.) 

President's  Message  to  the  Senate,  April  15,  1862,  relating  to  the  delay  attending  the 
approval  by  the  Senate  of  the  extradition  treaty  and  the  postal  convention  with 
Mexico,  and  recommending  the  passage  of  a  resolution  extending  the  time  speci- 
fied for  the  exchange  of  ratifications  for  sixty  days  from  and  after  the  nth  of  June 
proximo,  the  date  of  the  expiration  of  the  period  named  for  that  purpose  in  both 
instruments.     (Senate  Executive  Journal,  Vol.  12,  pages  237,  23S.) 

President's  Message  to  the  House  of  Representatives,  May  23,  1862,  transmitting  a 
report  from  the  Secretary  of  State,  in  answer  to  the  resolution  of  the  House  of  the 
22d  instant,  calling  for  "  copies  of  such  correspondence  as  may  have  been  received 
by  this  Government  since  that  accompanied  by  the  Message  of  April  14,  1862, 
relating  to  the  condition  of  affairs  in  Mexico,  and  the  breaking  up  of  the  treaty 
with  the  latter  by  the  allied  powers," — the  Secretary  of  State  reporting  "  that  it  is 
not  deemed  expedient  to  comply  with  the  request  at  the  present  time."  (37th 
Congress,  2d  Session,  House  Executive  Document  No.  I20,  Vol.  9.     i  page.) 

President's  Message  to  the  Senate,  June  23,  1862,  relative  to  a  project  of  a  treaty  be- 
tween the  United  States  and  Mexico,  submitted  to  the  Senate,  Dec.  7,  1861,  as  to 
which  the  Senate,  on  February  25,  1862,  adopted  a  resolution  to  the  effect  "  that 
it  is  not  advisable  to  negotiate  a  treaty  that  will  require  the  United  States  to 
assume  any  portion  of  the  principal  or  interest  of  the  debt  of  Mexico,  or  that  will 
require  the  concurrence  of  European  powers."  Before  the  facts  relative  to  the 
action  of  the  Senate  reached  the  United  States  Minister  in  Mexico,  that  official 
proceeded  to  negotiate  further  with  Mexico.     The  President  stated  in  his  Message 


Xist  of  |pre3i^ent'5  ^cssa^cs  on  /IDejico.         715 

to  the  Senate  (above  cited)  that  "  In  view  of  the  very  important  events  occurring 
there,  he  has  thought  that  the  interests  of  the  United  States  would  be  promoted  by 
the  conclusion  of  two  treaties,  which  should  provide  for  a  loan  to  that  Republic. 
He  has,  therefore,  signed  such  treaties,  and  they  having  been  duly  ratified  by  the 
Government  of  Mexico  he  has  transmitted  them  to  me  ff)r  my  consideration.  The 
action  of  the  Senate  is  of  course  conclusive  against  an  acceptance  of  the  treaties 
on  my  part.  I  have  nevertheless  thought  it  just  to  our  excellent  minister  in 
Mexico,  and  respectful  to  the  Government  of  that  Republic,  to  lay  the  treaties 
before  the  Senate,  together  with  the  correspondence  which  has  occurred  in  relation 
to  them.  In  performing  this  duty  I  have  only  to  add  that  the  importance  of  the 
subject  thus  submitted  to  the  Senate  cannot  be  overestimated,  and  I  shall  cheer- 
fully receive  and  consider  with  the  highest  respect  any  further  advice  the  Senate 
may  think  proper  to  give  upon  the  subject."  (Senate  Executive  Journal,  Vol.  12, 
page  370.) 

President's  Message  to  the  House  of  Representatives,  July  12,  1S62,  transmitting  a  re- 
port of  the  Secretary  of  State  upon  the  subject  of  the  House  resolution  of  the  9th 
ultimo,  requesting  "  whatever  information  he  (the  President)  possesses  concerning 
the  relations  existing  between  this  country  and  foreign  powers,"  the  Secretary  of 
State  reporting  that,  although  considerable  progress  had  been  made  in  preparing 
an  answer  to  the  resolution,  the  correspondence  upon  the  subject  was  so  volumi- 
nous, and  the  indispensable  current  of  business  of  the  Department  of  State  was  so 
pressing  in  proportion  to  its  force,  that  it  was  impracticable  to  comply  with  the 
resolution  at  that  session  of  Congress.  (37th  Congress,  2d  Session,  House  Ex- 
ecutive Document  No.  14S,  Vol.  10.      i  page.) 

President  Lincoln,  in  his  Annual  Message  to  Congress,  December  i,  1862,  stated  that 
there  had  "  not  only  been  no  change  of  our  previous  relations  with  the  independent 
states  of  our  continent,  but  more  friendly  sentiments  than  have  heretofore  existed, 
are  believed  to  be  entertained  by  these  neighbors,  whose  safety  and  progress  are  so 
intimately  connected  with  our  own.  This  statement  especially  applies  to  Mexico, 
Nicaragua,  Costa  Rica,  Honduras,  Peru,  and  Chili." 

Near  the  opening  of  this  Message.  President  Lincoln  slated  that  "  The  corre- 
spondence touching  foreign  affairs  which  has  taken  place  during  the  last  year  i.> 
herewith  submitted,  in  virtual  compliance  with  a  request  to  that  effect,  made  by 
the  House  of  Representatives  near  the  close  of  the  last  session  of  Congress." 

The  correspondence  relating  to  the  state  of  affairs  in  Mexico,  the  negotiations 
between  Mexico  and  the  allied  powers,  the  prospects  of  the  French  in  Mexico, 
the  proposed  treaties  between  Mexico  and  the  United  States  for  a  loan  to  Mexico, 
etc.,  covers  45  pages  (pages  729-774)  in  same  volume  with  the  President's  Mes- 
sage. (37th  Congress,  3d  Session,  House  Executive  Document  No.  i.  Vol.  i. 
Diplomatic  Correspondence,  1862.) 

1863. 

President's  Message  to  the  House  of  Representatives  of  January  5,  1S63,  in  relation  to 
the  alleged  interference  of  the  United  States  Minister  to  Mexico  in  favor  of  the 
French.  (37th  Congress,  3d  Session,  House  Executive  Document  No.  23. 
27  pages.) 

President's  Message  to  the  Senate,  January  20,  1863,  enclosing  correspondence  be- 
tween the  United  States  Government  and  Mexican  Minister  in  relation  to  the  ex- 
portation of  articles  contraband  of  war  for  the  use  of  the  French  army  in  Mexico. 
(37th  Congress,  3d  Session,  Senate  E.Kecutive  Document  No.  24.     17  pages.) 


7i6        Xist  of  president's  /IDessages  on  riDejico. 

President's  Message  to  the  House  of  Representatives,  February  4,  1S63,  enclosing 
report  of  Secretary  of  State  and  accompanying  papers  on  present  condition  of 
Mexico.  (37th  Congress,  3d  Session,  House  Executive  Document  No.  54.  802 
pages.) 

President's  Message  to  the  Senate,  February  13,  1S63,  transmitting  a  report  from  the 
Secretary  of  State  in  answer  to  the  resolution  of  the  Senate  of  the  r2th  instant, 
requesting  the  President  to  communicate  to  that  body  "  any  information  he  may 
have  relative  to  the  use  of  negroes  by  the  French  army  in  Mexico."  (37th  Con- 
gress, 3d  Session,  Senate  Executive  Document  No.  40.     3  pages.) 

President's  Annual  Message,  December  8,  1863,  and  accompanying  documents,  em- 
bracing the  Diplomatic  Correspondence  for  the  years  1862-63,  relating  to  Mexican 
affairs,  French  invasion  of  Mexico,  battles,  etc.  (38th  Congress,  ist  Session, 
House  Ex.  Doc.  No.  i,  Vol.  2,  pages  1229  to  1256.     27  pages.) 

Mexico Pages  1229  to  1256. 

France "        707  to    838. 

"      "      1320  to  1329. 

Netherlands "        877  to    903. 

Spain "        985. 

Austria "        997  to  1016. 

1864. 

President's  Message,  Marcli  24,  1S64,  in  reply  to  the  resolution  of  the  Senate  of  the 
15th  instant,  in  relation  to  the  establishment  of  monarchical  governments  in  Cen- 
tral and  South  America,  and  transmitting  a  report  from  the  Secretary  of  State,  to 
whom  the  subject  was  referred.  (3Sth  Congress,  ist  Session,  Senate  Ex.  Doc. 
No.  30.     I  page.) 

President's  Message,  May  24,  1864,  in  answer  to  a  resolution  of  tlie  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives of  the  day  preceding,  on  the  subject  of  a  joint  resolution  of  the  4tli  of 
the  previous  month,  relative  to  Mexico,  transmitting  a  report  from  the  Secretary 
of  State,  to  whom  the  resolution  was  referred. 

The  resolution  of  the  House  of  Representatives  requested  the  President  to 
communicate  to  that  body,  "  if  not  inconsistent  with  the  public  interest,  any  ex- 
planations given  by  the  Government  of  the  United  States  to  the  Government  of 
France  respecting  the  sense  and  bearing  of  the  joint  resolution  relating  to  Mexico, 
which  passed  the  House  of  Representatives,  unanimously,  on  the  4th  of  April, 
1864."  The  Secretary  of  State  laid  before  the  President  "  a  copy  of  all  the  cor- 
respondence on  file,  or  on  record  in  this  Department,  on  the  subject  of  the  joint 
resolution  referred  to,"  which  joint  resolution  declared  the  opposition  of  that 
body  to  a  recognition  of  a  monarchy  in  Mexico.  (38th  Congress,  ist  Session, 
House  Ex.  Doc.  No.  92.     4  pages.) 

President's  Special  Message  to  the  Senate,  May  28,  1864.  in  reply  to  a  Senate  resolu- 
lution  of  the  25lh  instant,  relating  to  Mexican  affairs,  transmitting  a  jiartial  report 
from  the  Secretary  of  .State,  with  accomi)anying  papers,  in  response  to  the  request 
of  the  Senate  for  all  correspondence  between  the  .Secretary  of  State  and  the  Mex- 
ican Minister  in  relation  to  the  course  of  trade  between  France  and  the  United 
States  while  France  and  Mexico  were  at  war  with  each  other,  in  articles  supposed 
to  be  in  derogation  of  the  rights  of  neutrals  ;  also,  other  information  "  relative  to 
the  present  condition  of  affairs  in  the  Republic  of  Mexico,  and  especially  upon  the 
attempt  of  any  European  powers  to  overthrow  republican  institutions  on  this  con- 
tinent with  a  view  of  establishing  monarchical  forms  of  government  in  their  stead." 


Xist  of  ipresi^ent's  /IDessaoes  on  /IDejico.         717 

Also,  copies  of  correspondence  which  had  taken  place  with  the  Minister  of 
Mexico,  in  relation  to  articles  of  trade,  since  that  communicated  to  the  Senate 
with  the  Message  of  the  President  of  20th  January,  1863  (printed  as  Senate  Ex. 
Doc.  No.  24,  37th  Congress,  3d  Session).  (38th  Congress,  1st  Session,  Senate 
Ex.  Doc.  No.  47.     6  pages.) 

President's  Message  to  the  Senate,  June  16,  1864,  transmitting  a  further  report  from 
the  Secretary  of  State,  in  answer  to  the  resolution  of  the  Senate  of  the  25th  ultimo, 
relative  to  Mexican  affairs,  with  the  papers  therein  referred  to.  (3Sth  Congress, 
1st  Session,  Senate  Ex.  Doc.  No.  11.     496  pages.) 

President  Lincoln's  fourth  Annual  Message,  December  6,  1S64,  stated  that  "  Mexico 
continues  to  be  a  theatre  of  civil  war.  While  our  political  relations  with  that 
country  have  undergone  no  change,  we  have  at  the  same  time  strictly  maintained 
neutrality  between  the  belligerents."  (Foreign  Relations,  1864,  page  I.  38th 
Congress,  2d  Session,  House  Ex.  Doc.  No.  i.  Vol.  i.) 

Vol.  I,  see  page  399  (i  to  399). 

Vol.  2,  pages      I  to  253,  France. 

Vol.  2,       "     304  to  331,  Netherlands,  see  page  314. 

Vol.  4,       '■  I  to  106,  Spain. 

Vol.  4,       "      107  to  190,  Austria. 

Vol.  4,       "     191  to  224,  Prussia,  see  page  212. 

Vol.  4,       "     226  to  265,  Belgium. 

Vol.  4,      "     267  to  324,  Portugal,  see  page  273. 

Vol.  4,       "     33S  to  345,  Denmark,  see  page  344. 

Vol.  4,       "     346  to  363,  Sweden  and  Norway. 

Vol.  4,       "     386  to  401,  Switzerland. 

1865. 

President's  Message,  February  4,  1865,  in  compliance  with  the  resolution  of  the  Senate 
of  the  13th  ultimo,  requesting  information  upon  the  present  condition  of  Mexico 
and  the  case  of  the  French  war  transport  steamer  Rhine,  transmitting  a  report 
from  the  Secretary  of  State  and  the  papers  by  which  it  was  accompanied.  The 
French  war  transport  steamer  Rhine,  it  was  alleged,  "  took  articles  contraband  of 
war  from  San  Francisco  to  the  French  forces  at  Acapulco,  in  the  Mexican  Re- 
public."    (38th  Congress,  2d  Session,  Senate  Ex.  Doc.  No.  33.     14  pages.) 

President  Johnson  submitted  to  Congress,  with  his  first  Annual  Message,  December  4, 
1865,  the  Diplomatic  Correspondence  of  the  past  year,  including  that  relating  to 
Mexican  affairs,  namely  : 

Mexico Vol.  3,  pages  356  to  S49. 

Mexico Vol.  4,       "     4S0  to  482. 

Great  Britain Vol.  i ,       "  i  to  670. 

Great  Britain Vol.  2,       "         i  to  196. 

France Vol.  2,       "     19710362. 

Austria Vol.  3,       "  i  to    39. 

Belgium Vol.  3,       "       70  to    89. 

Italy Vol.  3,       "     139  to  149. 

Rome Vol.  3,       "     150  to  164. 

Egypt Vol.  3,      "     31310338. 

Sweden  and  Norway Vol.  3,      "     184  to  206. 

(39th  Congress,  ist  Session,  House  Ex.  Doc.  No.  i,  Vols,  i,  2,  and  3.) 

Appendix,  Vol.  4:     "Expressions  of  condolence  and  sympathy  inspired  by 


7i8         Xi5t  ot  presl^ent'5  /Rcs^atic?  on  /iDcrico. 

the  assassination  of  Abraham  Lincoln,  late  President  of  the  United  States 
of  America,  and  the  attempted  assassination  of  William  II.  Seward,  Secretary  of 
State,  and  Frederick  W.  Seward,  Assistant  Secretary  of  State,  on  the  evening 
of  the  I4.th  of  April,  1865." 

President's  Message  to  the  Senate,  December  13,  1865,  containing  information  of  a 
decree  of  the  so-called  Emperor  of  Mexico.  (39th  Congress,  ist  Session,  Senate 
Ex.  Doc.  No.  5.     20  pages.) 

President's  Message  to  the  House  of  Representatives,  December  14,  1865,  bearing  on 
the  so-called  decree  re-establishing  slavery  or  peonage  in  Mexico.  (39th  Con- 
gress, 1st  Session,  House  Ex.  Doc.  No.  13.      14  pages.) 

President's  Message  to  the  Senate,  December  21,  1865,  containing  information  re- 
specting the  occupation  by  French  troops  of  the  Republic  of  Mexico,  and  tlie 
establishment  of  a  monarcliy  there.  (39th  Congress,  ist  Session,  Senate  Ex.  Doc. 
No.  6.      100  pages.) 

1866. 

President's  Message  to  the  Senate,  January  5,  1S66,  containing  information  of  plans  to 
induce  the  dissatisfied  citizens  of  the  United  States  to  emigrate  into  Mexico. 
(39th  Congress,  1st  Session,  Senate  Ex.  Doc.  No.  8.     44  pages.) 

President's  Message  to  the  House  of  Representatives,  January  5,  1866,  on  the  steps 
taken  by  the  so-called  Emperor  of  Mexico  to  obtain  a  recognition.  (39th  Con- 
gress, 1st  Session,  House  Ex.  Doc.  No.  20.      12  pages.) 

President's  Message  to  the  House  of  Representatives,  January  10,  1866,  on  the  alleged 
kidnapping  in  Mexico  of  the  child  (Iturbide)  of  an  American  lady.  {39th  Con- 
gress, 1st  Session,  House  Ex.  Doc.  No.  21.     i  page.) 

President's  Message  to  the  Senate,  January  26,  1866,  containing  information  regarding 
the  present  condition  of  affairs  on  the  southwestern  frontier  of  the  United  States, 
and  any  violation  of  neutrality  on  the  part  of  the  army  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Rio  Grande.     (39th  Congress,  1st  Session,  Senate  Ex.  Doc.  No.  16.     i  page.) 

President's  Message  to  the  Senate,  January  26,  i866,  enclosing  the  report  of  the  Sec- 
retary of  State  regarding  the  transit  of  United  States  troops,  in  1861,  through 
Mexican  territory.    (39th  Congress,  ist  Session,  Senate  Ex.  Doc.  No.  17.     8  pages.) 

President's  Message  to  the  House  of  Representatives,  January  26,  1866,  in  regard  to 
any  demonstration  in  honor  of  President  Juarez  of  Mexico.  (39th  Congress,  1st 
Session,  House  Ex.  Doc.  No.  31.     20  pages.) 

President's  Message  to  the  House  of  Representatives,  February  i,  1866,  on  the  "  Im- 
perial Mexican  Express  Company."  (39tli  Congress,  ist  Session,  House  Ex. 
Doc.  No.  38.     17  pages.) 

President's  Message  to  the  House  of  Representatives,  March  6,  1866,  in  regard  to  the 
term  of  office  of  President  Juarez  of  Mexico.  (39th  Congress,  ist  Session,  House 
Ex.  Doc.  No.  64.     I  page. J 

President's  Message  to  the  Flouse  of  Representatives,  March  20,  1S66,  enclosing  in- 
formation upon  the  present  condition  of  affairs  in  Mexico.  (39th  Congress,  1st 
Session,  House  Ex.  Doc.  No.  73,  in  two  volumes:  Part  i,  706  pages  ;  Part  2, 
613  pages.) 

President's  Message  to  the  Senate,  April  20,  1S66,  transmitting,  in  compliance  with  a 
Senate  resolution  of  the  8th  instant,  a  communication  from  the  Secretary  of  War, 


Xist  of  lpre5i&ent'5  /IDessages  on  /IDejico.         719 

of  the  19th  instant,  covering  copies  of  the  correspondence  respecting  General 
Orders  No.  17,  issued  by  the  commander  of  the  Department  of  California,  and, 
also,  the  Attorney-General's  opinion  "as  to  the  question  whether  the  order  in- 
volves a  breach  of  neutrality  towards  Mexico."  General  Orders  No.  17  instructed 
commanders  on  the  southern  frontiers  within  the  Department  of  California  "to 
take  the  necessary  measures  to  preserve  the  neutrality  of  the  United  States  with 
respect  to  the  parties  engaged  in  the  existing  war  in  Mexico,  and  to  suffer  no 
armed  parties  to  pass  the  frontier  from  the  United  States,  nor  suffer  any  arms  or 
munitions  of  war  to  be  sent  over  the  frontier  to  either  belligerent,"  etc.  (39th 
Congress,  ist  Session,  Senate  Ex.  Doc.  No.  40.     10  pages.) 

President's  Message  to  the  House  of  Representatives,  April  23,  1866,  on  the  evacua- 
tion of  Mexico  by  the  French.  (39th  Congress,  ist  Session,  House  Ex.  Doc.  No. 
93.     47  pages.) 

President's  Message  to  the  House  of  Representatives,  May  10,  1866,  on  discriminations 
against  American  commerce  by  the  so-called  Maximilian  Government.  (39th  Con- 
gress, 1st  Session,  House  Ex.  Doc.  No.  no.     2  pages.) 

President's  Message  to  the  Senate,  June  15,  1866,  regarding  the  departure  of  troops 
from  Austria  for  Mexico.  (39th  Congress,  ist  Session,  Senate  Ex.  Doc.  No.  54. 
21  pages.) 

President's  Message  to  the  House  of  Representatives,  June  18,  1866,  regarding  the 
dispatch  of  military  forces  from  Austria  for  service  in  Mexico.  (39th  Congress, 
1st  Session,  House  Ex.  Doc.  No.  130.     i  page.) 

President's  Message  to  Congress,  June  22,  1866,  regarding  employment  of  European 
troops  in  Mexico.  (39th  Congress,  ist  Session,  House  Ex.  Doc.  No.  137.  2 
pages.) 

President's  Proclamation,  August  17,  1866,  reciting  the  existence  of  war  in  the  Repub- 
lic of  Mexico,  "aggravated  by  foreign  military  intervention  "  ;  that  the  United 
States,  in  accordance  with  their  settled  habits  and  policy,  are  a  neutral  power  in 
regard  to  the  war  which  thus  afflicts  the  Republic  of  Mexico ;  that  one  of  the 
belligerents  in  the  said  war,  namely,  the  Prince  Maximilian,  who  asserts  himself 
to  be  Emperor  in  Mexico,  has  issued  a  decree  in  regard  to  the  port  of  Mata- 
moras  and  other  ports  which  are  in  the  occupation  and  possession  of  another  of 
the  said  belligerents,  namely,  the  United  States  of  Mexico;  that  "the  decree 
thus  recited,  by  declaring  a  belligerent  blockade  unsupported  by  competent  mili- 
tary or  naval  force,  is  in  violation  of  the  neutral  rights  of  the  United  States  as 
defined  by  the  law  of  nations,  as  well  as  to  the  treaties  existing  between  the  United 
States  of  America  and  the  aforesaid  United  States  of  Mexico."  Therefore,  the 
President  of  the  United  States  proclaimed  and  declared  "  that  the  aforesaid  decree 
is  held  and  will  be  held  by  the  United  States  to  be  absolutely  null  and  void  as 
against  the  Government  and  citizens  of  the  United  States,  and  that  any  attempt 
which  shall  be  made  to  enforce  the  same  against  the  Government  or  the  citizens 
of  the  United  States  will  be  disallowed."  ("  Messages  and  Papers  of  the  Presi- 
dents," Vol.  vi.,  pages  433,434.) 

President's  Executive  Order,  October  26,  1S66,  to  Hon.  Edwin  M.  Stanton,  Secretary 
of  War,  saying  :  "  Recent  advices  indicate  an  early  evacuation  of  Mexico  by  the 
French  expeditionary  forces  and  that  the  time  has  arrived  when  our  Minister  to 
Mexico  should  place  himself  in  communication  with  that  Republic.  In  further- 
ance of  the  objects  of  his  mission  and  as  evidence  of  the  earnest  desire  felt  by 
the  United  States  for  the  proper  adjustment  of  the  questions  involved,  I  deem  it 


720        OList  ot  ipresi^ent's  /IDessacies  on  ^ejico. 

of  great  importance  that  General  Grant  should  by  his  presence  and  advice  co- 
operate with  our  Minister. 

"  I  have  therefore  to  ask  that  you  will  request  General  Grant  to  proceed  to  some 
point  on  our  Mexican  frontier  most  suitable  and  convenient  for  communication 
with  our  Minister,  or  (if  General  Grant  deems  it  best)  to  accompany  him  to  his 
destination  in  Mexico,  and  to  give  him  the  aid  of  his  advice  in  carrying  out  the  in- 
structions of  the  Secretary  of  State,  a  copy  of  which  is  herewith  sent  for  the 
General's  information.  General  Grant  will  make  report  to  the  Secretary  of  War 
of  such  matters  as,  in  his  discretion,  ought  to  be  communicated  to  the  Depart- 
ment."    ("  Messages  and  Papers  of  the  Presidents,"  Vol.  vi.,  page  443.) 

President's  Executive  Order,  October  30,  1S66,  addressed  to  Hon.  Edwin  M.  Stanton, 
Secretary  of  War,  saying  :  "  General  Ulysses  S.  Grant  having  found  it  inconven- 
ient to  assume  the  duties  specified  in  my  letter  to  you  of  the  26th  instant,  you  will 
please  relieve  him  from  the  same  and  assign  them  in  all  respects  to  William  T. 
Sherman,  Lieutenant-General  of  the  army  of  the  United  States.  By  way  of  guid- 
ing General  Sherman  in  the  performance  of  his  duties,  you  will  furnish  him  with 
a  copy  of  your  special  orders  to  General  Grant,  made  in  compliance  with  my 
letter  of  the  26th  instant,  together  with  a  copy  of  the  instructions  of  the  Secretary 
of  State  to  Lewis  D.  Campbell,  Esq.,  therein  mentioned.  The  Lieutenant-Gen- 
eral will  proceed  to  the  execution  of  his  duties  without  delay."  ("  Messages  and 
Papers  of  the  Presidents,"  Vol.  vi.,  pages  443,  444.) 

President's  Annual  Message,  December  3,  1866,  informed  Congress  that — "In  the 
month  of  April  last,  as  Congress  is  aware,  a  friendly  arrangement  was  made  be- 
tween the  Emperor  of  France  and  the  President  of  the  United  States  for  the  with- 
drawal from  Mexico  of  the  French  expeditionary  military  forces.  This  withdrawal 
was  to  be  effected  in  three  detachments,  the  first  of  which,  it  was  understood, 
would  leave  Mexico  in  November,  now  past,  the  second  in  March  next,  and  the 
third  and  last  in  November,  1867.  Immediately  upon  the  completion  of  the 
evacuation,  the  French  Government  was  to  assume  the  same  attitude  of  non-inter- 
vention in  regard  to  Mexico  as  is  held  by  the  Government  of  the  United  States. 
Repeated  assurances  have  been  given  by  the  Emperor  since  that  agreement  that 
he  would  complete  the  promised  evacuation  within  the  period  mentioned,  or 
sooner. 

"It  was  reasonably  expected  that  the  proceedings  thus  contemplated  would 
produce  a  crisis  of  great  political  interest  in  the  Republic  of  Mexico.  The  newly 
appointed  Minister  of  the  United  States,  Mr.  Campbell,  was  therefore  sent  forward 
on  the  gth  day  of  November  last,  to  assume  his  proper  functions  as  Minister  Plen- 
ipotentiary of  the  United  States  to  that  Republic.  It  was  also  thought  expedient 
that  he  should  be  attended  in  the  vicinity  of  Mexico  by  the  Lieutenant-General  of 
the  Army  of  the  United  States,  with  the  view  of  obtaining  such  information  as 
might  be  important  to  determine  the  course  to  be  pursued  by  the  United  States  in 
re-establishing  and  maintaining  necessary  and  proper  intercourse  with  the  Republic 
of  Mexico.  Deeply  interested  in  the  cause  of  liberty  and  humanity,  it  seemed  an 
obvious  duty  on  our  part  to  exercise  whatever  influence  we  possessed  for  the 
restoration  and  permanent  establishment  in  that  country  of  a  domestic  and 
republican  form  of  government. 

"  Such  was  the  condition  of  our  affairs  in  regard  to  Mexico  when,  on  the  22d 
of  November  last,  official  information  was  received  from  Paris  that  the  Emperor 
of  France  had  some  time  before  decided  not  to  withdraw  a  detachment  of  his 
forces  in  the  month  of  November  past,  according  to  engagement,  but  that  his 
decision  was  made  with  the  purpose  of  withdrawing  the  whole  of  those  forces  in 


Xlst  of  lI^re5i^ent's  /iDessages  on  /IDejico.         72 1 

the  ensuing  spring.  Of  this  determination,  however,  the  United  States  had  not 
received  any  notice  or  intimation  ;  and,  so  soon  as  the  information  was  received 
by  the  government,  care  was  taken  to  make  known  its  dissent  to  the  Emperor  of 
France. 

"  I  cannot  forego  the  hope  that  France  will  reconsider  the  subject,  and  adopt 
some  resolution  in  regard  to  the  evacuation  of  Mexico  which  will  conform  as 
nearly  as  practicable  with  the  e.xisting  engagement,  and  thus  meet  the  just  expec- 
tations of  the  United  States. 

"  The  papers  relating  to  the  subject  will  be  laid  before  you. 

"  It  is  believed  that,  with  the  evacuation  of  Mexico  by  the  expeditionary  forces, 
no  subject  for  serious  differences  between  France  and  the  United  States  would  re- 
main. The  expressions  of  the  Emperor  and  people  of  France  warrant  a  hope  that 
the  traditionary  friendship  between  the  two  countries  might  in  that  case  be  re- 
newed and  permanently  restored. 

"A  claim  of  a  citizen  of  the  United  States  for  indemnity  for  spoliations  com- 
mitted on  the  high  seas  by  the  French  authorities,  in  the  exercise  of  a  belligerent 
power  against  Mexico,  has  been  met  by  the  Government  of  France  with  a  proposi- 
tion to  defer  settlement  until  a  mutual  convention  for  the  adjustment  of  all  claims 
of  citizens  of  both  countries,  arising  out  of  the  recent  wars  on  this  continent,  shall 
be  agreed  upon  by  the  two  countries.  The  suggestion  is  not  deemed  unreasonable, 
but  it  belongs  to  Congress  to  direct  the  manner  in  which  claims  for  indemnity  by 
foreigners,  as  well  as  by  citizens  of  the  United  States,  arising  out  of  the  late  civil 
war,  shall  be  adjudicated  and  determined.  I  have  no  doubt  that  the  subject  of 
all  such  claims  will  engage  your  attention  at  a  convenient  and  proper  time." 
(39th  Congress,  2d  Session,  House  Executive  Document  No.  i.  Part  i,  pages 
II,   12.) 

(Diplomatic  Correspondence  relating  to  Mexican  affairs,  1S65-66,  is  contained 
in  House  Ex.  Doc.  No.  i,  Parts  i,  2,  and  3,  39th  Congress,  2d  Session.) 

President's  Special  Message,  December  8,  1866,  in  reply  to  resolution  of  the  House  of 
Representatives  of  the  5th  instant,  inquiring  if  any  portion  of  Mexican  territory 
had  been  occupied  by  United  States  troops,  transmitting  the  accompanying  re- 
port upon  the  subject  from  the  Secretary  of  War.  (39th  Congress,  2d  Session, 
House  Executive  Document  No  8.     4  pages.) 

President's  Special  Message,  December  20,  1866,  in  reply  to  resolution  of  the  House 
of  Representatives  of  the  4th  instant,  supplying  information  "  relating  to  the 
attempt  of  Santa  Anna  and  Ortega  to  organize  armed  expeditions  within  the  United 
States  for  the  purpose  of  overthrowing  the  National  Government  of  the  Republic 
of  Mexico."  (39th  Congress,  2d  Session,  House  Executive  Document  No.  17. 
179  pages.) 

1867. 

President's  Special  Message  to  the  House  of  Representatives,  January  14,  1S67,  in 
reply  to  House  resolutions  of  the  19th  ultimo,  supplying  information  regarding 
the  occupation  of  Mexican  territory  by  the  troops  of  the  United  States.  (39th 
Congress,  2d  Session,  House  Executive  Document  No.  37.     6  pages.) 

President's  Message  to  the  House  of  Representatives,  January  2gth,  1S67,  transmitting, 
in  compliance  with  House  resolutions  of  4th  of  December  and  i8th  of  December, 
1866,  information  "upon  the  present  condition  of  affairs  in  the  Republic  of 
Mexico,"  and  "  copies  of  all  correspondence  on  the  subject  of  the  evacuation  of 
Mexico  by  the  French  troops,  not  before  officially  published."  (30th  Congress, 
2d  Session,  House  Executive  Document  No.  76.     735  pages.) 


722         %xBt  Of  lPresi^ent's  /IDessaQcs  on  /FDejico. 

President's  Special  Message  to  the  Senate,  February  ii,  1867,  in  answer  to  Senate 
resolution  of  the  6th  instant,  requesting  "  copies  of  all  correspondence  not  hereto- 
fore communicated  on  the  subject  of  grants  to  American  citizens  for  railroad  and 
telegraph  lines  across  the  territory  of  the  Republic  of  Mexico."  (39th  Congress, 
2d  Session,  Senate  Executive  Document  No.  25.     30  pages.) 

President's  Message  to  the  House  of  Representatives,  March  20,  1867,  relative  to  the 
withdrawal  of  French  troops  from  Mexico.  (40th  Congress,  ist  Session,  House 
Executive  Document  No.  11.     2  pages.) 

President's  Special  Message  to  the  Senate,  April  12,  1S67,  in  answer  to  Senate  reso- 
lution of  the  loth  instant,  calling  for  "information  relative  to  prisoners  of  war  taken 
by  belligerents  in  the  Republic  of  Mexico."  (40th  Congress,  Special  Session  of 
Senate,  Senate  Executive  Document  No.  5.     4  pages.) 

President's  Special  Message  to  the  House  of  Representatives,  July  10,  1867,  "  in  com- 
pliance with  so  much  of  the  resolution  of  the  House  of  Representatives  of  the  8th 
instant  as  requests  information  in  regard  to  certain  agreements  said  to  have  been 
entered  into  between  the  United  States,  European,  and  West  Virginia  Land  and 
Mining  Company  and  certain  reputed  agents  of  the  Republic  of  Mexico."  (40th 
Congress,  1st  Session,  House  Executive  Document  No.  23.  •   250  pages.) 

President's  Special  Message,  July  II,  1867,  in  reply  to  resolution  of  the  House  of 
Representatives  of  the  3d  instant,  requesting  "  all  the  official  correspondence  be- 
tween the  Department  of  State  and  the  Hon.  Lewis  D.  Campbell,  late  Minister 
to  Mexico,  and  also  with  his  successor,"  communicates  a  report  from  the  Secretary 
of  .State  and  the  papers  accompanying  it.  (40th  Congress,  ist  Session,  House 
Executive  Document  No.  30.     76  pages.) 

President's  Special  Message,  July  12,  1867,  in  compliance  with  resolution  of  the  Senate 
of  the  8th  instant  (to  same  effect  and  purpose  as  House  resolution  of  the  3d 
instant).  Informs  the  Senate  that  "  the  correspondence  called  for  by  the  Senate 
has  already  been  communicated  to  the  House  of  Representatives."  (40th  Con- 
gress, 1st  Session,  Senate  Executive  Document  No.  15.      i  page.) 

President's  Special  Message,  July  18,  1867,  in  compliance  with  Senate  resolution  of 
8th  instant  requesting  ' '  copies  of  any  correspondence  on  the  files  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  State  relating  to  any  recent  event  in  Mexico."  (40th  Congress,  ist  Ses- 
sion, Senate  Executive  Document  No.  20.     298  pages.) 

(This  document  includes  12  pages  "  Index  to  papers  relating  to  Mexican  Af- 
fairs, in  1867, — Capture,  trial,  and  execution  of  Maximilian.") 

President's  Message,  July  18,  1867,  in  compliance  with  that  part  of  House  resolution 
of  8th  instant  which  requested  "any  official  correspondence  or  other  information 
relating  to  the  capture  and  execution  of  Maximilian  and  the  arrest  and  reported 
execution  of  Santa  Anna  in  Mexico,"  transmits  a  report  from  the  Secretary  of 
State,  from  which  it  appears  that  the  correspondence  called  for  ])y  the  House  reso- 
lution had  been  already  communicated  to  tlie  Senate.  (40th  Congress,  1st  Session, 
House  Executive  Document  No.  31.     i  page.) 

President's  Annual  Message,  December  3,  1S67,  informed  Congress  that  "  The  Re- 
public of  Mexico,  having  been  relieved  from  foreign  intervention,  is  earnestly 
engaged  in  efforts  to  re-establish  her  constitutional  system  of  government."  (40th 
Congress,  2d  Session,  House  Executive  Document  No.  i.  Part  i,  page  19.) 

(Diplomatic  Correspondence,  1866-67,  relating  to  affairs  in  Mexico,  etc.,  in 
Vols.  i.  and  ii..  House  Executive  Document  No.  i,  40th  Congress,  2d  Session. 
Mexico,  Vol.  ii.,  pages  334-685.) 


Xist  of  lpresi&ent's  /IDessa^es  on  /IDejico.         723 

President's  Special  Message,  December  5,  1867,  in  compliance  with  House  resolution 
of  July  17th  last,  requesting  "  all  information  received  at  the  several  departments 
of  the  Government  touching  the  organisation  within  or  near  the  territory  of  the 
United  States  of  armed  bodies  of  men  for  the  purpose  of  avenging  the  death  of 
Archduke  Maximilian  or  of  intervening  in  Mexican  affairs,  and  what  measures 
have  been  taken  to  prevent  the  organization  or  departure  of  such  organized  bodies 
for  the  purpose  of  carrying  out  such  objects,"  transmits  a  report  from  the  Secre- 
tary of  State,  and  the  papers  accompanying  it.  (40th  Congress,  2d  Session, 
House  Executive  Document  No.  25,  6  pages.) 

1 868. 

President's  Annual  Message,  December  g,  1868,  informed  Congress  that  "Our  rela- 
tions with  Mexico  during  the  year  have  been  marked  by  an  increasing  growth  of 
mutual  confidence."  (40th  Congress,  3d  Session,  House  Executive  Document  No. 
I,  Part  I,  page  13.) 

(Diplomatic  Correspondence,  1867-68,  relating  to  affairs  in  Mexico,  Vol.  ii., 
pages  378-640.) 


INDEX   TO   GEOGRAPHICAL  AND 
STATISTICAL   NOTES. 


Agave,  where  found,  48  ;  use,  48,  49 
Agriculture,  products,  243,  244 
Alfalfa,  how  grown,  and  uses,  56 
Alligator  pear,  use,  63 
Americans   in   Mexico,    cannot   compete 

with  Spaniards  in  frugality,  79  ;  some 

Mexicans  were  afraid  the  country  would 

become  Americanized,  80 
Area,  of  Mexico,  5,  91  ;  of  silver  mines, 

13  ;  of  City  of  Mexico,  98,  107 
Army,  strength  of,  99,  100 


B 


Bananas,  where  grown,  cost,  yield,  and 

size,  61  ;  export  of,  variety,  an  article 

of  food,  62 
Bancroft,    H.   H.,   referred  to,   108  ;  his 

statistics  on  drainage  of  Mexico,  274 
Banks,  names  of,  131,  225,  226  ;  National 

Bank  of  Mexico,  131  ;  Bank  of  London 

and  Mexico,  132 
Bees,  71,  72 

Belize,  occupied  by,  6  ;  boundary  of,  7 
Birds,  71,  72 
Bolson  de  Mapimi,  12 
Boundary   of   Mexico,    with   the    United 

States,   5  ;    with   Guatemala,    6  ;   with 

Belize,  6,  7 
Brocklehurst,  109 
Bucyrus  Co.,  277 
Bustamante,  Don  Alejandro,  15 


Cables  in  Mexico,  where  located,  123 

Cactus,  species,  51 

Cadereita,  Marquis  of.  Viceroy,  273 

Canaigre,  use,  where  found,  55 

Canal,  size  of,  270,  278,  279  ;  lining  of, 
report  on,  271  ;  sum  appropriated  for 
building  of,  and  loan,  275  ;  contracted 
by,  articles  of  contract,  277,  278  ;  how 
work  carried  out,  278  ;  flow,  278,  279  ; 
length  of,  280 


Castillo,  Bernal  Diaz  del,  19 

Catholics,  wealth  of,  93,  94 

Cattle,  raising,  export  of,  56-S  ;  cost  of 
fattening,  lack  of  water,  57 

Cerralvo,  Marquis  de,  his  plan  in  regard 
to  canal  and  tunnel,  272 

Cession  of  territory  to  the  United  States, 
by  the  treaty  of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo, 
by  the  Gadsden  treaty,  by  treaty  signed 
at  Washington  with  Mexico,  7,  8 

Charcoal,  4 

Chewing-gum,  demand,  production,  53  ; 
value,  54 

City  of  Mexico,  location  and  settlement 
of  old  city,  107,  loS,  267-9  ;  present 
city,  108,  109,  26S  ;  public  buildings, 
109,  no  ;  factories,  no;  mortality,  in, 
114,  115,  279;  threatened  by  an  inun- 
dation in  1604,  often  flooded  in  the 
early  days,  269  ;  plan  to  change  capi- 
tal, 272 

Climate,  rainfall,  35,  36  ;  temperature, 
36,  37  ;  climatic  conditions,  37,  38  ; 
meteorological  observations  taken  in 
several  cities  of  Mexico,  38,  40,  41  ; 
meteorological  observations  taken  in 
several  localities  of  Mexico,  39  ;  Mex- 
ico as  a  sanitarium,  41,  42  ;  of  City  of 
Mexico,  no,  in;  meteorology  in  the 
Mexican  Republic,  in,  114;  climato- 
logical  data  of  the  City  of  Mexico,  112; 
summary  of  meteorological  observa- 
tions of  the  City  of  Mexico,  113  ;  good 
for  work,  128  ;  of  City  of  Mexico,  274, 
275 

Clouds,  38 

Coal,  cost  of,  and  mining,  22  ;  coal-fields, 
23-5 

Cochineal,  where  cultivated,  price,  53 

Cocoa,  where  produced,  51,  52  ;  disad- 
vantages of  raising,  52 

Cocoa-nuts,  where  grown,  use,  62,  63 

Coffee,  best  location,  production,  44,  45  ; 
advantages  and  disadvantages  of  rais- 
ing, 127 

Coinage  of  precious  metals,  gold  and 
silve-r,  21  ;  mints,  27,  109 


725 


1In&ej. 


Colleges  and  universities  established  by 
the  Spaniards,  100-102 

Copper,  quality,  amount  produced,  22,  23 

Cortez.  Hernan,  reference  to,  19,  55,  123, 
263.  269 

Cotton,  best  location,  expense  of  produc- 
tion, 48  ;  seed,  24 

Courts,  Supreme  Federal,  26 


D 


Debt  of  Mexico,  bonds,  loans,  etc.,  129, 
130;  accomplishing  credit,  130;  amount 
of  debt,  130,  131  ;  National  debt  to 
June  30,  1S96,  221,  222 

Dering,  Sir  Henry,  quotations  from,  47, 
.54,  55.  64 

Diaz,  President,  referred  to,  115-18, 
122-4,    130 ;  tribute  to,    280 

Dikes,  first  dike  in  1450,  267  ;  descrip- 
tion of,  by  Prescott,  268  ;  one  built  by 
Spaniards,  269 

Domestic  animals,  71,  72 

Drainage  works  of  the  Valley  of  Mexico, 
where  article  on.  was  first  published, 
how  long  to  complete  work,  266  ;  mag- 
nitude of  work,  267  ;  by  the  Mexican 
Government,  274-6  ;  works  consist  of, 
276  ;  works  completed,  279,  280  ;  im- 
portance to  the  City  of  Mexico,  280 


Egypt,  compared  with  Mexico,  10,  11 
English  in  ^lexico,  immediately  after  the 
independence,   nearly  all  disappeared, 

"9 
Espinosa,  Don  Luis,   present  director  of 

tunnel  work,  275 

Expenses,  amount  of,  137,  138  ;  of  Fed- 
eral Government,  139-41  ;  of  custom- 
houses, 147  ;  of  internal  revenue,  148  ; 
of  direct  taxes,  149  ;  of  Mexican  States, 
151  ;  of  municipalities,  153  ;  of  Mexico 
in  the  year  1896-97,  245 

Exports,  from  1S26-28,  155  ;  from  1877- 

96,  159  ;  by  countries  and  custom- 
houses from  1S94-96,  160 ;  value  of 
metals  and  commodities  exported  in 
1895-96,  161  ;  of  commodities  from 
1886-96,  162  ;  of  agricultural  products 
from  1877-96,  164  ;  destination  and 
value  of  metals  and  commodities  from 
1S32-92,  16S,  169;  total  exports,  169; 
value  of  Mexican  exports  during  1S72- 
73,  172 ;  from  Mexico  and  to  the 
United  States,  173  ;  of  domestic  mer- 
chandise to  Mexico  1858-83,  178-80; 
from  the  United  States  to  Mexico  1889- 

97,  1S2,  183 ;  articles  exported  from 
the    United    States    to     Mexico,    184. 

185  ;  tropical  products  supplied  by 
Mexico  to  the  United  States,  185,  186  ; 
cattle  exported  to  the   United   States, 

186  ;  of  precious  metals  and  minerals  in 


the  years  1879-80,  1889-90,  and  1894- 
95,  iSS ;  of  silver,  of  silver  bullion, 
189 ;  of  silver  ore,  190 ;  of  gold, 
190,  191  ;  of  gold  from  Mexico  to  the 
United  States,  192  ;  of  Mexico  by 
countries  and  custom-houses  in  the  year 
1896-97,  246  ;  Mexican  exports  to  the 
United  States,  247 


Financial  condition,  of  Mexico,  126,  137, 
138;  of  railroads,  119,  120,  195,  196; 
of  banks,  132  ;  of  States  and  municipal- 
ities, 154 

Fish,  71,  72 

Flora  in  Mexico,  products  raised,  42,  43  ; 
flowers  grown,  63,  64 

Foreign  immigration,  encouragement  to, 
125  ;  difference  of,  from  the  United 
States,  126,  127  ;  cost  of  labor,  127  ; 
warning  from  consular  reports,  127, 
128  ;  those  who  should  immigrate,  12S 

Foreign  trade,  small  before  railroads 
built,  cost  of  transportation,  154; 
amount  of,  with  United  States,  170; 
why  difficult  to  have  correct  data  with 
United  States,  170,  171  ;  commercial 
transactions  between  Mexico  and  the 
United  States  from  1820-50,  173  ;  com- 
merce in  merchandise  between  the 
United  States  and  Mexico  from  1851- 
97,  174;  total  commerce  between  the 
United  States  and  Mexico  by  years  and 
decades  from  1851-97,  175  ;  increase 
of  trade  during  1896-97,  184  ;  between 
Mexico  and  the  United  States  during 
the  first  nine  months  of  1897,  247 

Forests,  37,  38  ;  destruction  of,  65,  66  ; 
in  Mississippi  Valley,  66 

Forey,  Marshall,  108 

Franciscan  monks,  work  done  by,  273 

French  in  Mexico,  own  large  dry-goods 
houses,  79 

Fuel,  23-5  ;  demand  for,  24  ;  consump- 
tion of,  64 


Garay,  Senor  Don  Francisco  de,  plan  for 
tunnel,  275 

Gelves,  Marquis  de,  his  orders  about 
tunnel,  271 

Geology,  rock  formations,  12  ;  rich  in 
ores,  12,  13 

Germans  in  Mexico,  succeeded  by  Eng- 
lish, and  are  doing  well,  79 

Gil,  Mr.  George,  British  Colonies,  6 

Ginger,  yield,  55 

Gold,  where  found  and  how  reduced,  14, 
19,  20 ;  amount  of  production,  ex- 
tract from  Mr.  Cramer,  20  ;  weight  and 
standard  value,  133  ;  production  of,  in 
years  1879-80,  1889-90.  and  1894-95. 
188  ;  accredited  to  Mexico,  192 


1ln&ej. 


727 


Government  of  Mexico,  98,  99 
Grasses,  where  grown,  use,  56 
Guatemala,  boundary,  latitude,  length  of 

southern  boundary,  6  ;  cochineal  raised 

there,  53 
Guggenheim,  smelter,  23,  28,  29 

H 

Henequen,  where  grown,  average  pounds 

per  acre,  49 
Humboldt,  Baron  von,  reference  to,  13, 

15,  81,  104,  271 
Hydrography,  coast,  gulfs,  harbors,  bays, 

32  ;   islands,    33 ;   rivers  and  torrents, 

33.  34 


Imports,  from  1826-28,  155  ;  from  1872- 
75,  156  ;  from  1S85-86  and  i888-go, 
157  ;  from  1892-96,  15S  ;  by  countries 
from  18S8-90,  by  custom-houses  from 
1894-96,  160 ;  values  of  metals  and 
commodities  from  1882-92,  165-7  ; 
resume  of  total,  167  ;  to  Mexico  and  to 
the  United  States,  172  ;  of  merchandise 
from  Mexico  from  1858-83,  176,  177  ; 
into  the  United  States,  181,  182  ;  lead- 
ing merchandise  imports  from  Mexico 
to  the  United  States,  184;  of  gold 
bullion,  ore,  and  coin  into  the  United 
States,  191 ;  of  Mexico  by  countries  and 
custom-houses  in  the  year  1896-97,246; 
from  the  United  States,  248 

Indians,  Mexican,  tribes,  72  ;  classifica- 
tion of  tribes,  73  ;  similar  to  Malay- 
Asiatic  races,  73,  74 ;  extract  from 
San  Francisco,  Cal.,  Bulletin,  73  ;  char- 
acteristics, 74,  75;  prominent  men  among 
them,  marriages,  74 ;  education,  76, 
105  ;  strength,  78  ;  religion,  97  ;  Sir 
William  Hingston  on,  75  ;  originated 
work  on  canal,  267-9 

India-rubber,  places  best  adapted  for  it 
as  an  industry,  46,  47  ;  amount  of  pro- 
duction,  46  ;  profits  and  expense  of, 
47,  48 

Inhabitants,  most  thickly  inhabited  parts, 
37  ;  manner  of  living,  12S  ;  aborigines, 
per  cent,  of,  72 

Inundations  of  the  City  of  Mexico,  used 
to  be  flooded  once  on  an  average  of 
every  twenty-five  years,  the  one  in  1 580, 
in  1604,  269;  one  in  1607,  270;  one 
which  occurred  in  1629,  272  ;  decrease 
in,  since  Nochistongo  opening,  caused 
by  cutting  of  forests,  274 

Iron,  where  found,  21,  22,  25  ;  Cerro  del 
Mercado  mine,  quality,  21  ;  impor- 
tation of,  foundries,  22 

Irrigation,  but  little  at  present  in  Mexico, 
63  ;  scarcity  of  water,  64,  65  ;  cause  of 
decrease  in  rainfall,  good  investment, 
66  ;  reason  for  short  grain  supply,  70  ; 
Nazas  irrigation,  67-70 


Lakes,  number  of,  description  of,  268, 
269  ;  disappearance  of  Lake  Mexico, 
269  ;  Lake  Texcoco  filling  up,  lake  al- 
most disappeared,  274  ;  altitudes  of, 
275  ;  canal  crosses  Lake  Texcoco,  276 

Lamoreaux,  map  showing  cession  of  ter- 
ritory, 7 

Languages  in  Mexico,  varieties,  85,  86  ; 
Indian,  similar  to  Oriental,  74  ;  synop- 
sis of  Indian,  86-3 

Latitude,  of  Mexico,  5  ;  of  Guatemala, 
6 ;  of  silver  mines,  13  ;  of  City  of 
Mexico,  107 

Laws,  mining,  25-7  ;  lands,  124  ;  coloni- 
zation, 125,  126  ;  banking.  131 

Lead,  ores,  17,  iS  ;  yield,  28,  29 

Lemons,  where  grown,  60 

Lempriere,  Notes  on  Mexico,  9 

Libraries  in  Mexico,  106  ;  names,  number 
of  volumes  and  students,  233-5 

Li  Hung  Chang  and  the  Mexican  silver 
mines,  18,  19 

Limes  and  shaddocks,  where  planted, 
variety,  61 

Longitude,  of  Mexico,  5  ;  of  silver  mines, 
13  ;  of  City  of  Mexico,  107 


M 


Mamey,  use  of,  63 

Mangoes,  cultivated  taste,  transporta- 
tion of,  63 

Manufacturing,  factories  in  1893,  236  ; 
additional  establishments,  237 

Martinez,  Enrico,  his  plan  for  canal,  270  ; 
plan  inaugurated,  271  ;  plan  accepted 
in  1614,  271,  272  ;  scored  for  not  doing 
his  work  right,  272  ;  referred  to,  272-4  ; 
again  requested  to  carry  out  work, 
273 

Matthews,  Mr.  James  F.,  18 

Maximilian,  loS  ;  downfall,  95 

Mendez,  Simon,  his  plan  for  canal,  273  ; 
reference  to,  275 

Mercado,  Gines  Vazquez  del,  Cerro  del,  21 

Mexico  as  a  Central  American  State, 
where  article  was  published,  249  ;  how- 
article  originated,  249,  250  ;  geographi- 
cal situation  of  Mexico,  250  ;  five  States 
of  Central  America,  250  ;  States  of 
Mexico,  251  ;  geographical  extension  of 
Central  America,  251  ;  how  remarks 
were  received  by  a  Guatemalan  repre- 
sentative, 252 

Miller.  Mr.  Chas.,  i3 

Mining,  richness  of  mines,  13  ;  miners, 
25  ;  Mexico  offers  great  achantages  in, 
12S,  129 

Money,  weights  and  measures,  133,  134 

Monies  Claros,  Marquis  de,  reference  to, 
269 

Museum,  National,  103 


72S 


Un^ej. 


N 


Navigation,  number  of  vessels,  237  ;  ves- 
sels arrived  at  Mexican  ports  in  1895, 
238;  vessels  departed  from  Mexican 
ports  in  1895,  239;  foreign  passengers 
arrived  at  Mexican  ports  in  1895,  240  ; 
foreign  passengers  departed  from  Mex- 
ican ports  in  1895,  241  ;  resume  of 
vessels  and  passengers  arrived  and  de- 
parted by  rail  and  ports  in  1S95,  242  ; 
vessels  arrived  and  departed  from  Mex- 
ican ports  in  1894-96,  243 

Navy,  strength  of,  100 

Netzahualcoyotl,  saw  the  necessity  for  a 
drainage  canal,  267  ;  one  of  the  dikes 
built  by,  268 

Newspapers,  106 

Noyes,  Theodore  W.,  Mexico  and  Egypt, 
10,  II 


Ophidians,  71 

Oranges,  where  and  how  raised,  irrigation, 
distillation,  59  ;  flavor,  yield  compared 
with  coffee,  Frederico  Atristain  re- 
ferred to,  the  cyclone  in  Florida,  60 

Orography,  mountains  and  plateaus,  29- 
32  ;  elevation  of  mountain  ranges,  31 


Papaya,  use,  63 

Patents,  number  of,  132 

Pearson,  S.,  &  Son,  contractors  for  canal, 

277 

Peat,  23,  24 

Peppermint, where  grown,  55 

Pineapples,  uses,  where  grown,  62 

Political  organizations  of  Mexico,  of 
Federal  Government,  98,  99 

Political  parties,  Church,  its  wealth,  93, 
94  ;   Liberal,  94 

Population  of  Mexico,  increase  of,  76,  77  ; 
decrease  of  Mexican  Indians,  77,  78  ; 
from  1795  to  1895,  89;  parts  most 
thickly  settled,  90 ;  of  United  Mexi- 
can States,  91 

Position  of  Mexico,  9 

Postal  service,  number  of  offices  and 
agencies,  123,  124  ;  mail  carried,  re- 
ceipts, 133  ;  post-offices  in  Mexico  in 
1895,  223  ;  earnings  and  expenditures 
of  post-offices  from  1S69-96,  224 ; 
number  of  postal  pieces  transported 
from  1878-95,  225 

Prescott,  History  of  Conquest  of  Mexico, 
26S 

Profiles,  Mexican,  from  Veracruz  to 
Mexico  by  the  Mexican  Railway,  from 
Apizaco  to  Puebla,  a  branch  of  the 
Mexican  Railway,  253  ;  from  Veracruz 
to  Mexico  by  the  Interoceanic  Railway, 


from  the  City  of  Mexico  to  Morelos 
by  a  branch  of  the  Interoceanic,  254; 
from  Puebla  to  Izucar  de  Matamoros,  a 
branch  of  the  Interoceanic,  255  ;  from 
the  City  of  Mexico  to  El  Paso  del 
Norte  by  the  Central  Mexican,  255-7  ! 
from  Aguascalientes  to  Tampico  by  the 
Mexican  Central,  257,  258  ;  from  Ira- 
puato  to  Guadalajara,  a  branch  of  the 
Mexican  Central,  258  ;  from  the  City 
of  Mexico  to  Laredo  Tamaulipas  by 
the  Mexican  National,  258-60 ;  from 
Acambaroto  Patzcuaro,  a  branch  of 
the  Mexican  National,  261  ;  from 
Piedras  Negras  to  Durango  by  the 
Mexican  International,  261,  262  ;  from 
Sabinas  to  Hondo,  a  branch  of  the 
Mexican  International.  262  ;  from  the 
City  of  Mexico  to  Cuernavaca  and 
Acapulco,  262,  263  ;  from  Puebla  to 
Oaxaca  by  the  Mexican  Southern,  263  ; 
from  Coatzacoalcos  to  Salina  Cruz  by 
the  National  Tehuantepec,  263,  264  ; 
from  the  City  of  Mexico  to  Pachuca  by 
the  Hidalgo  and  Northeastern  Railway, 
from  San  Augustin  to  Irolo,  a  branch 
of  the  Hidalgo  Railway,  264 ;  from 
Durango  to  Mazatlan  by  bridle  path, 
from  Manzanillo  to  Guadalajara  by 
wagon  road,  265  ;  from  Tehuacan  to 
Oaxaca  and  Puerto  Angel  by  wagon 
road,  266 

Publications  about  Mexico,  non-official, 
134  ;  newspapers,  228 

Public  lands,  granted  to  Indians  and 
Spaniards,  survey  of,  124  ;  division  of, 
124,  125  ;  price  of,  125  ;  titles  of,  227, 
228 

Pulque,   where  and  how   cultivated,  48, 

49  ;  fermentation  of,  expense  and  profit, 

50  ;  thorn  and  root  useful,  51 
Purpose  of  this  paper,  244 


Quicksilver,  production  of,  23 

R 

Railway  itineraries  {see  Profiles) 
Railways  in  Mexico,  history  of,  115,  I16  ; 
extent,  116,  119;  President  Diaz's  policy 
on,  117,  118;  President  Diaz's  statistics 
on,  119;  financial  condition  of,  119- 
21  ;  length  of,  passengers  and  tons 
carried,  133  ;  mileage  in  operation 
October  31,  1896,  193-5;  resume  of, 
195  ;  Mexican  Central,  196,  197  ; 
Mexican  National,  196-8  ;  Mexican  In- 
ternational, igg,  200  ;  Mexican  South- 
em,  200,  201 ;  Mexican  Railroad,  201  ; 
Interoceanic  Railway,  Sonora  Railway, 
Hidalgo  and  Northeastern  Railway, 
202  ;  Merida  and  Progreso  Railway, 
Tehuacan     and     Esperanza     Railway, 


UnDej. 


729 


Railways  in  Mexico — Continued. 

Merida  and  Peto  Railway,  203;  Sinaloa 
and  Durango  Railway,  Merida  and 
Campeche  Railway,  Merida  and  Valla- 
dolid  Railway,  204  ;  Tlalmanalco  Rail- 
way, San  Juan  Bautista  and  Carrizal 
Passenger  Railway,  San  Andres  and 
Chalchicomula  Railway,  205  ;  Orizaba 
and  Ingenio  Railway,  Santa  Ana  and 
Tlaxcala  Railway,  Cardenas  and  Rio 
Grijalva  Railway,  206 ;  Toluca  and 
San  Juan  de  las  Iluertas  Railway,  Vane- 
gas,  Cedral,  Matehuala,  and  Rio  Verde 
Railway,  Merida  and  Izamal  Railway, 
San  Marcos  and  Nautla  Railway,  207  ; 
Monterey  and  Gulf  Railway,  Cordova 
and  Tuxtepec  Railway,  Maravatio  and 
Cuernavaca  Railway,  Salamanca  and 
Santiago  Valley  Railway,  208  ;  Monte 
Alto  Railway,  Valley  of  Mexico 
Railway,  Puebla  Industrial  Railway, 
Mexican  Northern  Railway,  Mexico, 
Cuernavaca,  and  Pacific  Railway,  2og  ; 
Federal  District  Tramways,  Veracruz 
and  Alvarado  Railway,  210  ;  traffic  and 
receipts  of  Mexican  railroads,  211; 
subsidies  paid  by  Mexican  Government 
to  June  30,  1896,  212-20 

Read  &  Campbell,  Messrs.,  contractors 
of  tunnel,  276,  277 

Real  del  Monte,  15-17 

Religion  in  Mexico,  Catholic  clergy  and 
convents,  92,  93  ;  in  politics,  94 ; 
Catholics  of  to-day,  94,  95  ;  Protestant 
missionaries,  95-7:  Protestant  churches 
established  by  Mr.  Henry  C.  Riley, 
96  ;  statistics  on  Protestants,  97,  98 

Revenue,  increase,  137  ;  difficult  to  get 
data,  138  ;  statistics  oif,  from  1808-67, 
139  ;  statistics  on,  from  1867-88,  140  ; 
statistics  on,  from  1888-96,  141  ;  Fed- 
eral appropriations  from  1868-95,  142  ; 
sources  of,  import  duties,  143  ;  addi- 
tional import  duties,  export  duties,  144  ; 
custom  receipts,  145,  146 ;  internal 
revenue,  146,  147  ;  direct  taxes,  148, 
149  ;  of  Mexican  States,  150  ;  of  mu- 
nicipalities, 152  ;  of  Mexico  in  the  year 
1896-97,  245 

Rice,  how  cultivated,  53 

Ruins  in  Mexico,  Uxmal,  80,  81  ;  Pa- 
lenque-,  Cholula,  81  ;  Teotihuacan,  81- 
83  ;  Mitla,  83  ;  extract  from  Sir  Vivien 
Cory  on,  83-5 


Sanchez,  Father,  plan   for  tunnel,  270  ; 

plan  condemned.  271 
Sandy  Plains  of  Mexico,  12 
Sanitarium,  Mexico  as  a,  41,  42 
School  of  Engineering,  103 
School  of  Medicine,  102,  103 
Schools,  statistics  of,   105,   106  ;   public, 

229,  230  ;  private,  231,  232 


Sewage  of  the  City  of  Mexico,  danger  of, 
274  ;  description  of,  and  how  to  be 
effected,  279 

Sheep,  mistakes  made  in  raising,  58 

Shipping,  mercantile  marine,  vessels  in 
foreign  and  coasting  trade,  tons  car- 
ried, 133 

Silk  culture,  where  grown,  varieties,  52  ; 
how  sold,  53 

Silver,  yield,  and  where  found,  13,  14  ; 
system  of  reduction,  14  ;  history  of 
some  mines,  15.  16  ;  duties  on,  28  ; 
weight  and  standard  value,  133  ;  total 
coinage  of,  186 ;  total  production  of, 
coined  by  Mexican  mints  from  1535 
to  1895,  187  ;  production  of  in  the 
years  1879-80,  18S9-90,  and  1S94-95, 
1 88  ;  coined  and  exported  from  1874- 
96,  189 

Smelting  plants,  Mexican  Metallurgical 
Co.,  28  ;  National  Mexican  Smelter  at 
Monterey,  28,  2g  ;  Central  Mexican 
Smelter,  Velardena  Mining  Co.,  The 
Chihuahua  Mining  Co.,  The  Mazapil 
Copper  Co..  Limited,  Sabinal  Mining 
and  Smelting  Co.,  Chihuahua,  La 
Preciosa,  The  Boleo  Smelter,  29 

Smith,  Captain,  referred  to,  275 

Spaniards  in  Mexico,  characteristics,  78, 
79  ;  climate  check  on  growth,  little 
education,  79  ;  built  dike  for  canal,  269 

Starr,  Professor,  his  theory,  76 

States  of  Mexico,  classification  and  divi- 
sion, etc.,  90,  91 

Sugar-cane,  size,  places  best  adapted  for 
raising,  cost  of  raising,  45 

Switzerland,  compared  with  Mexico,  10 


Technical  schools,  at  the  present  time, 
103,  104  :  reorganization  of,  104,  105 

Tejada,  Senor  Lerdo  de,  115 

Telegraphs,  number  of  different  com- 
panies, 1 2 1-3  ;  length  of,  133  ;  earn- 
ings and  expenditures  from  1S69-96, 
224 

Telephones,  length  of,  133 

Terreros,  Don  Pedro  Jose  Romero  de,  15, 
109 

Texas,  annexation  of,  7 

Tobacco,  quality  of,  45,  46 

Topia,  new  mines.  17 

Trade-marks,  number  of,  132*  133 

Transportation,  of  money,  131  ;  cost  of, 
railroads  have  revolutionized,  154,  155  ; 
of  mangoes,  63  ;  of  postal  pieces,  225 

Treaties,  Guadalupe-Hidalgo,  Gadsden, 
one  signed  at  Washington  between 
the  United  States  and  Texas.   7,  S 

Tunnel,  originated,  270,  271  ;  l^locked 
up,  272 ;  work  carried  on  in  1614, 
closed,  271  ;  opened  out.  272  ;  earth- 
quake destroyed  it  in  1637  ;  condi- 
tion of  old  tunnel  now,  273  ;  dangers 


73° 


fnDej. 


Tunnel — Continued. 

in  building,  273,  274  ;  location  of,  275  ; 
contract  for,  size,  276,  277  ;  discharged, 
managed  by,  277  ;  length  of,  280 


V 


Valley  of  Mexico,  its  development,  106, 
107  ;  topographical  conditions,  267 

Van  Boot,  Adrian,  sent  to  make  a  report, 
his  plan,  271 

Vanilla,  where  grown,  production,  varie- 
ties, etc.,  52  ;  how  sold,  53 

Vegetation,  36 

Velasco,  Viceroy  Don  Luis  de,  271 


W 


Wages,  advantages  of  foreign  labor,  48  ; 
prevents  immigration  to  Mexico  of 
poor  people,    126-9 


Warner,  Charles  Dudley,  Mexico  com- 
pared with  other  countries,  10  ;  climate 
of  Mexico,  42,  43  ;   on  church  edifices, 

92.93 
Water,    Mr.    J.   A.,   Pinos    Altos    Gold 

Mine,  14 
Winds,  38 
Woods,   cabinet  and  dye,    where  grown, 

some  of  the  species,  43,  44,  55 


Y 


Yuca,  when  and  where  grown,  54  ;  yield 

55 
Yucatan,  configuration,  civilization,  9 


Zapote,  use,  63 

Zones,  products  of  cold,  temperate,  and 
hot,  58 


HISTORICAL  NOTES  ON  MEXICO. 


Abascal,  General,  Viceroy  of  Peru,  305 

Abasolo,  Captain,  who  joined  Hidalgo, 
his  plan  of  military  operations  to  free 
Mexico,  343 

Absolutist  Party,  Peruvian  officers  en- 
listed in,  305 

Aculco,  Hidalgo  attacked  and  defeated 
at,  by  the  Spanish  army  under  Calleja, 
November  7,  1810,  343 

Adams,  John,  Ex-President,  published 
revolutionary  manifesto  signed  in 
Paris  on  December  22,  1797,  to  ex- 
plain his  conduct,  290  ;  letter  referred 
to  in  which  he  explains  his  conduct 
toward  Mexico,  292 

Adams,  John  Quincy,  Ex-President,  Re- 
port of,  as  Secretary  of  State,  on  sym- 
pathy of  United  States  for  Mexico  in 
movement  for  independence,  31S  ;  letter 
to,  of  November  5,  18 18,  from  Mr.  Gal- 
latin, United  States  Minister  at  Paris, 
showing  sympathy  United  States  felt 
for  Mexico  in  cause  of  independence, 
319  ;  report  of ,  published  in  President's 
Message,  showing  why  United  States 
delayed  recognition,  wrong  motives  at- 
tributed to  M.  Romero  in  regard  to 
remarks  about,  327,  328  ;  an  anti-slavery 
man,  329  ;  his  views  regarding  the 
Panama  Congress,  333 

Aguirre,  Manuel  H.  de,  agent  from  La 
Plata  and  Chili  to  United  States,  ask- 
ing recognition  of  Province  of  Buenos 
Ayres,  323 

Aldama,  Captain,  who  joined  Hidalgo, 
342  ;  proposed  plan  of  military  opera- 
tions to  free  Mexico,  343 

Alexander,  compared  with  San  Martin, 
306,  307 

Allende,  Captain,  who  joined  Hidalgo, 
342  ;  proposed  plan  of  military  opera- 
tions to  free  Mexico,  343 

Alliance,  Holy,  its  purposes  regarding 
the  American  colonies  of  Spain,  331 

Alvarez,  Juan,  leader  of  Liberal  Party 
in  Mexico,  359 

American    Social    Science    Association, 


meeting  of,  at  Saratoga  in  1S95,  Mr. 
Walter  S.  Logan's  remarks  regarding 
Mexico  at,  281  ;  M.  Romero's  speech 
at  meeting  of,  2S1  ;  article  on  Mexico 
enlarging  speech  at,  2S2 

Anaya,  Pedro  Maria,  Pre.sident,  ad  in- 
teritn,  of  Mexico,  357,  358 

Aranda,  Count  de,  his  plan  for  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  Spanish  colonies  in 
America,  287  ;  Liberal  Cabinet  wanted 
to  carry  out  plan  of,  308  ;  had  Charles 
IIL  accepted  plan  of,  Mexico  would 
have  accomplished  independence  soon- 
er, 309 

Arista,  Mariano,  President  of  Mexico  in 
1851,  resigned  1853,  359 

Army  of  the  Andes,  organized  and  dis- 
ciplined by  San  Martin  at  Mendoza, 
298. 

Ayacucho,  Upper  Peru,  battle  of,  fought 
on  December  9,  1824,  between  General 
Sucre,  commanding  patriot  army,  and 
Viceroy  La  Serna,  on  the  Spanish  side 
and  destroyed  Spanish  power  in  South 
America,  306 


B 


Banquet  at  New  York,  March  29,  1S64, 
M.  Romero's  speech  about  the  con- 
ditions in  Mexico  and  the  French 
Intervention,  3S3-3S7 

Banquet  at  New  York,  October  2,  1867, 
M.  Romero's  speech  at,  on  the  success 
of  Mexico  over  Maximilian  and  French 
Intervention,  387-392 

Banquet  at  New  York,  December  16, 
1 89 1,  tendered  by  Walter  S.  Logan  to 
M.  Romero,  392  ;  M.  Romero's  speech 
on  future  of  Mexico  and  United  States, 

393-395 

Banquet  at  Boston,  January  7,  1S92. 
address  of  M.  Romero  on  the  prosper- 
ity of  Mexico  and  the  share  that  Bos- 
ton has  in  the  same,  397-399 

Barradas,  General,  commander  of  Span- 
ish expedition  to  Tampico,  309  ;  sent 
from  Havana  to  reconquer  Mexico, 
352 


731 


732 


HuDes. 


Bazaine,  General,  commander  of  French 
aiTny,  367  ;  offered  to  sell  General  Diaz 
transportation  material,  powder,  arms, 
and  army  clothing,  before  leaving 
country,  379 

Becerra,  Ricardo,  his  book,  I'ii/a  Jc  Don 
Francisco  dc  JMiranda^  lZi,  2S3,  290 

Belgrano,  General,  of  Buenos  Ayres, 
leader  of  movement  for  independence, 
313  ;  signed  capitulation  treaty,  l)y 
which  General  Tristan  bound  himself 
not  to  take  up  arms  during  the  war 
against  the  Argentine  Government 
within  the  limits  of  the  Viceroyalty  of 
La  Plata,  342 

Benton,  Thomas,  statements  regarding 
President  Polk  and  General  Santa 
Anna,  357,  35S 

Bermudez,  Venezuelan  General  and 
leader  of  movement  of  independence, 
313  ;  his  death,  307 

Bigelow,  John,  M.  Romero  asked  views 
of,  on  cause  of  downfall  of  Napoleon, 
377  ;  sent  by  Samuel  J.  Tilden,  of  New 
York,  to  investigate  Mexico  as  a  field 
for  investment,  398 

Bishop  of  Arequipa,  supporter  of  Spanish 
rule  against  independence,  314 

Bishop  of  Cuzco,  supporter  of  Spanish 
rule  against  independence,  314 

Bishop  of  iiuamango,  supporter  of  Span- 
ish rule  against  independence,  314 

Bishop  of  La  Paz,  released  Spanish  offi- 
cers from  oath  during  war  of  inde- 
pendence, 342 

Bishop  of  Maynas,  supporter  of  Spanish 
rule  against  independence,  314 

Bishop  of  Oaxaca,  supporter  of  Spanish 
rule  against  independence,  314 

Bismarck,  Prince,  took  advantage  of  com- 
plicated condition  of  France  in  Mexico 
in  1S66,  and  declared  war  against  Aus- 
tria, 378 

Blancarte,  Colonel,  rebelled  against  Gov- 
ernor of  State  of  Jalisco  in  Guadala- 
jara, which  led  to  the  return  of  Santa 
Anna  as  President  of  Mexico,  359 

Bland,  Theodoric,  member  of  Commis- 
sion of  181 7,  sent  to  examine  into  con- 
ditions of  Buenos  Ayres  and  Chili,  324 

Bolivar,  Juan  Vicente,  representative  from 
Venezuela  to  United  States,  323 

Bolivar,  General  Simon,  where  born,  297  ; 
character,  297,  303,  304  ;  ambition  of, 
306,  307  ;  favored  republican  form  of 
government,  302,  313  ;  battles  in  Vene- 
zuela and  New  Granada,  303  ;  sent 
commissioners  to  Spain  with  view  to 
obtain  independence  of  Colombia,  309  ; 
agreement  signed  with  General  Morillo, 
316  :  met  San  Martin  in  Ecuador,  304  ; 
refused  aid  to  San  Martin,  303  ;  leader 
of  patriot  army  in  battle  of  Bombona, 
in  Peru,  and  defeated  Spanish  army, 
304  ;    royalists    capitulated    to,     342  ; 


completed  work  of  San  Martin,  302  ; 
hailed  as  Dictator  and  Liberator  of 
Peru,  in  charge  Peruvian,  Chilian,  and 
Argentine  armies,  305  ;  proposed  as- 
sembling of  Panama  Congress,  333  ; 
thought  Spain  should  be  driven  out  of 
Cuba  and  Porto  Rico  before  task  was 
ended,  324,  325 

Bombona,  battle  of,  in  Ecuador,  where 
Spanish  army  was  defeated,  304 

Bonaparte,  Joseph,  Spanish  people  re- 
belled against  government  of,  342 

Boyaca,  battle  of,  at  which  I5olivar 
achieved  independence  of  New  Grana- 
da, 303 

Bravo,  Miguel,  Mexican  General,  cap- 
tured and  shot,  344 

Bravo,  Nicolas,  magnanimity  of,  345, 
346  ;  Vice-President  of  Mexico,  352  ; 
exercised  government  during  Santa 
Anna's  absence,  355 

Brayer,  Marshal,  who  had  fought  under 
Napoleon,  in  ranks  of  South  American 
patriots,  315 

Brittanic  Legion,  gave  active  support  to 
Bolivar,  315 

Brown,  Admiral,  organized  Argentine 
navy,  300 

Buchanan,  James,  extract  from  resolution 
of  1826,  333,  334 

Buckle,  Henry  Thomas,  History  of  Civil- 
ization in  England,  2S8 

Buenos  Ayres,  only  capital  never  recap- 
tured by  Spaniards  during  War  of 
Independence,  297  ;  expedition  sent 
against,  by  Viceroy  of  Peru,  suffers  de- 
feat, 29S  ;  recognition  of  independence 
of,  by  United  States  Government,  319, 
320 

Burr,  Aaron,  in  sympathy  with  the  cause 
of  independence  in  South  America, 
293 

Bustamante,  General,  Vice-President  of 
Mexico,  352  ;  headed  rebellion,  352, 
353  ;  elected  President  in  1S37,  re- 
belled against  twice  by  General  Urrea, 
went  to  fight  rebels  and  was  defeated, 
355 


Caldas,  of  Colombia,  favored  cause  of 
independence,  313 

Calhoun.  John  C,  thought  United  States 
should  act  in  concurrence  with  (ireat 
Britain  in  acknowledging  independence 
of  Buenos  Ayres,  319 

Callao,  stronghold  of  the  .Spaniards  in 
Peru,  fell  into  the  hands  of  San  Martin 
and  rebelled  against  Peruvian  govern- 
ment and  was  delivered  to  Spaniards, 

3"5 
Calleja,  Spanish  General,  battles  fought 

by.  343 
Canalizo,  General,  exercised  government 


1Iu^er. 


Canal  i  zo —  Con  tiutieJ. 

of  Mexico  during  Santa  Anna's  ab- 
sence, 355,  356  ;  dissolved  Congress, 
was  captured  by  insurrectionists,  356 

Cancharayada,  Chili,  only  battle  in  which 
San  Martin  was  defeated,  297 

Canning,  George,  his  disavowal  that  Great 
Britain  wanted  to  take  possession  of 
Cuba,  328  ;  suggested  Monroe  Doc- 
trine, 331 

Canterac,  Spanish  general,  commanded 
army  to  relieve  Callao,  301  ;  won  vic- 
tory at  lea,  302 

Carabobo,  battle  of,  the  Waterloo  of  the 
Sj)aniards  in  Venezuela,  in  which  inde- 
pendence of  Venezuela  was  achieved, 
303 

Carlota,  Austrian  Archduchess,  her  mis- 
sion and  interview  with  Napoleon,  sad 
ending  of  her  cause,  366 

Caro,  Senor,  sent  by  General  Miranda  to 
obtain  assistance  from  United  States, 
293  ;  leader  in  Cuba,  313 

Carrera  brothers,  Chilian  leaders  of  inde- 
pendence, 313 

Catholic  clergy,  part  taken  by  them  in 
war  of  independence,  314  ;  wealth  and 
power  of,  340  ;  main  support  of  Spain, 
341  ;  attitude  in  Peru,  342 

Ceballos,  Juan  Bautista,  assumed  govern- 
ment of    Mexico,  dissolved   Congress, 

359 

Charles  III.,  advised  by  Count  de  Aranda 
to  establish  three  great  Spanish  em- 
pires in  America,  2S7  ;  consequence  of 
his  refusal  to  take  Count  de  Aranda's 
advice,  309  ;  expelled  Jesuits  from  his 
dominions,  292 

Charles  IV.,  by  treaty  of  Bayonnc,  all 
rights  and  titles  of,  transferred  to 
French  emperor,  294  ;  suggested  to,  by 
Godoy,  to  go  to  America  and  establish 
empire  there,  310 

Chili,  San  Martin  marched  to,  independ- 
ence of,  agreed  to  send  army  to  liber- 
ate Peru  from,  29S  ;  her  navy,  ad- 
vantageous geographical  position  of, 
299 

Chilian  navy,  ships  and  transports  form- 
ing the,  300 

Church  Party,  strong,  351  ;  averse  to 
change,  352 ;  wealthy  and  powerful, 
354  ;  prevailed,  359 

Civil  wars,  causes  of,  no  longer  exist  in 
Mexico.  comparisons  of,  between 
Mexico  and  Europe,  369  ;  permanence 
of  i>eace,  369,  370  ;  from  1S68  to  1875, 
La  Noria  insurrection,  headed  by  Gen- 
eral Diaz,  368 

Clark,  Justice  Walter,  of  North  Carolina, 
statement  that  the  form  of  Mexican 
goverimient  changed  ten  times  between 
1821  and  i368,  351 

Clay,  Henry,  resolution  favoring  inde- 
pendence  of    Spanish    colonies,    317; 


resolutions  of  1S18,  321,  322  ;  action 
toward  Cuba,  326  ;  letter  from,  to  Mr. 
Everett,  letter  from,  to  Mexican  Min- 
ister at  Washington,  327  ;  supposed 
reasons  for  letter  of,  to  Mr.  Everett, 
327,  32S  ;  extract  from  letter  of.  to 
Baron  de  Maltitz,  showing  policy  of 
United  .States  in  regard  to  Cuba  and 
Porto  Rico,  329 

Clemente,  Lino,  Venezuelan  agent,  re- 
fuseil  an  interview  by  United  States 
Government,  323 

Cochrane,  Sir  Alexander,  helped  Miranda 
to  proclaim  independence,  293  ;  lost 
man-of-war  Intrepido,  put  in  com- 
mand of  Chilian  navy,  299  ;  ships 
commanded  by,  and  how  obtained, 
300  ;  captured  ships  at  Callao,  seized 
money  to  pay  men,  aspersions  against 
San  Martin.  302  ;  Memoirs  of,  314 

Colombia,  distracted  by  civil  wars  and 
anarchy,  302,  311  ;  Bolivar  in,  303  ; 
independence  of,  295  ;  army  of, 
marched  against  Spaniards  in  Upper 
Peru,  305 

Commercial  colonial  policy  of  Spain,  one 
of  monopoly  and  privation,  only  few 
ports  open  to  trade,  result  of,  289  ; 
policy  of  England  with  regard  to 
Mexico,  292 

Commissioners,  sent  by  revolted  colonies 
to  United  States,  322,  323  ;  sent  by 
United  States  to  revolted  colonies,  no 
commissioners  sent  to  Mexico,  324, 
347 

Comonfort,  Ignacio,  General,  President, 
ad  interim,  of  Mexico  in  1855  ;  Consti- 
tutional President  in  1S57,  annulled 
constitution.  Dictator  in  1857,  left  the 
country,  360 

Congress,  American,  329  ;   Panama,  502, 

333>  334 
Constitution,  Liberal,  adopted  in  Spain 
in  1S12,  346  ;  Federal,  in  Mexico  in 
1S24,  349,  353  ;  abolished  in  1834.  353. 
354  ;  constitutional  laws  established 
in  Mexico  in  1S36,  organic  bases  es- 
tablished in  1843,  354  :  Federal  con- 
stitution of  Mexico  restored  in  1846, 
35()  ;  of  1824  restored  in  1847,  357  ; 
plan  of  Ayutla  proposed  restoration  of, 

.359 
Cordoba,  Colombian  general,  his  death, 

307 

Crawford,  Mr.,  member  of  President 
Monroe's  Cabinet,  thought  this  countrj- 
should  act  in  concurrence  witli  Great 
Britain  in  recognizing  imlependence  of 
South  American  colonics,  31 9 

Cuba,  not  incUuleil  among  islands  given 
to  Great  Britain  and  United  States  by 
treaty  signed  at  Paris  December  22, 
1797,  290  ;  influence  of  revolted  Span- 
ish colonies  on,  324  ;  scheme  for 
liberation  of,  324-32S  ;  Mr.  Clay's  ac- 


734 


1In^cr. 


Cuba — Contin  tied. 

tion  towards,  326  ;  Mr,  Clay  stated  in 
letter  that  England  was  at  bottom  of 
scheme  to  liberate,  327  ;  oliject  of 
Panama  Congress  was  to  gain  inde- 
pendence of,  333  ;  independence  of, 
329 


D 


Dana,  Richard  Henry,  refers  to  inde- 
pendence of  Cnba,  32S  ;  extract  from 
note  of,  in  the  I'anama  Congress,  on 
the  Monroe  Doctrine,  329,  332 

Davis.  J.  C.  B.,  extract  from  his  Notes 
on  Treaties  of  the  United  States,  334 

Del  Rio,  Juan  Garcia,  sent  by  San  Martin 
to  negotiate  alliance  with  Great  Brit- 
ain, 311 

Diaz,  Forfirio,  General,  President  of 
Mexico,  where  born,  education,  fol- 
lowed literary  then  military  career, 
when  first  prominent,  command  of 
Eastern  Division,  prisoner,  escaped, 
went  south,  organized  army,  operations 
against  French  Intervention,  367  ; 
elected  Chief  Executive,  policy  of, 
great  good  done  in  Mexico  by,  36S  ; 
letter  from,  referring  to  Marshal  Ba- 
zaine,  379 


Echavarri,  General,  headed  army  sent  by 

Iturbide  against  Santa  Anna  and  joined 

insurgents,  349 
Emerson,  John  W.,  General  Grant's  Life 

by,  358 
Encalada,    Manuel   Blanco,  commanded 

Chilian    navy,    299  ;    attacked  Maria 

Isabel  and   captured    several    Spanish 

vessels,   299 
Europeans,  the  effect  of  their  coming  to 

America,  312 


Ferdinand  VII.,  sanctioned  government 
established  by  Napoleon  in  1808,  342  ; 
fled  from  Spain,  346 ;  his  proclama- 
tion, 308,  309  ;  Juntas  in  Spain  and 
colonies  ruled  in  name  of,  294  ;  wrote 
confidential  letter  to  Viceroy  Apodaca 
saying  he  was  held  in  captivity  by 
Spanish  Liberals,  347  ;  refusal  to  recog- 
nize independence  of  colonies,  309  ; 
Spain  recognized  independence  of 
^iexico  after  death  of,  352 

Filosola,  Colonel,  commander  of  army 
sent  by  Iturbide  to  assure  independence 
of  Guatemala,  325 

Forbes,  John  M.,  commissioner  sent  by 
the  United  States  Government  to  Chili 
and  Buenos  Ayres.  324 

Forest,  David  C.  de.  United  States  Gov- 


ernment refused  to  admit  him  as  Con- 
sul General  from  La  I'lata,  323 

Forey.  Marshal,  commander  of  French 
army  of  invasion  in  Mexico,  364 

French  Intervention,  the  attempt  to  gain 
foothold  in  Mexico,  364  ;  cause  of 
Napoleon's  downfall,  3()5 

FreiMi  Revolution,  influence  on  Mexico, 

3t'9 
Funes,  Gregorio,  Historical  Sketch  of  the 
Revolution  of  the  United  Provinces  of 
South  America,  324 


Galeana.IIermenegildo,  leaderof  Mexican 
independence,  defeated  and  killed,  344 

Gallatin,  Mr.,  extract  from  letter  of,  re- 
garding recognition  by  the  United 
States  of  American  colonies,  319 

Garcia,  Francisco,  rebelled  in  Mexico 
against  Santa  Anna,  354 

Gomez,  Farias  Valentin,  leader  of  liberal 
movement  in  Mexico,  313  ;  successful 
in  passing  as  Vice-President  several 
liberal  measures  in  Congress,  exiled 
by  Santa  Anna,  354  ;  Vice-President 
in  1S46,  357  ;  President,  ad  interitti, 
from  1S46  to  1847,  357 

Governments,  established  by  the  Spanish 
colonies  in  America,  296,  308,  310,  311; 
ten  republics  established  at  same  time, 
312 

Graham,  John,  member  of  commission  of 
1S17  sent  by  the  United  States  to 
Buenos  Ayres  and  Chili,  324 

Guadalupe  Hidalgo,  treaty  of  peace  be- 
tween Mexico  and  the  United  States, 
358 

Guatemala,  independence  of,  307  ;  Itur- 
bide sent  army  to  assist  in  independ- 
ence of,  325 

Guerra,  Jose,  History  of  the  Revolution 
of  iVeiu  Spain,  cited,  294 

Guerrero,  Vicente,  commanded  army  in 
.South  of  Mexico,  held  his  own  until  in- 
dependence succeeded,  346  ;  joined 
Iturbide,  347  ;  candidate  of  Federahsts, 
elected  President,  352  ;  rebelled  against 
by  Bustamante,  the  Vice-President, 
352,  353  ;  his  death,  307 


H 


Hale,  Senator,  from  Maine,  presented  a 
paper  on  the  "  Power  to  Recognize  the 
Independence  of  a  New  State,"  283 

Hamilton,  Alexander,  favored  assisting 
South  American  republics  in  War  of 
Independence,  293 

Herrera,  Jose  Joaquin,  President  of  Mex- 
ico from  1844  to  1846,  deposed  January 
2,  1S46,  356;  President  in  1848,  359; 
his  administration  noted  for  simplicity 
and  morality,  359 


Un^ej. 


735 


Hidalgo  y  Costilla,  Miguel,  independence 
of  Mexico  proclaimed  by,  commissioned 
Morelos,  342  ;  sent  representative  to 
United  States,  323  ;  issued  decree  abol- 
ishing slavery,  344  ;  battles  of,  343  ; 
death  of,  307,  343 

Humboldt,  Baron,  his  opinion  on  climate 
of  Mexico,  297 


I 


lea,  San  Martin's  troops  under  General 
Tristan,  defeated  at,  302 

Iguala,  Plan  of  proclaiming  independence 
of  Mexico,  346,  347 

Independence  of  Spanish  colonies,  influ- 
ence of  United  States  on  Mexican,  2S7, 
342  ;  dissensions  of  royal  Spanish  fam- 
ily influenced,  294  ;  War  of,  in  Mexico, 
307 ;  achieved  in  Mexico,  296,  346  ; 
proclaimed  in  Caracas,  Bogota,  and 
Santiago,  295  ;  New  Granada  and  Ven- 
ezuela, 303  ;  Spanish  power  in  America 
destroyed,  306  ;  comparison  of  war  of, 
Mexico  and  South  America,  312,  313  ; 
views  of  different  South  American 
countries  in  regard  to  asking  foreign 
assistance  to  obtain,  315,  316;  Euro- 
pean assistance  to  obtain,  315  ;  reso- 
lution of  United  States  Congress  for 
recognition  of  South  American  prov- 
inces, 321  ;  of  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico, 
329  ;  opposition  of  principal  classes  to, 
340,  341 

Indians,  of  Mexico  and  South  America, 
characteristics  of,  313 

Inquisition,  took  measures  against  lead- 
ers of  Mexican  independence,  341  ;  de- 
graded Hidalgo  and  Morelos,  344 

Iturbide,  Augustin,  Plan  of  Iguala  pro- 
claimed by,  346,  347  ;  last  movement 
for  independence  headed  by,  353  ; 
treaty  signed  at  Cordova,  307  ;  course 
in  Mexico  and  Guatemala,  325  ;  empire 
and  death  of,  348,  349 

Iturrigaray,  Viceroy,  of  Mexico,  armed  the 
country  to  resist  invasion  of  France, 
but  deposed  and  sent  back  to  Spain, 
296 


J 


Jefferson,  Thomas,  owing  to  his  advice 
the  French  National  Assembly  assumed 
sovereign  legislative  power,  288  ;  con- 
sulted by  President  Monroe  about  sub- 
jugating Spanish  colonies,  331 

John  VI.  of  I'ortugal,  his  attempt  to  es- 
tablish monarchy  in  America,  310 

Juarez,  Benito,  education,  positions  held 
by,  360,  362 ;  from  an  humble  Indian 
became  foremost  man  in  his  country, 
369;  Secretary  of  Justice  in  Mexico  in 
1855,  Secretary  of  Interior  in  1S57, 
360,   362  ;  President,  had  to  flee  from 


capital  and  established  his  government 
in  Veracruz  for  two  years,  362  ;  occupied 
the  City  of  Mexico,  364 ;  re-elected 
President  from  1S67-1S71,  patriotism 
and  firmness  of,  366  ;  never  despaired 
of  success,  367  ;  characteristics  of  Mr. 
Seward's  opinion  of,  361  ;  death  of,  36S 

Junin,  Upper  Peru,  battle  of,  fought  by 
Bolivar  against  Spanish  troops,  305 

Juntas,  one  convened  at  Madrid,  October 
8,  1797,  articles  of,  leadership  en- 
trusted to  Miranda,  290  ;  Spanish  sub- 
jects in  America  establish,  294 

K 

King,  Rufus,  United  States  Minister  in 
London,  his  statements  in  regard  to 
Jesuits,  291,  292  /" 


Lafayette,  General,  helped  United  States 
in  War  of  Independence,  346 

I., I  Serna,  Viceroy  of  Peru,  no  agreement 
reached  at  conference  held  at  Torre 
Blanca  with  San  Martin's  representa- 
tives, 301  ;  proposed  terms  of  settle- 
ment with  San  Martin,  347  ;  appointed 
military  commander  and  viceroy,  305  ; 
commanded  at  battle  of  Ayacucho,  306 

Las  Heras,  Argentine  general,  com- 
manded portion  of  army  in  Peru,  301 

Latona,  Pascasio  Ortiz  de,  official  repre- 
sentative of  Mexico  sent  by  Hidalgo  to 
the  United  States,  323,  343 

Lautaro,  secret  lodge  in  South  America 
to  secure  independence,  310 ;  played 
important  part  in  independence.  316  ; 
Masonic,  349 

Lavalle,  Argentine  colonel,  commander 
of  troops  to  assist  Sucre,  304 

Lerdo  de  Tejada,  Sebastian,  ex-officio 
President,  elected.  Constitutional  Pres- 
ident, overthrown  by  the  revolution  of 
Tuxtepec,  368 

Liberal  I'arty,  in  Mexico,  305  ;  Yorkinos 
and  Escoceses,  349  ;  victory  for,  350  ; 
patriotic  element  of,  grew  strong  through 
education  and  contact  with  foreign  ele- 
ment, inaugurated  counter  revolution, 
355  ;  rebelled,  359 

Lima,  Capua  of  South  America,  where 
situated,  climate,  297  ;  characteristics 
of  people.  Viceroy  sent  an  army  from, 
29S  ;  occupied  by  San  Martin,  301  ; 
Archbishop  of,  314 

Lifian,  Spanish  general,  commander  of 
army  of  Viceroy  of  Peru,  sent  to  Chili, 
346 

Logan,  Waller  S.,  -•/  Mt.xuaii  Law  .Suit, 
381  ;   Cnautla,  344 

Lorencez,  French  general,  defeated  at 
Puebla,  364,  377 

Lyman,  his  Diplomacy  of  ilu  Unittd 
States,  320 


736 


1In&ej. 


M 


Madison,  James,  received  General  Mi- 
randa while  Secretary  of  State,  293  ; 
consulted  by  President  Monroe  about 
subjugation  of  Spanish  colonies,  331 

Maltitz,  Baron  de,  Russian  Minister  in 
Washington,  letter  to  Mr.  Clay  regard- 
ing Cuba,  329 

Maneyro,  Luis,  his  opinion  of  Napoleon's 
downfall,  377  ;  opinion  of  great  weight 
and  why,  memorandum  of,  in  regard  to 
why  France  did  not  take  part  in  Ger- 
man struggle,  379,  380  ;  his  statement 
as  to  betrayal  of  French  Commissary 
Department,  380,  381 

Matamoros,  Mariano,  Mexican  general, 
leader  of  independence,  defeated  and 
captured,  344 

Maximilian,  Archduke  Ferdinand,  went 
to  Mexico  to  become  ruler,  364  ;  armies 
organized  to  aid,  367  ;  experiment  in 
Mexico  of,  311  ;  character,  captured 
and  shot,  lesson  of  his  death,  365 

Midland  Monthly,  article  on  General 
Grant's  life,  258 

Miller,  Memoirs  of  the  South  American 
War  of  Independence ,  300 

Mina,  Francisco  Xavier,  Spanish  general 
who  took  part  in  Mexican  War  of  Inde- 
pendence, 315  ;  character,  expedition, 
defeat,  and  death,  346 

Miramon,  Miguel,  Mexican  general,  last 
Church  Party  President,  364 

Miranda,  Francisco  de,  biography  of, 
282  ;  delegate  to  Junta  of  October  8, 
1797,  leader  of  scheme  of  independence, 
290  ;  belonged  to  high  class  in  Vene- 
zuela and  favored  independence,  313  ; 
believed  independence  could  be  achieved 
with  national  resources,  315  ;  suspected 
of  conspiracy  and  court-martialled  by 
Spain,  his  travels,  his  French  exploits 
and  downfall,  regains  his  liberty,  Lon- 
don schemes,  291  ;  his  credentials,  2g2  ; 
came  to  United  States  in  1S05,  organ- 
ized expedition  in  United  States,  result 
of,  second  expedition,  293  ;  third  expe- 
dition, 294 

Mitre,  Bartolome,  of  Argentine,  I/istoria 
de  San  Martin  y  de  la  Etnancipacion 
Stid- Americana,  295,  311;  Bolivar's 
tactics,  304 

Money,  Senator,  his  article  on  the  United 
States  and  the  Liberation  of  the  Spanish 
Colonies,  and  M.  Romero's  rejoinder, 
284  ;  his  views  on  assistance  rendered 
Mexico  by  United  States,  316,  317  ;  on 
recognition  of  belligerency,  320  ;  on 
Cuba,  325,  326 ;  on  naval  forces  of 
Mexico  and  Colombia,  interposition  of 
United  States  in  case  of  Cuba  of  great 
service  to  Mexico,  326 

Monroe,  James,  President,  asked  Congress 
to  recognize  the  independence  of  Span- 


ish colonies  in  America  when  it  had 
been  attained  in  almost  all  of  them, 
318  ;  Cabinet  of,  considered  recogni- 
tion of  Buenos  Ayres,  319;  his  Message 
of  March  8,  1822,  321,  322  ;  as  Secre- 
tary of  State,  324  ;  on  Cuba,  328  ;  Doc- 
trine, 330-333 

Monte  de  las  Cruces,  Mexico,  Hidalgo 
successful  in  battle  at,  343 

Montesqieu,  considered  English  constitu- 
tion as  perfect  form  of  government,  310 

Montufar,  of  Quito,  leader  in  War  of 
Independence,  313 

Moquegua,  Peru,  patriot  army  defeated 
at,  304 

Morelos,  Jose  Maria,  second  leader  of 
Mexican  independence,  an  humble 
priest,  313  ;  succeeded  Hidalgo,  343  ; 
detached  Bravo  to  Province  of  Veracruz, 
345  ;  captured  Oaxaca  in  1812,  341  ; 
other  cities  captured,  343,  344  ;  con- 
vened Congress  which  declared  inde- 
pendence, waning  fortunes,  344  ;  defeat 
and  death,  307,  344 

Morillo,  Spanish  general,  commander  of 
expedition  sent  to  La  Plata  Provinces 
which  landed  in  Venezuela,  308  ;  signed 
treaty  with  Bolivar,  316 

Mosquera,  of  Venezuela,  leader  of  inde- 
pendence, 313 

Munecas,  Ildefonso,  one  of  promoters  of 
revolution  in  Peru,  314 

N 

Napoleon  I.,  empire  of,  288  ;  Spain  and 
England  against  him,  291  ;  held  Span- 
ish king  in  captivity,  308 

Napoleon  III.,  tried  to  establish  Euro- 
pean empire  in  Mexico,  364  ;  supported 
Maximilian,  311  ;  his  downfall  due  to 
his  intervention  in  Mexico,  377  ;  his 
defeat  at  Sedan  caused  by  his  Mexican 
intervention,  378 

Narino,  of  Colombia,  favored  indepen- 
dence, 313 

Nelson,  Representative,  resolution  of, 
asking  for  documents  relating  to  South 
America,  322 

Nelson,  Thomas  H.,  United  States  Min- 
ister to  Mexico,  his  testimony  of  Mr. 
Seward's  estimate  of  Juarez,  361 

O 

Ocumare,  Venezuela,  Miranda's  trans- 
ports captured  at,  293 

O'Donoju,  Juan,  last  Spanish  Viceroy,  of 
Mexico,  signed  treaty  at  Cordova,  307, 
316  ;  accepted  Plan  of  Iguala,  347 

O'Higgins.  Bernardo,  took  leading  part  in 
War  of  Independence  of  Chili,  became 
dictator,  298  ;  improvised  a  navy,  299  ; 
favored  constitutional  monarchy,  310  ; 
ostracised  himself  and  escaped  death, 
307 


UnDej. 


737 


Orca,  Telesforo,  commissioner  from  Vene- 
zuela to  United  States,  323 

Osorio,  Juan  Mujica  y,  President,  ad 
interim,  of  Mexico,  359 


Padilla,  Jimenez  de,  Bishop  of  Popayan 
in  Peru,  his  views  on  independence,  341 

Paez,  Jose  Antonio,  leader  of  independ- 
ence in  Venezuela,  called  the  Venezuelan 
Archiles,  296 

Paredes,  General  Mariano,  rebelled 
against  Santa  Anna,  rebelled  against 
Herrera,  President,  January  4,  1846, 
left  capital  but  returned,  troops  aban- 
doned him  and  he  had  to  fly  for  safety, 
356 

Pedraza,  Manuel  Gomez,  candidate  of 
Centralist  Party  352  ;  President  of 
Mexico,  353 

Pena  y  Pena,  Manuel  de  la,  assumed  the 
government  of  Mexico  in  1847,  and 
signed  the  treaty  of  peace  of  Guada- 
lupe, 1848,  358 

Peru,  San  Martin  thought  it  had  to  be 
conquered  before  independence  could 
be  secured  in  South  America,  298  ; 
main  seat  of  Spanish  power  in  South 
America,  297  ;  could  not  be  reached 
overland,  299  ;  San  Martin  in.  300, 
301,  303  ;  army  defeated  after  San 
Martin  left,  304  ;  Bolivar  in  Upper, 
305,  306  ;  commissioners  sent  by 
Spanish  generals  to  San  Martin  in,  309  ; 
San  Martin  Protector  of,  311;  clergy 
in,  314;  army  in,  324;  attitude  of 
higher  clergy  in,  342 

Pezuela,  Viceroy  of  Peru,  deprived  of 
command,  305 

Pichincha,  Ecuador,  Sucre  victorious  at, 

304 

Pickering,  Secretary  of  State,  letter  to, 
from  Rufus  King,  in  which  it  was  stated 
that  England  would  assist  South  Amer- 
ican colonies  in  gaining  independence, 
291,  292 

Pitt,  William,  detained  and  encouraged 
in  I^ondon  some  Spanish  Jesuits  who 
had  taken  part  in  conspiracy  to  pro- 
mote insurrection,  292 

Poinsett,  Joel  R.,  agent  to  Buenos  Ayres, 
324  ;  United  States  Minister  to  Mexico, 
329 ;  accused  of  being  instigator  of 
establishment  of  lodges,   349 

Polk,  President  James  K.,  supposed  to 
have  entered  into  secret  agreement  with 
Santa  Anna,  357 

Pope,  Leo  VII.,  encyclic  of,  regarding  in- 
dependence 314 

Pope,  Pius  VII.,  encyclic  of,  regarding 
indejiendence,  314 

Prevost,  T.  B.,  United  States  commis- 
sioner to  Chili  and  Buenos  Ayres,  324 

Privileged  classes  in  Mexico,  during  the 


Spanish    rule,     clergy,    Spaniards    by 
birth.  340  ;  army,  340,  341  ;  opposition 
to  independence  of,  341,  342 
Puente   de   Calderon,    Mexico,    Hidalgo 
defeated  by  Spanish  under  Calleja  at, 

343 
Pueyrredon,  General  Director  of  Buenos 

Ayres,  and  favored  independence,  313 
Pumacahua.  leader  of   the  revolution  of 

independence  in  Upper  Peru,  314 


Republic,  establishment  of  in  Mexico  in 

1S23,  349 
Riva  Aguero,  of  Buenos  Ayres,  leader  of 

movement  for  independence,  313 
Rocafuerte,  Vicente,  of  Quito,  leader  of 

movement  for  independence  in  Ecuador, 

313 

Rozas,  of  Chili,  leader  of  movement  for 
independence,  313 

Rulers  of  Mexico,  before  the  Conquest, 
370,  371  ;  Kingdom  of  the  Chichime- 
cans,  371  ;  Aztec  Kingdom,  371,  372  ; 
from  Conquest  to  end  of  War  of  Inde- 
pendence, during  reign  of  Charles  V., 
during  reign  of  Philip  II.,  372  ;  during 
reigns  of  Philip  III.,  IV.,  Charles  II., 
Philip  v.,  Ferdinand  VI.,  373  ;  during 
reigns  of  Charles  III.,  Charles  IV., 
Ferdinand  VI  I.,  after  the  Independence, 
during  the  Regency,  the  Empire,  374  ; 
Executive  power,  Presidents,  Central 
Republic,  Federal  Republic,  Central 
Republic,  375  ;  Federal  Republic, 
Dictatorship,  Federal  Republic,  376 ; 
revolutionary  leaders  without  legal  title, 
who  held  possession  of  Mexico  during 
War  of   Reform,  376,  377  ;    Regency, 

377 
Russell,  Representative,  from  Massachu- 
setts, his  report  in  favor  of  recognition 
of     independence    of     the    American 
colonies,  320  ;  resolutions  of,   322 


S 


Salas,  Manuel  Jose  de,  a  Jesuit,  292  ; 
delegate  to  Junta  of  October  8,  1797, 
290  ;  commissioned  to  report  to  Junta  of 
mission  to  Paris,  292 

Salas,  Mariano,  General,  exercised  govern- 
ment of  Mexico  from  August  5  to 
December  24,  1846,  and  restored 
Federal  Constitution  of  October  4, 
1824,  356 

Salta,  battle  of,  established  independence 
of  Argentine  Rei>ublic,  297 

San  Martin,  General  Jose  de,  where  born 
and  how  educated,  only  once  defeated, 
297  I  organizeti  and  disciplined  army  in 
Mendoza,  occupied  Santiago,  gained 
independence  of  Chili  at  Maipo,  298  ; 
resigned     his     command     and     made 


73^ 


tn^ej. 


San  Martin — Continued. 

General-in-Chief  of  Chilian-Argentine 
army,  helped  to  provide  Chili  with  a 
navy,  299  ;  invaded  Peru,  30S  ;  con- 
quered Lima  301  ;  Protector  of  Peru, 
325  ;  armistice  at  Miraflores,  301  ; 
disagreement  with  Bolivar,  303  ;  re- 
signed and  ostracised  himself,  306  ;  his 
generalship,  301  ;  his  relations  with 
Lord  Cochrane,  favored  a  monarchial 
constitutional  form  of  government,  302  ; 
compared  with  Alexander,  306,  307  ; 
death,  306 

Santa  Anna,  Antonio  Lopez  de,  disposi- 
tion of,  fought  with  Spain  against  inde- 
pendent cause  to  1S21,  when  he  joined 
independent  leaders,  323  ;  headed  re- 
bellion against  Iturbide,  348  ;  headed 
several  militarj' rebellions,  352;  Presi- 
dent hve  times,  military  career,  and 
competence,  353  ;  easily  discouraged, 
became  antagonistic  to  Farias,  favored 
revolution  and  abolished  Federal  Con- 
stitution and  was  proclaimed  as  Dictator 
in  1834,  convoked  new  Congress  on 
July  4,  1835,  354  ;  appointed  President 
on  October  10,  1841,  355  ;  elected 
Constitutional  President  in  1844,  356  ; 
appointed  President  in  1846,  marched 
against  General  Taylor,  returned  to  the 
Cily  of  Mexico  and  assumed  govern- 
ment, marched  against  General  Scott 
and  fought  the  United  States  army  in 
the  Valley  of  Mexico,  357  ;  fled  from 
country  in  1847,  35S  ;  President  in  1853, 
sold  Mesilla  Valley  to  the  United  States, 
left  Mexico  in  1855,  359 

Santa  Cruz,  General,  head  of  Peruvian 
army,  305 

Scott,  Alexander,  agent  sent  by  the 
United   States  in  i3i2    to   Venezuela, 

324 

Scott,  Winfield,  his  battles  at  Cerro  Gordo 
and  Valley  of  Mexico,  353 

Seward,  William  H.,  his  estimate  of 
Juarez's  character,  361 

Slavery,  fear  by  the  United  States  that  it 
might  be  abolished  in  Cuba  if  indepen- 
dent, 329  ;  Cuba  in  regard  to,  327-329  ; 
abolished  in  Mexico,  344,  345 

Smith,  W.  S.,  Jr.,  a  grandson  of  Ex- 
President  John  Adams  accompanied 
General  Miranda  in  his  expedition 
against  Venezuela,  his  father  tried  and 
acquitted  for  violation  of  neutrality 
laws,  293 

Solorzano,  his  Politica  Indiana,  288 

Spanish  Cortes,  issued  Liberal  Constitu- 
tion of  1812,  308  ;  re-issued  decree  of 
1820,  309 

Spanish  rule,  length  in  American  colonies 
of.  339  ;  good  done  in  Mexico  by,  341 

Sucre,  Jose  Antonio,  of  Venezuela,  a  great 
soldier,  296  ;  asked  co-operation  of  San 
Martin    to  march  against  Quito,  304  ; 


commanded  at  battle  of  Ayacucho,  306  ; 
death,  307 
Sucre,  Jose  del  Poso  y,  a  Jesuit,  292  ; 
delegate  to  Junta  of  October  8,  1797, 
290  ;  commissioned  to  report  to  Junta 
the  result  of  mission  to  Paris,  292 


Taylor,  Zachariah,  fought  battle  at  An- 
gostura, 353 

Teran,  General  Manuel  de  Mier  y,  sent  by 
Mexican  Government  against  Barradas, 
352 

Tilden,  Samuel  J.,  invited  to  invest  in 
Mexico,  sent  Mr.  John  Bigelow  to  study 
the  field,  398 

Torres,  of  Colombia,  leader  in  War 
of  Independence,  313 

Torre  Tagle,  Governor  of  Lima,  301 

Treaties,  of  Paris,  recognizing  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  United  States,  by 
England  in  1783,  286  ;  of  Bayonne,  294; 
of  Cordova,  347  ;  of  Madrid,  recog- 
nizing the  independence  of  Mexico, 
352 

Trimble,  Representative,  resolution  in- 
troduced, 1822,  recognizing  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  Spanish  colonies  in 
America,  322 

Tristan,  general  in  San  Martin's  army, 
defeated  at  lea,  in  Peru,  302 

Tucuman,  battle  at,  contributed  very 
materially  to  establish  independence  of 
Argentine  Republic,  297 

U 

Unanue,  of  Peru,  leader  in  War  of  Inde- 
pendence, 313  ;  Observations  of  the 
Climate  of  Lima  and  Its  Influences 
cited,  297 

United  Provinces  of  Central  America, 
Mexico   recognized   its   independence, 

307 

United  States,  attitude  of,  towards  Mexico, 
316-318  ;  Senator  Money  on  attitude 
of  United  States  towards  Mexico,  316, 
317  ;  sympathy  towards  Mexico  of,  319, 
320 ;  recognized  belligerency  of  re- 
volted colonies,  320,  321  ;  commission- 
ers sent  to  by  revolted  colonies,  322, 
323  ;  neutrality  observed  by,  323,  324  ; 
commissioners  sent  by  the,  to  the  re- 
volted Spanish  colonies,  324  ;  policy  of, 
toward  Cuba,  328  ;  slavery  in,  345 

Uraga,  General  Jose  Lopez,  sent  against 
P)lancarte  in  Mexico,  but  joined  insur- 
gents, 359 

Urrea,  General,  pronounced  at  Tampico 
against  the  Central  Government  of 
Mexico  on  July  15,  1840,  355 

V 

Valdez,  General,  Peruvian  Bayard, 
favored  absolute  monarchy,  305 


In^er. 


739 


Valencia,  General,  revolted  at  City  of 
Mexico,  355 

Victoria,  General  Guadalupe,  leader  of 
army  in  East  during  War  of  Indepen- 
dence of  Mexico,  346  ;  elected  President 
in  1824,  352 


W 


War  between  Mexico  and  United  States] 
of  1S46  and  1847,  want  of  patriotismi 
of  Mexican  clergy,  357  ;  secret  agree-] 
ment  of  Santa  Anna  during,  357,  358  ; 
Peace  of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo,  358    ^— 

War  of  Independence,  difference  between, 
in  Mexico,  and  South  American  coun- 
tries, 315,  316 


Wayland,  Francis,  President  of  Law  De- 
partment of  American  Social  Science 
Association,   281 

Webster,  Daniel,  opinion  of  Monroe 
Doctrine  of,  332,  333 

W^harton,  International  Law  Dii^est,  31S, 

319.   333.  334 
Wheaton,   Henry,    Elements  of  Interna- 
tional Law,  328,  329,  332 


Zea,  of  Colombia,  leader  of  independence, 

313 
Zuloaga,     General    Felix,    President    of 
Church  Party  in  Mexico,  360 


THE  ANGLO-SAXON  AND   ROMAN  SYSTEMS  OF 
CRIMINAL  JURISPRUDENCE. 


Advantages  of  jury  system,  in  small 
towns  is  of  educational  character.  409 

Americans  in  Mexico,  often  expect  to  be 
tried  by  laws  similar  to  those  of  the 
United  States,  414 

Amparo,  writ  of,  an  extension  of  the 
habeas  corpus  under  the  common  law, 
416 

Anglo-Saxon  and  Roman  Systems  of 
Criminal  Jurisprudence  paper,  why 
written,  403  ;  submitted  to  various  dis- 
tinguished lawyers  before  publishing, 
editors  in  New  York  not  in  accord 
with  M.  Romero's  views  in  regard  to, 
first  published  in  North  American  Re- 
view for  July,  1896,  and  in  Green  Bag 
for  October,  same  year,  403 

Appeal,  right  of,  definition  of,  414,  415  ; 
provisions  of  under  Mexican  law,  pro- 
visions in  Federal  District  of  Mexico, 
exceptions  to  in  Common  Law,  415 

B 

Bacon,  Lord,  represented  the  Roman  law 
in  equity  controversy,  421  ;  his  contro- 
versy with  Sir  Edward  Coke,  422 

Ball,  T.  W.,  read  paper  before  Bar  Asso- 
ciation of  Galveston,  Texas,  1896, 
against  present  criminal  jurisprudence 
under  common  law,  408 

Blackstone,  cannot  be  said  that  English 
common-law  system  as  expounded  by, 
is  used  in  United  States,  422 

Butler,  Rosa,  extract  from  statement  of 
almshouses  and  hospitals  in  New  York, 
419 

C 

"  Careo,"  corresponds  to  cross-examina- 
tion under  common  law  trials,  413 

Carter,  James  C,  written  several  pamph- 
lets on  precedence  in  law,  426 

Coffin,  E.  G.,  his  The  Prison  Congress, 
and  Our  Trip  Through  Mexico  and 
Texas,  418 


Coke,  Sir  Edward,  represented  common 
law  in  equity  controversy,  421  ;  great 
commentator,  422 

Comparison  between  Anglo-Saxon  and 
Roman  Criminal  Jurisprudence,  cannot 
be  compared,  Roman  entitled  to  re- 
gard, 404  ;  which  system  is  best  calcu- 
lated to  do  justice,  principles  of  each, 

405     . 

Conclusion  of  Criminal  Jurisprudence 
paper,  424 

Constitution  of  Mexico,  Article  I.  of, 
similar  to  Declaration  of  Indepen- 
dence of  the  United  States,  417  ; 
Article  XIX.  of,  provisions  of,  com- 
parison between  and  law  in  New 
York,  416  ;  Article  XX.  of,  assertions 
that  Americans  tried  in  Mexico  are 
not  notified  of  cause  of  their  arrest 
contradicted  by,  416,  provisions  of, 
416,  417  ;  Article  XXIX.  of,  what  to 
obviate,  417,  provisions  of,  418 

Coudert,  Frederick  R.,  extract  from  on 
imperfections  of  criminal  trials  under 
common-law  system  as  compared  with 
Roman  system  prevailing  in  Continen- 
tal Europe,  407 

Criminal  law  in  England  and  United 
States,  how  English  used  to  regard 
criminals,  crimes  less  frequent  now  in 
England  than  in  United  States,  appeals 
in  England  and  United  States,  406 

D 

Difference  between  law  in  this  country 
and  Roman  law,  sumario  criticised,  413 

Disadvantages  of  common  law,  literal 
application  of,  result  of,  instance  to  ex- 
plain, 423 


Ellesmere,  Lord,  represented  the  equity 
of  Roman  law  in  controversy  between 
common  law  and  equity,  421 

English  common  law,  law  of  usage  and 
custom,  marriage  law  prevailing  in  New 
York  and  advantages  and  disadvantages 


740 


UnDes. 


741 


English  common  law — Continued. 

of,  420 ;  Americans  have  remedied  many 
defects  in,  422  ;  country  which  estab- 
lished it  has  superseded  it  by  Roman, 
English  courts  of  justice  have  re- 
modelled it,  England  has  practically 
abolished  it,  423 

Equity  courts,  first  established  by  com- 
mon law,  power  of,  421  ;  distinctions 
between  common  law  and  equity  in  the 
United  States  and  England  as  treated 
in  M.  Romero's  paper,  questioned  by 
Mr.  Godkin  in  his  letter  to  M.  Romero 
of  March  22,  1S96,  425,  426 


Faults  of  jury  system,  Mar}'land  Statute 
cited,  408 

Felsenthal,  Edwin  J.,  letter  to  M.  Ro- 
mero, 1896,  thanking  him  for  Criminal 
Jurisprudence  paper  and  criticising 
some  remarks  regarding  equity,  421, 
422;  answer  from  M.  Romero  sup- 
porting his  own  assertions  in  regard  to 
equity,  422 


Godkin,  E.  L.,  paper  on  Criminal  Juris- 
prudence submitted  to,  his  views  dif- 
ered  from  M.  Romero,  424  ;  letter  from, 
to  M.  Romero  in  which  he  praises  M. 
Romero's  article  and  criticises  his 
method  of  treating  jury  system,  lynch 
law,  and  his  distinction  between  com- 
mon law  and  equity  and  precedent,  425, 
426 


H 


Habeas  Corpus,  writ  of,  specially  pro- 
vided for  and  considerably  extended 
in  Mexican  constitution  and  under  the 
name  of  Amparo,  416 


J 


James  I.,  King,  his  decision  of  on  equity, 
421 

John,  King,  Magna  Charta  procured 
from,  405 

Jury  system,  corner-stone  of  Anglo-Sax- 
on criminal  jurisprudence,  where  origi- 
nated, 405  ;  conditions  under  which 
establishecl  do  not  now  exist,  406  ;  some 
statutes  have  changed  foundation  of, 
422,  423 

Jury  system  in  Mexico,  adopted  in,  estab- 
lished there  by  Senor  Mariscal,  411  ; 
rules  of  proceedings  of,  411,  412;  in 
most  states  old  Spanish  system  prevails, 
amendment  to,  412  ;  M.  Romero's 
manner  of  treatment  of,  criticised  by  E. 
L.  Godkin,  425 


length  of  trials  under  Anglo-Saxon  and 
Roman  law,  shorter  under  Roman  in 
Mexico,  and  why,  417 

Lynch  law,  how  brought  about,  highly 
demoralizing,  409  ;  its  increase,  statis- 
tics showing  extent  of,  4I0  ;  in  England 
noC  so  much  practised  and  probable 
reason  why,  411  ;  M.  Romero's  treat- 
ment of  criticised  by  E.  L.  Godkin,  425 


M 


MacStewart,  old  employee  of  Col.  W.  A. 

Paxton,  case  of  (who  wrote  Col.  Paxton 

claiming    he    was    under    sentence    of 

death  in  Mexico  for  trivial  offence  and 

not  allowed  to  plead  self-defence),  415, 

416 
Magna  Charta,  why  originally  obtained, 

why  not  needed  now  in  Europe,  405  ; 

why  not  needed  in   United  States,  406 
Maitland,  Frederick  William,  History  of 

English  Law  before  the  Time  of  Ed- 

icard  I,  405 
Moreno,  Luis,  of  California,  suspected  of 

murder,  case  of,  409,  410 
Morris,    Judge   Martin  F. ,  extract  from 

speech  of  on  common  and  Roman  law, 

419,420 


O 


Old  Spanish  system  of  criminal  juris- 
prudence, Roman  system,  how  divided, 
rules  of  first  stage  and  second,  412 


Paxton,  Col.  W.  A.,  reported  to  have  re- 
ceived telegram  from  an  employee  de- 
manding justice,  414 

Plenario,  the  second  stage  of  a  criminal 
trial  under  the  Roman  law,  413 

Pollock,  Sir  Frederick,  History  of  English 
Law  before  the  Time  of  Edioard  /,  405 

Precedent  in  common  law,  great  weight 
given  by  American  lawyers  to,  423  ; 
causes  great  amount  of  work  for  Su- 
preme Court  of  United  States,  what  it 
shows,  how  should  be  amended,  what 
Roman  law  has  done,  424  ;  manner  of 
treating  by  M.  Romero  in  his  paper  on 
Criminal  Jurisprudence  criticised  by  E. 
i..  Godkin  in  his  letter  to  M.  Romero 
of  March  22,  1S96,  425,  426 

Prisons,  Mexican,  American  complaints 
of,  small  means  in  Mexico  to  build,  at 
Guadalajara,  I'uebla,  and  City  of  ."^ala- 
manca,  41 S  ;  in  course  of  construction 
in  States  of  San  Luis  Potosi  and  Nuevo 
Leon  and  City  of  Mexico,  41S,  419  ; 
no  cause  of  complaint,  .Vmericans 
treated  same  as  Mexicans  in,  419 


742 


fn^ej. 


Rogers,   United  States  citizen  killed   in 
Mexico  by  MacStewart,  416 

Roman  civil  law,  most  remarkable  insti- 
tution of  Rome,  404  ;  age  of,  result  of, 
foundation  of,  405  ;  superiority  of,  in- 
controvertible, 4ig  ;  one  proof  that  it 
is  not  inferior  to  English  common  law,  | 
equity  outside  of  English  common  law, 
420 

Roman  common  law,  cases  of,  result  of, 
405 


Sears,  George,  owner  of  saloon  in  Cali- 
fornia, murdered  in  affray,  409 

Simpkins,  Judge  E.  J-,  on  criminal  juris- 
prudence before  Bar  Association  held 
at  Galveston,  Texas,  in  1S96,  40S,  409 

Smith,  P.  M.,  his  erroneous  statements 
about  trials  in  Mexico,  delivered 
toast  at  a  banquet  of  Lisbon  Bar  en- 
titled "  The  Lawyer  in  Mexico,"  in 
which  he  made  statements  about  oaths 


not  being  administered  in  judicial  pro- 
ceedings in  Mexico,  and  how  they 
sometimes  get  rid  of  criminals,  427  ; 
and  that  there  is  no  jury  in  criminal 
cases,  all  incorrect,  428 

Stemler,  suspected  of  murder  of  Moreno, 
409 

Sumario,  corresponds  to  Grand  Jury  in- 
dictment in  Anglo-Saxon  nations,  413 


T 


Time  of  punishment,  should  be  prompt, 
law  in  United  States  in  regard  to,  407  ; 
why  should  be  prompt,  407,  40S 


Updegraft,  Thomas,  on  homicides,  406 


W 


Writ  of  Amparo,  see  Amparo. 
Writ  of  Habeas  Corpus,  see  Habeas  Cor- 
pus. 


J 


THE  MEXICAN  FREE  ZONE. 


A 


Abolition  of  Free  Zone,  agitated  in  1S72, 
but  impossible  on  account  of  frontier 
influences,  regulations  issued,  440  ; 
asked  for  by  citizens  of  Brownsville, 
Texas,  456  ;  opposition  from  the  United 
States  made  it  difficult  for  Mexico  to 
accomplish,  476,  477 

Advantages  to  United  States  of  Free 
Zone,  relaxation  of  restrictions  of  cus- 
tom and  excise  duties,  44S  ;  free  market 
for  products  and  manufactures  of 
United  States,  449  ;  nearly  all  goods 
manufactured  in  United  States  pur- 
chased in  Free  Zone,  450 

B 

Bailey,  Joseph  W.,  Member  of  Congress 
from  Texas,  contended  that  Mr. 
Cooper's  resolution  on  the  Free  Zone 
was  not  privileged,  709 

Bayard,  Thomas  F.,  Secretary  of  State, 
letter  from  M.  Romero  to,  of  February 
10,  1888,  on  Mexican  Free  Zone,  485, 
486;  hisletterof  March  16,  i88S,tothe 
President,  transmitting  all  correspon- 
dence of  State  Department  on  Mexican 
Free  Zone,  480,  481 

Belden,  Samuel  A.,  extract  of  letter  of, 
in  which  he  states  that  Free  Zone  has 
been  disastrous  to  Brownsville,  Texas, 
and  other  American  towns,  and  asks 
prompt  action  on  part  of  United 
States  to  terminate  Free  Zone,  454  ; 
letter  of,  caused  Secretary  McCulloch 
to  write  letter  to  Secretary  of  State, 
saying  Free  Zone  was  established  in 
hostility  to  United  States,  456,  457 

Bismarck,  Prince,  thought  that  the  Han- 
seatic  privileges  of  Hamburg  and  Bre- 
men should  be  abolished,  477,  478 

Blaine,  James  G.,  resolution  of,  inquiring 
on  the  Free  Zone,  456  ;  M.  Romero 
improperly  accused  of  criticising,  on 
account  of  his  Free  Zone  resolution, 
7" 


Bonded  privilege,  prior  to  attempt  of 
United  States  to  put  an  end  to  Free 
Zone,  Mexico  had  none,  472  ;  danger 
ot,  in  smuggling,  472,  473 

Bynum,  Mr.,  Member  of  Congress,  letter 
to,  from  M.  Romero,  on  the  Free  Zone 
of  Mexico,  473,  474  ;  answer  from,  to 
M.  Romero  on  Free  Zone  question,  474 


Civil  War  of  United  States,  effect  on 
Mexican  frontier,  made  towns  flourish, 
441  ;  prosperity  of  towns  attributed  by 
many  to  Free  Zone,  and  resulted  in  ex- 
tension of  Free  Zone,  views  from  a 
witness  of  scenes  in  the  Free  Zone  dur- 
ing war,  442  ;  made  southern  towns  less 
prosperous  after  war,  452,  453 

Cobb,  Seth  W.,  Member  of  Congress,  in- 
troduced Joint  Resolution  in  House  of 
Representatives  to  repeal  Free  Zone 
law,  473,  475 

Cockrell,  Jeremiah  V.,  Member  of  Con- 
gress, resolution  against  Free  Zone, 
432,  469-471  ;  resolution  inoperative 
on  account  of  imperfect  wording,  472 

Commissioners  on  marauding  on  the 
frontier,  extract  of  their  report,  first 
published  in  General  Grant's  Message 
of  December  16, 1872,  finally  committed 
by  President  Grant  to  Congress  with 
his  Message  of  May  26,  1S74,  465 

Comonfort,  General,  Ignacio,  inaugu- 
rated pronunciamiento  against  Consti- 
tution under  which  he  had  been  elected, 
436 

Cooper,  Samuel  B.,  Member  of  Congress, 
resolution  to  repeal  Joint  Resolution 
of  March  i,  1895,  forbidding  transporta- 
tion of  goods  in  bond  into  Free  Zone  of 
Mexico,  resolution  of,  favorably  re- 
ported, 704  ;  report  on  resolution  of, 
709  ;  resolution  of,  709,  710 

Cotton,  regulations  on  the  Free  Zone, 
458,  459 


743 


744 


UnCtej. 


Crain,  William  H.,  Member  of  Congress, 
asked  M.  Romero  for  information  on 
Free  Zone  and  was  referred  to  official 
letters,  431,  432  ;  used  arguments  of  pa- 
per on  Free  Zone  in  House  of  Represen- 
tatives, 44"  ;  offered  amendment  to  Mr. 
Cockrell's  resolution,  471  ;  his  speech 
in  House  of  Representatives,  on  Feb- 
ruary 27,  1895,  in  which  he  demon- 
strated that  Free  Zone  is  not  prejudicial 
to  interests  of  United  States,  476  ;  his 
discussion  with  Mr.  Cockrell  and 
speech  on  Free  Zone,  4S7-489  ;  read 
letter  from  citizens  of  Brownsville, 
Texas,  in  favor  of  Free  Zone,  491, 
492  :  and  other  papers  from  officials 
from  his  district,  showing  that  the  Free 
Zone  was  not  prejudicial  to  the  United 
States,  490 

Cullom,  Senator,  reported  adversely  on 
Senator  Reagan's  Free  Zone  bill,  464 


D 


Decree,  establishing  Free  Zone,  when, 
why,  and  by  whom  first  issued,  pro- 
visions of,  436  ;  Articles  i,  7,  8,  and  9 
of  first,  437  ;  second,  and  why  issued, 
438 

Dingley,  Nelson,  Chairman  of  the  Ways 
and  Means  Committee  of  House,  re- 
ceived answer  from  the  Treasury  De- 
partment in  reference  to  Free  Zone 
inquiries,  704  ;  sustained  privileged 
character  of  Mr.  Cooper's  resolution  on 
Free  Zone,  709 

Disadvantages  of  Mexican  frontier,  rate 
of  duties  merchants  have  to  pay  on  in- 
voices. State  tax  on  sales,  438 

Disadvantages  to  Mexico  of  Free  Zone, 
called  attention  to,  in  M.  Romero's 
Annual  Report  to  Mexican  Congress, 
450,  451  ;  Mexico  has  been  obliged  to 
establish  costly,  oppressive,  and  com- 
plicated system  of  inspection  to  prevent 
smuggling,  smuggling  more  easily  car- 
ried on  in  Mexico,  451  ;  prohibiting 
law  prevents  establishment  of  factories, 
452 

Documents  bearing  on  Free  Zone,  list  of, 

439 
Downey,  Edward,  delegate  to  Washing- 
ton from  Brownsville,  Texas,  to  ask 
abolition  of  Free  Zone,  456  ;  his  Me- 
morial to  Congress  praying  for  abolition 
of  Free  Zone,  456,  457 


Earnest,  Frank  B.,  Collector  of  Customs 
at  Laredo,  Texas,  letter  from,  to  Mr. 
Crain,  on  smuggling  in  Free  Zone, 
447  ;  letter  from,  read  in  House  of 
Representatives  by  Mr.  Crain,  4S9, 
490 


Evarts,  William  M.,  Secretary  of  State, 
gave  more  importance  to  Free  Zone 
than  it  deserved,  453 

Extension  of  Free  Zone,  reaction  in  favor 
of,  accomplished  on  June  24,  1885,  to 
States  of  Coahuila,  Chihuahua,  Sonora, 
and  Lower  California,  440 


F 


Fairchild,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  re- 
port to  Senate  on  Free  Zone,  letter 
from,  to  Hon.  John  J.  Ingalls,  giving 
him  information  on  smuggling  in  Free 
Zone,  444,  445  ;  gives  figures  showing 
smuggling  in  Free  Zone  to  be  insignifi- 
cant, 446  ;  Secretary  Gage  referred  to 
report  of,  in  letter  to  Speaker  of  House 
of  Representatives,  707 

Fish,  Hamilton,  Secretary  of  State,  letter 
addressed  to,  from  Thomas  H.  Nelson, 
United  States  Minister  to  Mexico,  on 
condition  of  Free  Zone,  439  ;  gave  more 
importance  to  Free  Zone  than  it  de- 
served, 453 

Foreign  goods  sent  in  bond.  Act  passed 
by  Congress  of  United  States,  no  such 
act  passed  by  Mexico,  result  of  Act,  435 

Foster,  John  W.,  United  States  Minister 
to  Mexico,  said  Free  Zone  was  detri- 
mental to  United  States,  but  changed 
his  mind,  447  ;  extract  from  letter  of, 
to  Mr.  Evarts  on  Free  Zone,  447,  448  ; 
thought  Free  Zone  injurious  to  United 
States,  453 

Free  Zone,  when  established  (sc'e  Decree 
establishing  Free  Zone);  most  opposed 
by  European  countries,  449 ;  feeling 
against  it  being  changed,  475  ;  advan- 
tages and  disadvantages  of  (jcv  Advan- 
tages and  Disadvantages)  ;  extension  of 
{see  Extension  of  Free  Zone) ;  origin  and 
extent  of  (see  Mexican  Free  Zone) ;  right 
of  Mexico  to  establish  the  (see  Right  of 
Mexico)  ;  opinions  on  (see  United  States 
opinions,  and  Opinions  on  Mexican 
Free  Zone  by  Mexican  statesmen)  ;  M. 
Romero  and  the  Free  Zone  {see  Romero, 
Matias) ;  Free  Zone  problem,  how  could 
be  solved  for  Mexico  ;  paper  on,  why 
written,  431  ;  paper  submitted  to  Gen- 
eral Grosvenor,  of  the  Committee  on 
Ways  and  Means,  and  Secretary  Gage, 
object  in  submitting  it,  708  ;  Committee 
on  Ways  and  Means  ask  to  be  allowed 
to  insert  in  their  report  the  paper  on, 
708,  709 


Gage,  Lyman  J.,  Secretary  of  Treasury, 
answer  to  committee's  inquiries  as  to 
loss  to  United  States  l^y  Mexican  F"ree 
Zone,  705 ;  answer  to  General  Gros- 
venor's  resolution,  706,  707  ;  paper  on 
Free  Zone  submitted  to,  708 


Hn^ej. 


745 


Governor  of  Tamaulipas,  issued  Free 
Zone  decree  on  March  17,  1S58,  436  ; 
extract  from  decree  of,  436,  437  ;  in  de- 
cree, guarded  against  smuggling,  437  ; 
issued  second  decree  October  29,  i860, 
438 

Grant,  Ulysses  S.,  President  of  the  United 
States,  extract  from  Message  of,  on 
Free  Zone,  453,  454  ;  appointed  com- 
missioners to  inquire  into  depredations 
by  Indians  and  Mexicans  in  State  of 
Texas,  sent  in  report  of  marauding  on 
frontier  in  his  Message  of  December 
16,  1S72,  final  report  of  commissioners 
on  marauding  on  frontier  in  Message  of 
May  26,  1S74,  466  ;  extract  from 
Message  of  December  7,  1874,  "'^ 
marauding  on  frontier,  466,  467  ;  what 
his  Message  shows,  467  ;  M.  Romero 
unjustly  accused  of  criticising  in  Free 
Zone  paper,  711 

Grosvenor,  General  C.  H.,  Member  of 
Congress,  resolution  of,  asking  Secre- 
tary of  Treasury  to  report  extent  of 
frauds,  if  any,  by  reason  of  Free  Zone, 
resolution  approved,  706  ;  paper  on 
Free  Zone  submitted  to,  by  M.  Romero, 
708  ;  sustained  privileged  character  of 
Mr.  Cooper's  resolution,  709  ;  extract 
from  speech  of,  on  Free  Zone,  711 


H 


Hancock,  John,  Member  of  Congress, 
Joint  Resolution  of,  giving  power  to 
President  to  appoint  three  commission- 
ers to  inquire  into  depredations  com- 
mitted on  frontier,  465,  466 

Hanseatic  cities  had  precedent  in  Free 
Zone  question,  and  how,  477,  478 

I 

Imports  and  exports  which  passed  frontier 
in  1894,  446,  447 

Imports  by  the  Free  Zone  of  foreign  com- 
modities, 702 

J 

Joint  Resolution  of  March  I.  1895,  against 
Free  Zone,  468,  469  ;  subject  of,  failure 
of  Mexico  would  like  it  to  remain  in 
force,  Mr.  Slayden  on,  711 

Joint  Resolution  to  repeal  Joint  Resolution 
of  April  I,  1S96,  regarding  the  Free 
Zone,  final  action  not  yet  taken,  712 

Juarez,  Benito,  issued  Act  to  establish  ad- 
ditional duty  on  cotton  during  Civil 
War,  458 

K 

Kerr,  Jnmes,  Clerk  of  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives, February  19,  1895,  signature 
given  as  attest  of  joint  resolution  in 
reference  to  ?"ree  Zone,  471 


Ketlesen  &  Degetau,  a  firm  of  El  Paso, 
ask  questions  of  German  firm  on  free 
city  of  Hamburg,  on  tlie  manner  in 
which  the  Zollverein  ])rivileges  were 
abolished,  478 

I, 

Lanham,  Samuel  W.  T.,  Member  of  Con- 
gress  from  Texas,  contended  Mr. 
Cooper's  resolution  was  not  privileged, 
709  ;  objected  to  consideration  of  Mr. 
Cooper's  resolution,  but  said  he  was  not 
opposed  to  it,  710 

Limitation  of  Free  Zone,  franchises  lim- 
ited by  regulations  of  tariff  of  January 
24,  1885,  suspended  on  June  19,  1885, 
440 

Loss  to  Mexico  by  reason  of  Free  Zone, 
population,  451,  452 

Loss  to  United  States  by  reason  of  Free 
Zone,  amount  of,  444  ;  only  way  to  es- 
timate it,  444-446 

Lyman,  Commissioner,  made  report  to 
Civil  Service  Commission  that  Free 
Zone  was  prejudicial  to  interests  of 
United  States,  471 

M 

Marauding  on  frontier,  great  deal  done 
from  1S72  to  1879,  Indian  raids,  mem- 
bers of  Congress  from  Texas  thought 
Mexico  was  responsible  for,  465  ;  com- 
missioners appointed  to  investigate  {see 
Grant,  Ulysses  S.). 

McCulloch,  Hugh,  Secretary  of  the  Treas- 
ury, letter  from,  to  Secretary  of  State, 
relating  to  bringing  the  injurious  effects 
of  Free  Zone  to  attention  of  Mexico  on 
Mexican  authorities,  455 

Mexican  Congress,  tariff  bill  which  sanc- 
tioned Free  Zone  reported  by  Fifth. 
M.  Romero  took  part  in  debate  on  Free 
Zone,  voted  for  maintenance  of  Free 
Zone,  439 

Mexican  Free  Zone,  size  and  extent, 
duties  assessed,  what  applies  to,  why 
misnomer,  433  ;  how  originated,  434, 
435  ;  measure  enacted  by  United  States 
government  previous  to  Free  Zone, 
435  ;  established  in  spirit  of  self-pre- 
servation, why  absurd  to  consider  it  as 
hostile  act  of  Mexico,  443,  453 

Morehead,  C.  R.,  his  TAi"  Free  Zone  of 
Mexico,  its  Baneful  Effects  on  the  Com- 
mercial Interests  of  that  Republic  and 
those  of  the  United  States,  an  extract 
from,  443 

Morgan,  John  T.,  Senator,  resolution  of, 
474,  475  ;  resolution  submitted  to  the 
Senate  asking  extent  smuggling  exists 
in  Free  Zone,  445 
N 

Napoleon,  Louis,  tried  to  establish  an 
European  empire  in  Mexico,  45S 


746 


fluDej. 


Nelson,  Thomas  H.,  United  States  Min- 
ister to  Mexico,  on  Mexican  Free  Zone, 
430  ;  thought  Free  Zone  injurious  to 
United  States,  453 

C) 

Official  letters,  written  by  M.  Romero  to 
Secretary  of  State  of  the  United  States, 
and  printed  with  President's  Message 
of  March  16,  1S88,  object  which 
prompted  writing  of,  431  ;  jiublished 
in  the  shape  of  an  article  for  the  North 
American   Reine-i'  for  April,  1S92,  432 

Opinion  on  Mexican  Free  Zone  by  Mexi- 
can statesmen,  thought  Free  Zone  was 
necessary  to  existence  of  frontier  towns, 

441  ;  Mexican  merchants  to  south  op- 
posed to,  and  their  arguments  against, 
of  merchants  and  newspapers  in  inte- 
rior that  Free  Zone  was  contrar)'  to  in- 
terests of  the  nation,  of  other  persons, 

442  ;  of  public  men  and  their  theory  of 
how  to  abolish  Free  Zone,  457  ;  favor- 
able to  continuance  of,  452 

Opposition  on  frontier  to  Free  Zone,  476 
Osborn,  Thomas  O.,  one  of  commission- 
ers   appointed    to  inquire   into    depre- 
dations   by   Indians  and    Mexicans   in 
State  of  Texas,  466 


Paterson,  Senator,  his  bill  on  Free  Zone, 
457.  458  ;  bill  reported  favorably,  45S  ; 
acts  in  regard  to  exportation  of  cotton 
shows  he  did  not  understand  Free 
Zone,  459,  460  ;  his  bill,  460-464 

Plumb,  Edward  Lee,  United  States 
Charge  de  Affaires  in  Mexico,  thought 
that  Free  Zone  was  great  injury  to 
United  States,  453 

President's  Message  of  March  16,  1888, 
on  Free  Zone,  480 

R 

Reaction  in  favor  of  Free  Zone,  of  Senate 
in,  474  ;  reference  to  Mr.  Seth  Cobb's  [ 
resolution  to  repeal,  475 

Reagan,  Senator,  his  bill  to  prevent  trans-   , 
portation  of  merchandise  in  bond  from  ! 
United  States  into  Mexico,  462-464  ; 
amendment  to  bill,  464,  465  ; 

Right  of  Mexico  to  establish  Free  Zone, 
442,  443  .      I 

Robb,    Thomas  P.,   one  of  the  commis- 
sioners appointed  to  inquire  into  depre-  1 
dations  by  Indians   and    Mexicans   in 
State  of  Texas,  453 

Romero,  Matias,  his  opinion  on  Free  Zone  , 
impartial,  opposition  to  Free  Zone  in  \ 
Mexican  Congress,  his  action  on  Free  I 
Zone  as  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  in  | 
Mexican  Cabinet,  432  ;  extract  from  | 
his  report  to  Federal  Congress  of  Mex-  j 
ico  on  Free  Zone,  477  j 


Rosecrans,  General  William  S.,  United 
States  Minister  to  Mexico,  thought  Free 
Zone  injurious  to  United  States,  453 


Savage,  Richard  H.,  one  of  commission- 
ers appointed  to  inquire  into  depre- 
dations by  Indians  and  Mexicans  in 
State  of  Texas,  466 

Schleicher,  Gustav,  Member  of  Congress 
from  Texas,  stated  that  Mexico  was  in- 
juring United  States  by  Mexican  Free 
Zone,  extract  from  resolution  of.  Chair- 
man of  Committee,  resolution  intro- 
duced by,  passed,  467  ;  second  resolu- 
tion equivalent  to  declaration  of  war, 
46S  ;  report  of,  on  Mexican  Free  Zone, 
M.  Romero's  remarks  in  Mexican  Con- 
gress published  in  report  of,  439  ;  at- 
tacked Mexico  about  Free  Zone,  453  ; 
his  death,  46S 

Scope  and  workings  of  Free  Zone,  used 
to  be  benefit,  now  all  advantages  nulli- 
fied, 438 

Seward,  William  H.,  Secretary  of  State, 
letter  to,  from  Hugh  McCulloch,  in 
which  he  is  asked  to  call  attention  of 
Mexican  authorities  to  injurious  effects 
of  Mexican  Free  Zone,  45  5  ;  sent  letters 
from  State  Department  relating  to  Free 
Zone,  to  General  Banks,  knew  Mexico 
had  not  violated  right  of  United  States 
in  establishing  Free  Zone,  456 

Slayden,  James  L.,  Member  of  Congress 
from  Texas,  introduced  Joint  Resolu- 
tion to  repeal  Joint  Resolution  of 
March  i,  1895,  705  ;  sustained  privi- 
leged character  of  Mr.  Cooper's  reso- 
lution, 709  ;  argument  in  favor  of  Free 
Zone,  710  ;  extract  of  speech  on  Free 
Zone,  710,  711 

Smuggling,  in  Free  Zone,  will  never  be 
entirely  prevented,  44S  ;  how  far  Free 
Zone  favors,  in  the  United  States,  in- 
jures Mexico  more  than  United  States, 
444 ;  estimate  of  its  extent  exagger- 
ated, and  why,  703 

Southern  Confederacy,  Mexican  govern- 
ment did  not  sympathize  with,  458 

Stephens,  John  II.,  member  of  Congress, 
contended  Mr.  Cooper's  resolution  was 
not  privileged,  709;  thought  Mr.  Cooper 
favored  it  because  it  was  beneficial  to 
railroads,  710;  argument  against  Free 
Zone,  710,  711 

Supplement  to  Free  Zone,  what  it  con- 
tains, and  where  found,  494 

Sutton,  Warner  P.,  United  States  Consul 
at  New  Laredo,  in  official  despatch 
said  F-uropean  merchants  on  north  side 
of  Rio  Grande  clamored  most  loudly 
against  Free  Zone,  449  ;  thinks  Free 
Zone  not  injurious  to  United  States, 
476 


In&er. 


747 


Tariff,  Mexican,  of  June  12,  1891,  Arti- 
cle 696  of,  rate  of  duty  imposed  by  de- 
crees in  regard  to,  440.  441 

Taxes  local  in  Mexico,  heavy,  in  United  j 
States  none  levied,  caused  establish-  | 
ment  of  interior  custom  houses,  many 
articles  practically  prohibited  in  Mexico 
on  account  of,  at  Brownsville,  Texas, 
and  at  Matamoros,  Mexico,  caused  dis- 
proportion of  prices  as  compared  with 
similar  commodities  in  the  United 
States,  434  ;  caused  inhabitants  to  emi- 
grate or  to  smuggle  from  United  States, 
434,  435 

Treaty  of  February  2,  1848,  fixed  boun- 
dary line  between  Mexico  and  United 
States,  434 


U 


United  States  Congress  adverse  to  Free 
Zone,  passed  resolution  to  inquire 
whether  Free  Zone  was  not  in  violation 
of  treaty  stipulations  and  unfriendly 
to  commercial  rights  of  this  country. 
456 

United  States,  opinion  on  the  Free  Zone, 
is  that  it  was  established  by  .Mexico 
with  hostile  spirit  towards  the  United 
States,  and  for  purposes  of  encouraging 
smuggling.  431 


Vidaurri,  General  Santiago,  Governor  of 
New  Leon,  order  to  create  tax  on  for- 
eign cotton,  45g 


LABOR  AND  WAGES  IN  MEXICO. 


Adobe  huts  in  Mexico  not  much  worse 
than  sweat-shops  of  New  York,  517 

American  laborers,  very  different  in  habits 
of  thought  and  mode  of  life  to  Mexican, 
are  educated,  have  many  wants,  and  are 
large  consumers  of  tropical  fruits,  the 
most  intelligent  of  the  world's  toilers, 
506  ;  work  of,  as  compared  with  Mexi- 
can, 522 

B 

Books  on  Labor  and  Wages,  list  of,  499 
C 

Carlisle,  John  G.,  Secretary  of  the  Treas- 
ury, extract  from  annual  report  of,  on 
the  amount  of  commodities  produced, 
the  main  factor  of  the  rate  of  wages, 
555-558 

Carter,  Thomas  H.,  speech  in  House  of 
Representatives  favoring  high  duties 
on  Mexican  lead  ore  because  Mexico 
had  peon  labor,  497 

Chicago  Trade  and  Labor  Assembly,  re- 
port of,  why  incorrect,  538,  539  ;  ex- 
tract from,  538  ;  some  mistakes,  539 

Committee  of  Ways  and  Means,  minority 
report  of,  extract  on  skilled  labor  in 
United  States,  558 

Competition  of  United  States  in  agricul- 
tural products  with  low-wages  coun- 
tries, 504 

Competition  of  the  United  States  in  man- 
ufactured products,  can  compete  with 
any  country  in  the  world  in  production 
of,  machinery  cheapens  production, 
Thompson  factory  at  Pittsburgh,  Pa., 
504 

Cost  of  living  in  Mexico,  prices  of  wear- 
ing apparel  in  1896,  532 ;  prices  of 
commodities  in  Mexico  and  United 
States  in  1S91,  533  ;  prices  of  food 
products  in  City  of  Mexico,  533,  534  ; 
cheaper  than  in  United  .States,  and 
why,  536;  has  not  increased  in  ten  or 
fifteen  years,  while  v.'ages  have,  537 


Crittenden,  Thomas  T.,  United  States 
Consul-General  in  the  City  of  Mexico, 
extract  from  report  on  Mexican  wages 
in  and  about  Mexico  in  1S96,  515,  516  ; 
extract  from  report  of,  on  prices  and 
condition  of  labor  in  Mexico,  528,  529  ; 
extract  from  report  of,  on  relative  rise 
and  fall  in  price  of  silver  in  relation  to 
price  of  commodities,  529,  530  ;  whole- 
sale and  retail  prices  of  commodities  in 
Mexico,  prices  of  Mexican  manufac- 
tures, 535  ;  wholesale  prices  in  City  of 
Mexico  in  1886  and  1896,  extract  from 
report  of,  on  cost  of  living  in  Mexico, 
536 

D 

Davidson,  John,  his  work.  The  Bargain 
Theory  of  Wages,  501 

Depreciation  of  silver  in  relation  to  wages, 
idea  prevailing  in  the  United  States  in 
regard  to,  528  ;  M.  Romero's  views  in 
regard  to,  529 

Difference  in  amount  of  work  accom- 
plished by  Mexican  and  American 
workmen,  521,  522 

Discussion  in  United  States  on  silver 
standard  in  Mexico,  fallacious  and  real 
facts,  537,  538 

Dollars,  value  of  the  Mexican,  536 


Enright,  Patrick,  sent  to  Mexico  by  La- 
bor Association  to  obtain  information 
on  labor,  538 

Exportation  of  Mexico  during  fiscal  year 
ending  June  30,  1896,  amount  of,  532 


Factors,  principal,  in  difference  of  wages 
in  Mexico  and  United  States,  amount 
of  commodities  produced  and  cost  of 
living,  effect,  illustrations  of  miners  in 
United  States,  523  ;  cotton  culture, 
sugar  and  tobacco,  524  ;  other  articles, 
houses,  fewer  hands  less  cost,  smaller 
houses  less  cost,  525 


74S 


1fnt)ej. 


749 


Fear  of  United  States  of  cheap  labor, 
Mexico  used  for  that  purpose  more  so 
than  now,  England  most  to  be  feared, 
pauper  labor  of  Europe  feared,  pauper 
labor  of  Mexico  and  Asia  now  feared, 
502  ;  study  fails  to  discern  any  evidence 
of  competition,  gain  of  United  States 
in  exports  and  imports,  503 

Feast  days  in  Mexico,  why  objectionable, 
reduced,  542 

P'oster,  John  W.,  United  States  Minister 
to  Mexico,  report  of,  in  which  he  as- 
serted that  Mexicans  were  generally 
opposed  to  use  of  agricultural  imple- 
ments, 526 


G 


George,  Henry,  extract  from  his  book, 
Progress  and  Poverty,  539,  540 

Goluchowski,  Count,  called  on  Europe  to 
unite  in  commercial  league  against 
United  States  and  Japan,  503,  504 

Gunton,  Mr.,  article  on  what  workingmen 
really  need,  540,  541 


H 


Hawkins,  Rush  C,  Brutality  and  Ava- 
rice Tritiviphant,  extract  from,  511 

High  import  duties  cannot  alone  keep  up 
high  wages,  and  why,  504  ;  in  Mexico 
have  neither  increased  nor  cheapened 
wages,  and  figures  showing,  504,  505 

High  wages,  how  can  be  obtained  in 
Mexico,  5i3 


Immigration    from    United    States   into 
Mexico,  who  advised  to  go,  542,  543 


K 


Knauft,  Theodore,  on  the  conditions  of 
Mexican  people,  517 

L 

Labor  higher  in  United  States  because 
more  efficient,  505 

Laboring  classes  in  United  States,  any 
change  for  the  better  will  react  in 
Mexico,  541 

Low  wages  mean  high  cost  of  produc- 
tion, 522 

Low  wages  of  Mexico,  do  not  compare 
favorably  with  high  wages  paid  in  the 
United  States,  516  ;  why  misunder- 
stood, 516,  517  ;  cannot  be  any  lower 
than  now,  and  tendency  is  to  become 
higher,  521 

Lucas,  Charles,  incident  showing  cheap- 
ness of  Mexican  products,  530 


M 


Maas,  Paul  J.,  sent  to  Mexico  by  Labor 

Assembly  to  obtain  information  on 
Labor,  report  of,  538 

Machinery  in  Mexico,  use  of,  why  not 
used  heretofore,  number  of  cotton  and 
woolen  mills  rifh  by  machinery,  not 
usually  suited  to  soil  of  Mexico,  527  ; 
not  everywhere  shops  to  repair,  diffi- 
culties of,  cannot  be  appreciated  by 
tourists  or  United  States  representatives 
living  in  cities,  528 

Manning,  Daniel,  Secretary  of  the  Treas- 
ury, estimate  of  number  of  persons  en- 
gaged in  gainful  occupations  in  United 
States  submitted  to,  555 

Manufacturers  of  the  United  States,  ar- 
gument urged  by,  for  levying  heavy 
import  duties,  502,  505 

Mason,  Carlisle,  President  of  Manufac- 
turers' Association  of  Chicago,  asked 
information  about  Mexico  of  Mr.  Fos- 
ter, and  received  a  report  from  him, 
526 

Mexican  labor,  why  cheap,  wants  few 
in  isolated  districts,  519.  520  ;  climate, 
520,  521  ;  difference  of  transportation. 

531 

Mexican  laborers,  some  think  are  happier 
than  American,  and  why,  507  ;  in 
somewhat  similar  condition  as  South- 
ern negroes,  517,  51S;  can  buy  more 
with  money  than  United  States  laborer, 
518  ;  descendants  of  slaves,  until  re- 
cently have  been  living  under  feudal 
conditions,  not  educated,  are  now  free, 
506  ;  wages  rising,  506,  507;  work  of,  as 
compared  with  United  States,  521,  522 

Mexican  peonage,  what  it  is,  M.  Ro- 
mero's experience  of,  509,  510;  when 
liable  to  abuse,  510,  511  ;  why  not 
legal.  Article  V.  of  Mexican  Constitu- 
tion and  amendment,  abuses  are  disap- 
pearing, 511  ;  does  not  mean  now  what 
it  did  under  Spanish  rule,  505  ;  mean- 
ing of,  in  Spanish  labor  consisted  in, 
why  no  better  in  United  States,  507  ; 
why  abused,  508,  509 

Mexican  products,  had  to  pay  Alcabala 
tax,  tax  abolished  in  1S95,  526 

Mexican  wages  go  farther  than  in  United 
States,  537 


O 


Organized  Labor,  Mexico  has  none,  will 
in  time  probably  have  it,  539  ;  in 
United  States,  540 


Paper  on  Labor  and  Wages,  why  it  was 
written,  497,  498 


75° 


*ffnt»es. 


Railroads,  destroying  centuries-old  state 
of  serfdom.  506 ;  wages  improving 
since  construction  of,  number  of  miles 
in  operation  on  October  31,  iSg7,  531 

Ransom,  Matt.  W.,  LTiiited  States  Minis- 
ter to  Mexico,  extract  from  report  of, 
on  prices  and  wages,  512  ;  report  on 
wages  per  day  of  agricultural  labor,  5 14 ; 
prices  of  food  products  consumed  in 
Mexico  and  exported  in  1896,  534  ;  ex- 
tract of  report  on  "  Money  and  Prices  in 
Mexico,"  giving  wages  paid  in  City  of 
Mexico  in  1896,  544  ;  wages  paid  in 
Republic  of  ^lexico  in  1S96,  wages 
paid  per  day  to  Mexican  cotton-factory 
operatives  in  1896,  546  ;  wages  of  rail- 
way employees  in  1896, 546,  547 ; wages 
per  day  to  miners  in  different  States, 
547,548  ;  wages  of  street-car  employees 
in  City  of  Mexico  in  i8g6,  54S  ;  prices 
of  agricultural  and  pastoral  products 
exported  in  1896,  products  consumed 
in  country,  549  ;  current  prices  of  man- 
ufactures and  merchandise  in  18S6  and 
1S95,  wholesale  prices  of  goods  manu- 
factured in  Mexico,  wholesale  prices  per 
pound  in  Mexico,  550  ;  prices  of  com- 
modities in  certain  cities,  551  ;  prices 
at  various  points  in  Mexico,  551-554 

Reduction  of  prices  in  Massachusetts, 
New  Hampshire,  Rhode  Island,  and 
Maine  mills,  and  explanation  of,  505 

Richard,  John,  his  work.  The  Law  of 
IVages,  the  Rate  and  Amount,  and  some 
of  the  facts  laid  down.  525,  526 


S 


Savings-bank  system,  evils  of,  541  ;  banks 
of  City  of  Mexico,  541,  542  ;  universal, 
needed  in  Mexico,  Scotch  bank  used  in 
Europe,  542 

Skilled  labor  in  Mexico,  receives  higher 
wages  than  same  in  United  States,  518, 
519  ;  sometimes  paid  as  high  or  higher 
than  in  United  States,  produces  less 
than  same  labor  in  United  States,  521 

Skilled    labor  in    United  States,  highest 


paid  in  world,  produces  more  in  given 
time  than  any  other  country,  521 
Standard  of  money  little  to  do  with  con- 
dition of  labor,  comparison  with  Spain, 
I'taly,  Germany,  and  Turkey,  United 
States  under  gold  standard,  530  ;  com- 
parison of  some  gold-standard  coun- 
tries, showing  that  silver  is  not  the 
cause  of  low  wages  in  Mexico,  531 


T 

Tariff  of  March  3,  18S3,  protection  against 
European  labor,  503 

Theories,  of  wages,  subsistence  inaugu- 
rated by,  and  definition  of,  productivity- 
of-labor,  is  a  forward  step,  bargain, 
wages-fund,  and  definition  of,  moljility- 
of-labor,  eclectic  system  combining  all 
would  be  a  sound  one,  501 

Trade  unionism  in  England,  evils  intol- 
erable, 541 

Transportation  in  Mexico  makes  differ- 
ence in  prices  of  some  articles,  differ- 
ence of  increased  cost  and  reduced 
consumption  affects  wages,  531 


W 


Wages  in  United  States,  always  those  of 
Western  and  Northern  States  spoken 
of,  not  Southern,  517  ;  sometimes  quite 
low,  518 

"Wages  of  Farm  Labor  in  the  United 
States,"  Division  of  Statistics  of  Agri- 
cultural Department,  report  on,  513, 
514 

Wages  of  field  laborers,  different  in  dif- 
ferent localities  of  Mexico,  and  why, 
511,  512  ;  why  difficult  to  present  data 
on,  of  Department  of  Public  Works  of 
Mexican  Government,  512  ;  statutes  on, 
of  1 89 1,  diversity  of  the  country,  513 

Wages  regulated  by  amount  of  work  they 
produce,  501,  502 

Wages,  tendency  to  reduce,  in  big  shops 
of  large  towns  of  United  States,  518 

Workmen,  amount  of  work  of  Mexican 
and  American,  ^22 


THE  SILVER  STANDARD. 


Adoption  of  common  silver  coin,  one  of 
the  objects  not  obtained  at  the  Inter- 
national American  Conference  of  i88g, 
574  ;  extract  from  M.  Romero's  re- 
marks in  regard  to,  575 

Advantage  of  silver  standard  to  Mexico, 
encourages  exports,  596,  597  ;  stimulates 
the  development  of  home  manufactures, 
597,  598  ;  purchasing  power  of  the 
silver  dollar  has  not  decreased  in  Mexico, 
600,  601  ;  gold  price  of  foreign  com- 
modities making  them  so  high,  equiva- 
lent to  protection,  601  ;  exchange  in  gold 
countries  encourages  investment  in 
Mexico,  602  ;  low  price  of  silver  makes 
it  unprofitable  to  export  it,  604 

Agents  sent  to  Mexico  to  study  silver 
question,  unfamiliar  with  the  language, 
history,  and  conditions  of  the  country, 
568  ;  many  already  prejudiced  against 
Mexico,  569 

Agricultural  products,  have  not  suffered 
in  Mexico  from  fallen  prices,  609 

Allen,  Senator  William  V.,  letter  to  M. 
Romero  on  March  11,  1896,  asking  for 
information  on  silver  standard  in  Mex- 
ico, 564,  565  ;  answer  of  M.  Romero  to 
letter  of,  565 

American  International  Monetary  Com- 
mission, address  delivered  at,  by  M. 
Romero,  576,  613,  614  ;  difficulties  it 
had  to  contend  with,  575,  576 


V. 


Brussels  Monetary  Conference,  why 
necessary,  report  of  the  United  States 
Commissioners.  576 

Bryan,  William  J.,  extract  from  letter  of, 
to  A'eto  y'ori'  ll'prid  of  January  23, 
1898,  saying  that  some  Mexicans  desire 
that  the  Unitetl  States  do  not  go  under 
the  silver  standard,  but  that  on  the 
whole  they  desire  restoration  of  bi- 
metalism  in  the  United  States,  585 

Bryce,  Lloyd,  request  for  a  paper  on  sil- 
ver standard  in  Mexico  fur  the  jVorth 


American  Review  made  of  M.  Romero 
and  answer,  563 
Business  failures,  few  in  Mexico,  608,  609 


Carden,  Lionel  E.  G.,  British  Consul- 
General  in  Mexico,  thinks  silver  will  in 
the  end  be  beneficial  to  Mexico,  577  ; 
his  views  from  his  report  on  silver  in 
Mexico,  577,  57S  ;  extract  from  report 
of,  on  trade  of  Mexico  in  1895,  576 

Chevalier,  Michel,  headed  movement  in 
France  to  demonetize  gold,  581 

Clark,  Justice  Walter,  article  in  Arena, 
of  Boston,  of  March,  i8g6.  presenting 
Mexico  as  an  example  of  the  favorable 
results  of  the  silver  standard,  564,  565 

Cleveland,  President,  stand  on  silver 
question  of,  563 

Coal,  scarce  now  in  Mexico  but  large 
deposits  being  found,  597 

Coins   of    different  American    countries. 

576 

Conditions  in  Mexico,  satisfactory  not- 
withstanding the  silver  standard,  610, 
611 

Cotton  industiy  in  Mexico,  Lionel  E.  G. 
Garden's  report  on,  5 84 

Courcel,  Baron  de,  French  Ambassador 
in  London,  on  injuries  world  has  suf- 
fered by  depreciation  of  silver,  592 

Currency  of  Mexico,  free  coinage  of  sil- 
ver, why  silver  w-as  adopted,  why  can- 
not be  changed,  no  paper  money  used, 
594  ;  system  used  by  banks  594.  5')5 


1) 


Depreciation  of  silver,  579  ;  its  effect  on 
England,  583,  5S4  ;  extracts  from 
Cotton  Factory  Times  on,  5 S3  ;  Mexico 
satisfied  with  silver  standard.  5S'> 

Diaz,  President,  his  views  on  silver,  566  ; 
interview  published  in  Xew  York 
Journal  on  effect  of  silver  coinage  in 
Mexico,  566,  567  ;  on  growth  of  com- 
mercial interests  in  Mexico,  wages, 
labor,  567  ;  letter  from,  to  M.  Romero, 


751 


752 


•ffn^ej. 


Diaz,  President — Continued. 

October  6,  1S96,  giving  a  report  of  his 
interview  with  \^".  E.  Lewis,  567,  56S  ; 
letter  from,  to  M.  Romero  of  August  11, 
1897,  stating  that  silver  standard  will 
continue  for  the  present  in  Mexico,  56S 

Difficulties  of  Mexico  in  adopting  gold 
standard,  5S6,  5S8,  589 

Disadvantages  Mexico  had  to  contend  with 
retarding  her  progress,  571,  572 

Disadvantage  of  silver  standard  to  Mexico, 
importations  reduced,  604  ;  fluctua- 
tions in  price  of  silver,  605,  606  ; 
reduction  of  import  duties,  national 
expenses  increased  makes  taxation 
necessary  to  meet  obligations,  effects  on 
railroads,  607 

Discredit  of  silver,  what  has  been  its 
main  cause,  5S1,  5S2  ;  its  production  as 
compared  with  gold,  582 

Drawbacks  to  Mexico  for  adopting  the 
gold  standard,  590 


Factors  of  Mexican  progress,  not  alone 
the  silver  standard  but  railways,  peace, 
investment  of  foreign  capital,  and  de- 
velopment of  natural  resources  ;  efTect 
of  silver  standard  as  one  of  the,  570 

Fletcher,  Arthur  E.,  letter  from  M. 
Romero  to,  relating  to  payment  of  in- 
terest of  Mexican  debt,  574 

Fluctuations  of  gold,  582 

Forbes,  Francis  B.,  table  of  statistics  on 
world's  production  of  gold  and  silver, 
580,  5S1 

G 

Gold,  production  as  compared  with  silver, 
579  ;  total  amount  mined,  580 

Gold  standard,  when  good  basis  of 
currency  and  when  silver,  582 

Gold  standard  in  Chili,  why  it  may  be 
beneficial,  586  ;  according  to  some 
newspapers  does  not  seem  satisfactory, 
587,  588         __     _ 

Gold  standard  in  India,  is  yet  to  be  tried, 
587  ;  many  bankers  and  merchants 
favorable  to  silver,  extract  from 
Indian  Spectator  in  which  it  disap- 
proves of  gold  standard,  588  ;  extract 
from  London  '/tmes  giving  opinion  of 
Anglo-Indian  Press  as  unfavorable  to, 
58S,  589;  rate  of  interest  high,  589 

Gold  standard  in  Japan,  is  adopted,  586  ; 
extract  from  Japanese  papers  ascrib- 
ing bad  times  to,  587 

Gold  standard  in  Mexico,  difficulties  of 
accepting  it,  when  will  be  acceptable, 
587,  58S 

Gresham  Law,  as  applied  in  Mexico,  594 

Gresham,  Walter  Q.,  Secretary  of  State, 
advice  about  Senator  Morgan's  letter, 
562,  563  ;  died  before  M.  Romero's 
article  on  silver  standard  appeared,  563 


H 


Hamilton,  Lord  George,  British  Secretarj^ 
for  India,  statement  as  to  closing  of 
Indian  mints,  589 

Harcourt,  Sir  William  Vernon,  statement 
against  opening  Indian  mints,  589 

Haupt,  Ottoman,  letter  to,  from  Sefior 
Limantour  in  answer  to  suggestion  of 
method  of  adopting  gold  standard  in 
Mexico,  590 

Hearst.  William  R.,  communication  to 
from  President  Diaz  on  silver  question, 
566,  567 

Huntington,  C.  P.,  built  International 
Railroad,  report  on  earnings  of  Inter- 
national Railway,  605,  610 


Investments  in  Mexico,  pessimists'  views 
of,  M.  Romero's  views  of,  572 

J 

Jamieson,  Mr.,  British  Consul  at  Shang- 
hai, China,  his  statement  of  the  growth 
of  cotton  manufacture  in  China  and 
Japan,  605  ;  on  the  results  of  fluctu- 
ations of  silver,  605-607  ;  remarks  of, 
on  China,  apply  also  to  Mexico,  607 

Japanese  Government  Commission  study 
of  the  silver  and  gold  standard,  595  ; 
and  effects  on  exchange,  595,  596 


Kennedy,  James  H.,  his  misstatement  in 
regard  to  the  Mexican  dollars  and 
Mexican  debt,  573  ;  extract  from  Minn- 
eapolis Times  containing  affidavit  of, 
573,  574 


Lewis,  W.  E.,  his  interview  with  Presi- 
dent Diaz,  566 

Limantour,  Jose  Yves,  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury  of  Mexico,  letter  from,  to 
Ottoman  Haupt,  stating  views  on  mon- 
etary question  in  Mexico,  590-592 

Losses  suffered  by  depreciation  of  silver, 
on  gold  bonds,  607  ;  by  railroads,  607, 
608 

Low  Mexican  wages,  why  not  due  to  sil- 
ver standard,  572 


M 


Maitland,  Mr.,  remarks  before  China 
Mutual  Steamship  Co.,  on  labor  and 
currency  in  China,  601,  602 

Malabari,  B.  M.,  discusses  what  famine 
results  from  in  India,  589 

Manufacturing  in  Mexico,  pays  well,  in- 
creases, 597  ;  compared  with  China, 
Japan,  and  India,  598 


1[n&ej. 


753 


Meline,  Monsieur,  President  of  the  French 
Cabinet,  speech  delivered  in  French 
Chamber  of  Deputies  on  evils  resulting 
to  world  at  large  from  depreciation  of 
silver,  592 

Mexican  Central  Railway,  earnings  and 
gain  of,  603,  604  ;  loss  of,  by  depres- 
sion of  silver,  60S  ;  earnings  per  mile 
and  deficit  of,  619  ;  increase  of,  mile- 
age of,  property  of,  valuable,  620 

Mexican  International  Railroad,  earnings, 
tonnage,  605  ;  earnings  and  expenses, 
610,  611  ;  loss  suffered  by  depreciation 
of  silver,  610  ;  bonded  indebtedness  of, 
610 

Mexican  National  Railway,  earnings, 
604 ;  increase,  604,  605  ;  bonded  in- 
debtedness of,  returns  of,  620 

Mexican  Northern  Railway,  capital  stock, 
bonded  indebtedness,  609  ;  statement 
of,  for  1S93,  610 

Mexico  does  not  desire  United  States  to 
adopt  silver  standard  to  help  her,  585 

Morgan,  John  T.,  United  States  Senator, 
letter  from,  to  M.  Romero  of  March 
22,  1S95,  asking  for  information  on  sil- 
ver, 561,  562;  why  M.  Romero  hesi- 
tated about  answering  it,  M.  Romero's 
answer  to  letter  of,  562,  563  ;  what  M. 
Romero  said  to,  used  in  silver  paper, 

593 
Mulhall,  statistics  of  world's  production 
of  gold  and  silver  verified  by  F.  B. 
Forbes's  table,  extract  from  article  of, 
on  value  of  silver  as  compared  with 
gold,   581 

O 

Olney,  Secretary,  consulted  by  M.  Ro- 
mero on  silver  standard  matters,  564 

P 

Parts  of  original  article  as  printed  by 
North  American  Revie'd.',  omitted  from 
paper,  564 

People  of  Mexico,  of  all  classes,  favorable 
to  silver,  576,  377  ;  government  and 
prominent  foreigners  living  there  and 
even  bankers  all  favor  it,  577 

Peters,  Dr.  Karl,  article  in  Zukunft  on 
England  and  silver  and  tribute  money, 
5S4 

Prices  in  Mexico,  more  stable  notwith- 
standing the  silver  standard,  610 

Purchasing  power  of  Mexican  dollar  has 
not  decreased  on  account  of  silver  stand- 
ard, 600 

R 

Railroads,  traffic  of,  602  {see  Mexican 
railroads) 

Ransom,  Matt  N..  United  States  Minis- 
ter to  Mexico,  report  on  manufacturing 
in  Mexico,  597 


Raoul,  Captain  W.  G.,  President  of  Mexi- 
can National  Railroad,  interview  saying 
Mexico  is  satisfied  with  having  United 
States  on  gold  basis,  5S5  ;  report  on 
manufacturing  in  Mexico,  comparison 
of  traffic  of  Mexican  National  Railway 
for  1893  and  1894,  609 

Ratio  of  gold  to  silver,  during  the  present 
century,  measured  by  the  production  of 
both  metals,  581  ;  one  now  existing 
and  what  Mexico  would  accept,  591 

Rehabilitation  of  silver,  not  all  hope  of, 
lost  in  Mexico,  578  ;  Mexico  hopes  that 
Great  Britain  will  co-operate  with 
United  States,  France,  and  other  coun- 
tries in,  5S3  ;  England  will  not  consent 
for  the  present  to  assist  in,  585 


Sauerbeck,  according  to,  gold  has  risen 
in  value  during  the  last  twenty-five 
years  as  compared  with  other  commodi- 
ties, 582 

Scott,  \V.  H.,  statements  on  bad  results 
of  silver  standard  in  Mexico,  565 

Silver  production  in  the  world,  value  of, 
compared  with  gold,  579 

Silver  question  was  the  leading  question 
in  the  United  States  during  the  canvass 
of  1S96,  568 

Silver,  list  of  papers  on,  printed  by  order 
of  the  Senate,  on  a  motion  of  Senator 
Chandler,  615-619 

Silver  standard,  why  Mexico  has  it  and 
keeps  it,  its  advantage  and  disadvan- 
tage, quotations  of  jiaper  on,  566 

Soetbeer,  estimate  of  gold  consumed  in 
arts,  5S0 

Special  Monetary  Commission  {sec  Ameri- 
can International  Monetary  Commis- 
sion) 


Temple,  A.  V.,  Facts  and  Figures  About 
Mexico,  Causes  of  Prosperity,  570,  571 


V 


Value  of  Mexican  dollar,  erroneous  state- 
ments in  regard  to,  569  ;  real,  569, 
570  ;  why  not  same  as  the  United  States 
dollar,  570 


\V 


Wages   in    Mexico,    increasing    recently, 

610 
Westland,  Sir  James,  states  that  opening 

of    Indian  mints  was  ni)w   impossible, 

589 
Whitehead.  T.  H.,  of  Hong  Kong,  China, 

on  effects  of  depreci.ition  of  silver,  598, 

599  ;  on  manufacturing,  599 


THE    PAN-AMERICAN   CONFERENCE. 


Acceptance  of  invitation  by  South  Ameri- 
can States  to  Pan-American  Confer- 
ence, at  first  distrustful,  no  serious 
question  pending  to  prevent,  non- 
acceptance  of  Dominican  Government, 
and  wiiy,  of  Chili,  630 

Act  of  May  24,  1888,  convening  the  Con- 
ference, form  in  which  finally  approved, 
628,  673,  674 ;  did  not  meet  with 
general  approval,  629,  630 

Agreements,  between  South  American 
countries  in  regard  to  their  conduct 
in  the  Conference,  between  Chili,  Ar- 
gentine Republic,  and  Brazil,  misunder- 
standing of  Chili  in  regard  to,  635  ; 
between  Brazil  and  Argentina,  Paraguay 
and  Uruguay  to  act  in  accord  with 
Argentina,  difficulties  in  regard  to  Uru- 
guayan delegate,  636 

Alfonso,  Jose,  Chilian  delegate,  reported 
on  behalf  of  Committee  on  Rules  that 
the  Conference  should  elect  two  Vice- 
Presidents,  642  ;  made  minority  report 
on  reciprocity,  659 

American  International  Monetary  Union, 
recommendation  of  the  Conference  on, 

693.  694 

Andrade,  Jose,  of  Venezuela,  one  of 
signers  of  Plan  of  Arbitration  as  ac- 
cepted by  Conference,  6go  ;  one  of 
signers  of  recommendation  approved 
by  the  Conference  on  railway  commu- 
nication, 693 

Arbitration,  clause  introduced  as  an 
amendment  to  the  bill  by  Representa- 
tive William  McKinley,  definition  of, 
text  of,  628,  629  ;  will  not  be  effectual 
until  highly  advanced  countries  disap- 
prove of  war,  permanent  tribunal  at 
Washington  looked  upon  with  favor  by 
United  States  delegate,  wishes  of  dif- 
ferent countries  in  regard  to,  650  ;  Ar- 
gentine  and    Brazilian    plan   of,    650- 

652  ;    preamble,    approved,  April    17, 
plan  against  conquest,  652;    delay  of, 

653  ;   approved,  engrossed  in  form  of 


treaty,  plan  of,  signed  by,  time  expired 
before  could  be  ratified  by  nations, 
654;  never  sent  to  Senate,  655,  656; 
views  of  United  States  Government  re- 
ceived great  setback  by  rejection  of 
treaty  of,  with  Great  Britain,  656 ; 
plan  submitted  by  Mr.  Henderson,  681, 

682  ;  Argentine-Brazilian  Plan  of,  6S2, 

683  ;  amendments  made  to  Argentine 
plan  of,  by  Mr.  Blaine,  684,  685  ;  Plan 
of,  submitted  to  the  Conference  by  the 
Committee,  686,  687  ;  plan  of,  accepted 
by  delegates,  688-690 ;  recommended 
to  European  powers,  690 

Arthur,  Chester  A.,  President  of  the 
United  States,  revived  the  idea  of  Pan- 
American  Conference  and  sent  commis- 
sioners to  other  countries  to  ascertain 
how  it  would  be  received,  627  ;  report 
of  commission  reflected  policy  of,  628  ; 
motive  in  promoting  convening  of  Pan- 
American  Conference,  631 

Attack  on  Argentine  delegates,  prompted 
by  jealousy,  647  ;  Argentine  delegates 
vindicated,  647 

B 

Ballot,  for  Vice-President,  in  detail,  643 
Barrios,  General  J.  Rufino,  President  of 
Guatemala,  preliminary  basis  of  treaty 
with  M.  Romero  to  settle  boundary  dis- 
pute between  Mexico  and  Guatemala, 

637 
Blaine,  James  G. ,  Secretary  of  State,  M. 
Romero's  first  paper  on  Pan-American 
Conference  published  during  life  of, 
624  ;  M.  Romero's  opinion  as  to  pur- 
pose of,  in  regard  to  Pan-American 
Conference,  631  ;  on  arbitration,  631, 
632  ;  elected  President  of  Conference 
and  why,  638,  639 ;  election  of,  as 
President  a  wise  one  and  why,  address 
on  opening  of  Conference,  banquet  to 
delegates,  640  ;  approved  excursion  of 
delegates,  640,  641  ;  appointed  com- 
mittees without  consulting  delegates, 
645  ;  wishes  in  regard  to   arbitration, 


754 


Hn^ej. 


755 


Blaine,  James  G.  —  Continuea. 

650  ;  settled  difficulties  of  arbitration 
between  United  States  and  Latin- 
American  delegates,  651  ;  to  avoid 
failure  of  arbitration  project  had  to  ac- 
cept scheme  against  conquest,  652  ; 
desired  delegates  to  sign  arbitration 
project  in  form  of  treaty  before  close  of 
Conference,  653,  654 ;  ordered  treaty 
on  arbitration  to  be  printed,  article  in 
the  N'orth  American  Review  on,  by  M. 
Romero,  654  ;  interest  in  reciprocity 
treaties  and  how  shown,  suggestion  in 
favor  of  reciprocity  not  accepted  by 
Ways  and  Means  Committee  of  House 
of  Representatives,  660  ;  amendments 
made  to  Argentine  Plan  of  Arbitration 
by,  684,  685  ;  one  of  signers  of  Plan  of 
Arbitration  as  accepted  by  Conference, 
690  ;  consented  through  deference  to 
Latin-American  delegates  in  Confer- 
ence that  appointment  of  secretaries 
should  rest  with  Conference,  697 

Bliss,  Cornelius  C,  United  States  dele- 
gate to  Conference,  distinguished  him- 
self by  his  courtesy  and  concilatory 
spirit,  633  ;  President  Harrison  re- 
quested him  to  express  wish  to  United 
States  delegates  and  Conference  that 
Mr.  Blaine  should  be  President  of  Con- 
ference, 638,  639 

Bolet  Peraza,  Nicanor,  Venezuelan  dele- 
gate, one  of  signers  of  Plan  of  Arbitra- 
tion as  submitted  by  Committee  on 
General  Welfare  to  the  Conference,  one 
of  signers  of  Right  of  Conquest,  687  ; 
one  of  signers  of  Plan  of  Arbitration  as 
accepted  by  the  Conference,  690  ; 
accused  by  Francisco  Sosa  of  being 
under  American  influences  in  not  act- 
ing with  Argentines  in  Conference, 
694 

Brown,  R.  M.  G.,  Executive  Officer  of 
International  Railway  Commission,  664 

Bureau  of  American  Republics,  purpose 
of,  Director  of  under  direction  of  Sec- 
retary of  State  of  the  United  States, 
executive  commission  appointed  and 
power  of,  667  ;  supported  by  contribu- 
tions of  all  American  Republics,  publi- 
cations of,  opposition  to,  668 


Caamano,  J.  M.  P.,  of  Ecuador,  disliked 
Mr.  Curtis  because  of  articles  he  had 
written  in  Capitals  of  South  Ame7-ica, 
648  ;  one  of  signers  of  Plan  of  Arbitra- 
tion as  accepted  by  Conference,  690 

Carnegie,  Andrew,  United  States  dele- 
gate, distinguished  himself  by  his 
courtesy  and  conciliatory  spirit,  633  ; 
one  of  signers  of  recommendation  ap- 
proved by  Pan-American  Conference 
on  railway  communication,  693  ;  spoke 
French,  700 


Carter,  Mr.,  Hawaiian  Minister  in  Wash- 
ington, sent  as  delegate  to  Conference 
on  day  it  closed,  632 

Cassatt,  A.  J.,  Chairman  Executive  Com- 
mittee, International  Railway  Commis- 
sion, 663 

Castellanos,  Jacinto,  Salvadoran  delegate, 
one  of  signers  of  Plan  of  Arbitration  as 
accepted  by  Conference,  690 ;  one  of 
signers  of  recommendation  approved  by 
Pan-American  Conference  on  railway 
communication,  693 

Cleveland,  Grover,  President  of  the 
United  States,  law  to  convene  Pan- 
American  Conference  transmitted  to 
Congress  by,  without  endorsement  and 
became  law  without  sanction  of,  628  ; 
did  not  approve  of  all  amendments  in 
Act  convening  Conference,  629 ;  did 
not  name  United  States  delegates,  632  ; 
said  not  to  be  in  favor  of  reciprocity 
agreements  but  did  not  nullify  them, 
662  ;  appointed  Clinton  Furbish  as  Di- 
rector of  Bureau  of  American  Repub- 
lics at  beginning  of  second  term,  667 

Commercial  nomenclature,  object  in  view 
when  M.  Romero  introduced  in  Con- 
ference resolution  to  adopt  a  common 
form  of,  which  finally  agreed  upon, 
mistake  of  Bureau  in  regard  to,  M. 
Romero's  views  of.  The  Commercial 
Nomenclature  of  the  American  Repub- 
lics, 670 

Committees  of  Conference,  appointment 
of,  difficulties  of,  645  ;  list  of,  tjG-bjg  ; 
Conquest,  Right  of,  recommendation  of 
Conference  regarding,  690 

Contact  of  Anglo-Saxon  and  Latin  dele- 
gates, difference  in,  good  done  by,  633 

Cruz,  Fernando,  Guatemalan  delegate, 
received  one  vote  for  Vice-President, 
643  ;  put  into  English  Spanish  text  of 
Plan  of  Arbitration,  651  ;  one  of  signers 
of  Plan  of  Arbitration  as  sent  by  Com- 
mittee on  General  Welfare  to  Confer- 
ence, one  of  signers  of  Right  of  Conquest 
as  approved,  preamble,  and  first  article 
or  declarations  of  resolutions,  687  ;  one 
of  signers  of  Plan  of  Arbitration  as  ac- 
cepted by  Conference,  690 ;  one  of 
signers  of  recommendation  approved 
by  Pan-American  Conference  on  rail- 
way communication,  693 

Curtis,  William  E.,  first  secretary  and 
member  of  South  American  Commission 
appointed  to  take  charge  of  work  pre- 
paratory to  meeting  of  Conference,  op- 
position to  and  reason  of,  647 ;  appointed 
Executive  Officer  of  Conference,  made 
very  favorable  impression,  64S  ;  head  of 
Bureau  of  American  Republics  during 
President  Harrison's  administration 
667  ;  secretaries  of  Conference  had  to 
communicate  witli  Mr.  lUaine  through, 
697;  suggested  Mr.  Blaine  for  President 


756 


Un^ej. 


Curtis,  William  E.  —  Continued. 

and  why,  63S  ;  suggested  excursion  of 
delegates,  640  ;  keeps  in  his  oftice  the 
original  copy  of  Plan  of  Arbitration, 
651 

D 

Davis,  Henry  G.,  United  States  delegate, 
President  Harrison  requested,  to  make 
known  his  wish  to  United  States  dele- 
gates that  Mr.  Blaine  be  elected  Presi- 
dent of  Conference,  63S,  639  ;  one  of 
signers  of  recommendation  approved  by 
Pan-American  Conference  on  railway 
communication,  693 

Decoud,  Jose  S.,  Paraguayan  delegate, 
one  of  signers  of  recommendation  ap- 
proved by  Pan-American  Conference 
on  railway  communication,  693 

Delegates  to  the  Conference,  number, 
sent  by  Hawaii  the  day  the  Conference 
closed,  those  who  were  Ministers  found 
their  liberty  restricted,  632  ;  United 
Stales,  and  criticisms  of,  632,  633 ; 
list  of,  674-676 

E 

Estee,  Morris  M.,  United  States  delegate, 

favored     coining     legal-tender     silver 

money,  665 
Excursion    of    delegates,   covered    more 

than  9,000  miles,  640  ;  objects  of,  640, 

641  ;  results  of,  641 


Flint,  Charles  R.,  United  States  delegate 
to  Conference,  distinguished  himself  by 
his  courtesy  and  conciliatory  spirit, 
633  ;  had  some  knowledge  of  Spanish, 
633,  700 

Frelinghuysen,  Theodore  W,,  Secretary 
of  State,  motive  in  formulating  plan  of 
meeting  of  Pan-American  Conference, 
631 

Frye,  W.  P.,  Senator,  introduced  measure 
in  Senate  to  convene  Pan-American 
Conference,  62S  ;  spoke  in  Senate 
about  Seiior  Pierra's  position  to  dispel 
Senator  Vest's  misapprehensions,  649 

Furbish,  Clinton,  Director  of  Bureau  of 
American  Republics  under  President 
Cleveland,  667 


Garfield,  James  A.,  President  of  the 
Unitetl  States,  Pan-American  Confer- 
ence first  proposed  during  administra- 
tion of,  627 

General  Arbitration,  Mexico  to  extend 
scope  of,  M.  Romero  asked  by  Sec- 
retary of  State  to  draft  a  project, 
finally  given  up,  656  ;  difference  of 
views  of  Mexico  and  South  American 
countries  on,  and  why,  subsequent  ac- 


tion on  part  of  United  States  justifies 
Mexico's  views  on,  657 
Guzman,  Horacio,  Nicaraguan  delegate, 
one  of  signers  of  Plan  of  Arbitra- 
tion as  accepted  by  Conference,  690  ; 
one  of  signers  of  recommendation  ap- 
proved by  Pan-American  Conference 
on  railway  communication,  693 

H 

Harrison,  Benjamin,  President  of  the 
United  States,  sent  recommendations 
approved  by  I'an-American  Conference 
to  Congress  with  Message,  624;  did  not 
approve  of  all  amendments  to  Act  con- 
vening Conference,  629  ;  appointment 
of  United  States  delegates  made  soon 
after  inauguration  of,  632  ;  approved  by 
Mr.  Blaine  as  President  of  Conference, 
638,  639  ;  favored  excursion  of  dele- 
gates, 640 

Hawley,  Senator,  qualified  aspersions  of 
Seiior  Pierra  in  his  letter  in  very  strong 
language,  649 

Henderson,  John  B.,  Ex-Senator  and 
United  States  delegate,  statement  made 
in  original  article  on  Pan-American 
Conference  in  regard  to,  rectified  by  M. 
Romero,  623,  624  ;  some  thought  him 
best  suited  to  be  President  of  Confer- 
ence, 638  ;  discussion  on  rules  of  Con- 
ference, 646,  647  ;  text  of  Argentine- 
Brazilian  project  on  arbitration  appears 
in  letter  of,  651  ;  refusal  to  sign  report 
on  Right  of  Conquest  came  near  caus- 
ing failure  of  arbitration,  652  ;  unjustly 
blamed  for  delay  in  Conference  on  ar- 
bitration, 653,  679;  letter  to  M.  Ro- 
mero of  Febuary  14,  1898,  explaining 
delay  of  Committee  on  General  Welfare 
on  arbitration  and  enclosing  Argentine- 
Brazilian  plan  of  arbitration  and  his 
own,  680-683  ;  one  of  signers  of  Plan 
of  Arbitration  as  sent  to  the  Conference, 
687 

Hurtado,  J.  Marcelino,  Colombian  dele- 
gate, received  three  votes  for  Vice- 
President  of  Conference,  643  ;  one  of 
signers  of  Plan  of  Arbitration  sent  to 
the  Conference,  one  of  signers  of  Right 
of  Conquest  approving  preamble  and 
first  article  of  resolutions,  687 

I 

Impartiality  of  Mexico  in  Conference, 
Mexican  delegates  misunderstood  by 
Argentine,  638 

Import  duties,  never  established  by  Latin- 
American  countries  with  view  to  dis- 
criminate against  the  United  States, 
661 

Intercontinental  Railway  project.  Inter- 
national American  Conference  recom- 
mended     meeting     of      International 


Unbej, 


757 


Intercontinental  Railway. — Continued. 
American  Commission  of  engineers  to 
ascertain  routes,  etc.,  662  ;  commis- 
sioners to  send  as  many  surveying  par- 
ties into  field  as  funds  permitted,  663  ; 
work  of  corps  in  field,  returned  to 
Washington  and  prepared  maps,  664  ; 
difficulties  of  constructing  interconti- 
nental railway,  664,  665  ;  publications 
on,  665 

Interpreters,  some  of  difficulties  of  Con- 
ference remedied  by,  634  ;  Article  IX. 
in  regard  to,  qualifications  of,  635  ; 
list  of,  675 

J 

Jealousies  of  South  American  nations,  of 
Argentina  and  Chili,  Nicaraguan  Canal 
caused  difference  between  Nicaragua 
and  Costa  Rica,  Guatemala  against 
Mexico,  Mexico  impartial,  and  why, 
637  ;  effect  on  delegates,  637,  638 


Languages  of  delegates  in  Conference, 
difficulties  of  difference  in,  633 

List  of  committees,  676-679 

List  of  delegates,  secretaries,  and  attaches, 
674-676 

List  of  publications  bearing  on  Pan- 
American  Conference,  624,  625 


M 


McCreary,  Governor,  Democratic  Repre- 
sentative, introduced  measure  to  con- 
vene Pan-American  Conference,  628 

McKinley,  William,  arbitration  clause 
introduced  in  House  by,  628  ;  shows 
trend  of  views  of,  629 

Memorandum,  Sutton,  639,  701  ;  one  to 
effect  that  Conference  ought  to  be  held 
under  conditions  to  justify  making  of 
precedents,  640 

Mendon^a,  Salvadorde,  Brazilian  Minister 
and  delegate,  censured  for  making  re- 
ciprocity agreement,  his  reason  for  ac- 
cepting reciprocity  agreement,  661  ;  one 
of  signers  of  Plan  of  Arbitration  as  ac- 
cepted by  Conference,  690  ;  was  in  favor 
of  accepting  resignation  of  Fidel  G. 
Pierra,  699 

Mexia,  E.  A.,  Mexican  delegate,  one  of 
signers  of  recommendation  approved  by 
Pan-American  Conference  on  railway 
communication,  693 

Monetary  union,  purpose  of,  665,  666  ; 
Latiii-.'Vmerican  nations  had  to  yield  to 
United  States  delegates,  eight  meet- 
ings, M.  Rcnnero,  Presiding  Officer, 
delegates  to,  666  ;  recommendation  to 
nations  of  world  of  meeting  of  Inter- 
national Monetary  Conference  at  Brus- 
sels, 666,  667 


Montevideo  Treaties,  of  South  American 
Conference,  which  met  in  1888,  and 
adopted  recommendations  of,  some 
nations  found  them  too  extended  to 
accept  all,  Mexican  Government  had 
not  then  came  to  any  conclusion,  op- 
position of  United  States  delegates  to, 
and  reason,  668  ;  three  accepted  by 
United  States  delegates,  668,  669  ;  Con- 
ference recommended  study  of,  by  all 
American  nations,  669 


Nin,  Alberto,  Uruguayan  delegate,  one 
of  signers  of  Plan  of  Arbitration  as 
accepted  by  Conference,  690 

O 

Opening  of  Conference,  date  of,  address 
of  Mr.  Blaine  at,  640 

Opposition  to  project  of  Pan-American 
Conference,  some  thought  object  of 
United  States  was  to  obtain  political 
and  commercial  advantage  over  other 
nations,  631 

Origin  of  idea  of  Pan-American  Confer- 
ence, by  Bolivar,  623  ;  James  G.  Blaine, 
originator  in  United  States,  and  why 
his  first  proposal  was  not  accepted, 
627 


Panama  Congress,  when  it  met  and  who 
supported  by,  621 

Paper  on  Pan-American  Conference,  how 
it  happened  to  be  written,  contents  of, 
when    first  published,  623,  624 

Pena,  Saenz,  xVrgentine  delegate,  excused 
himself  from  going  on  excursion  and 
why,  641  ;  did  not  think  Conference 
had  authority  under  law  convening  it  to 
consider  subject  of  reciprocity,  659  ; 
designated  by  Francisco  Sosa  as  zealous 
guardian  of  autonomy,  694 

Personal  opinions  of  delegates,  Argentine 
delegation  thought  should  not  be  ex- 
pressed, but  only  official  opinions,  644, 
645 

Pierra,  Fidel  G.,  became  acquainted  with 
delegates  on  excursion  and  rendered 
them  services  which  paved  the  way  to  his 
election  as  Spanish  Secretary  of  Confer- 
ence, why  M.  Romero  voted  against,  his 
salary  paid  by  United  States  Govern- 
ment, 697  ;  elected  as  Spanish  Secre- 
tary of  Conference,  646,  64S  ;  complaints 
of,  649  ;  mistakes  called  attention  to 
by  M.  Romero  in  private  way,  697  ; 
his  reasons  for  resigning,  M.  Romero's 
efforts  to  prevent  resignation  of,  resig- 
nation withdrawn  and  why,  M.  Romero 
directed  by  Executive  Committee  of 
Conference  to  draft  report  of  behavior 


758 


1InC)ej. 


Pierra,  Fidel  G. — Conlitiued. 
of,  in  favor  of  his  resignation,  69S  ; 
report  on  behavior  of,  and  amend- 
ments, resignation  accepted,  M.  Ro- 
mero accused  by,  of  intrigue,  699  ;  said 
M.  Romero  wanted  to  be  President  of 
Conference,  699,  700  ;  succeeded  by 
Dr.  Rodriguez  as  Spanish  Secretary  of 
Conference,  635  ;  letter  to  La  Nacion, 
containing  incorrect  and  slanderous  as- 
sertions, M.  Romero's  answer  to  severe 
strictures  made  by,  635,  649,  696-701  ; 
M.  Romero's  efforts  to  avoid  misunder- 
standings among  delegates  misconstrued 
by,  700,  701  ;  his  letter  considered  in 
Senate  of  United  States,  649,  650 

Precedence,  decided  by  lot  in  Conference, 
640 

Preliminary  meeting  of  Conference,  in 
order  to  organize,  attended  by  Ecuador, 
Paraguay,  and  Hayti,  638 

President  of  Conference,  Mr.  Blaine 
selected,  638,  639  ;  opposition  of  Ar- 
gentine delegates  to  choice  of,  639 

Price,  Hannibal,  of  Hayti,  one  of  signers 
of  Plan  of  Arbitration  as  accepted  by 
Conference,  690 

Publications  bearing  on  the  Pan-American 
Conference,  list  of,  624,  625 


Quintana,  Manuel,  character,  646 ;  why 
he  thought  Mr.  Blaine  not  eligible  to 
be  President,  639  ;  part  in  the  excur- 
sion, 641  ;  received  one  vote  for  Vice- 
President,  643  ;  on  Committee  on 
General  Welfare,  645  ;  accused  Mr. 
Henderson  of  causing  delay  in  action 
on  arbitration,  653  ;  one  of  signers  of 
Plan  of  Arbitration  sent  to  the  Confer- 
ence, 680  ;  one  of  signers  of  Right  of 
Conquest,  683  ;  one  of  signers  of  recom- 
mendation approved  by  Pan-American 
Conference  on  railway  communication, 
693 

R 

Railway  communication,  recommendation 
approved  by  Pan-American  Conference 
on,  692,  693 

Reciprocity,  commercial  difficulties  in 
United  States  in  way  of  treaty  of,  658  ; 
treaty  with  Mexico,  660,  661  ;  fate  of 
treaty  of,  with  Mexico,  and  reason,  658, 
659  ;  division  of  South  American  coun- 
tries in  regard  to,  discussion  in  Confer- 
ence carried  on  mainly  by  United  States 
and  Argentine  delegates,  659  ;  treaties 
with  Canada  and  Hawaiian  Islands  un- 
executed, treaties  with  Brazil,  and  Spain 
in  behalf  of  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico 
which  affected  coffee  and  sugar,  those 
nations  who  did  not  enter  into  any, 
661  ;   Brazilian   Government  not  satis- 


fied with  treaty  of,  made  with  United 
States,  661,  662  ;  impression  in  this 
country  in  regard  to  feeling  on,  agree- 
ments of,  made  with  Latin-American 
countries,  fears  in  Europe  in  regard  to 
agreements  of,  made  by  United  States, 
662 ;  recommendation  of,  adopted  by 
Pan-American  Conference,  660,  690- 
692 

Results  of  Conference,  662  ;  acquaintance 
of  different  nations,  advantageous,  671, 
672;  agreement  on  arbitration,  671  ; 
other  results,  672 

Reyna  Barrios,  Jose  Maria,  late  President 
of  Guatemala,  inaugurated  change  of 
policy  very  beneficial  to  his  country, 
637 

Right  of  Conquest,  supplementary  report 
of  Committee  on  General  Welfare,  687  ; 
recommendation  of  Pan-American  Con- 
ference regarding,  690 

Rodriguez,  Jose  Ignacio,  ability  of,  as 
translator,  635 

Rodriguez,  Pereira  Lafayette,  Brazilian 
delegate,  thought  Mexican  delegate 
should  be  one  of  Vice-Presidents,  642, 

643 
Romero,  Matias,  Mexican  delegate,  part 

taken  in  excursion  of  delegates,  641  ; 

unjustly   censured    by   Mexican   writer 

for  attitude  in  Conference,  657  ;  and  by 

Fidel  G.  Pierra,  696-701 
Rules  of  Conference,  prepared  by  Senor 

Quintana,  discussion   on,  approved  as 

presented,  646 


Secretaries   of    the   Conference,    list   of, 

673 

Silva,  Carlos  Martinez,  Colombian  dele- 
gate, one  of  the  signers  of  recommenda- 
tion approved  by  Pan-American  Con- 
ference on  railway  communication,  693 

Smith,  Joseph  P.,  Director  of  Bureau  of 
American  Republics  under  President 
McKinley,  death,  667 

Sosa,  Francisco,  a  Mexican  writer,  ac- 
cuses M.  Romero  and  Bolet  Peraza,  in 
La  Revista  JVacional  de  Ciencias  y 
Letras,  of  being  under  American  in- 
fluences in  not  acting  with  Argentines 
in  Conference,  694  ;  M.  Romero's  an- 
swer to  censure  of,  694-696 

Steever,  E.  Z.,  Secretary  Interconti- 
nental Railway  Commission,  comman- 
ded Corps  No.  I,  664 

Subjects  discussed  by  Conference,  other 
than  those  taken  up  separately,  670 

Sutton,  Warner  P.,  Chief  Clerk  of  Con- 
ference, memorandum  of,  639,  701 


Translation,    necessities  for  a  good  one, 
634  ;  difficulties  of,  634,  635 


1In&ej. 


759 


Trescot,  William  Henry,  United  States 
delegate  to  the  Conference,  could  read 
Spanish,  but  could  not  speak  it,  633, 
700  ;  some  of  the  delegates  thought  he 
was  suited  for  President  of  Conference, 
638 

V 

Valente,  J.  G.  do  Amaral,  Brazilian  dele- 
gate, one  of  signers  of  Plan  of  Arbitra- 
tion as  sent  by  Committee  on  General 
Welfare  to  the  Conference,  one  of 
signers  of  Right  of  Conquest,  approved 
preamble  and  first  article  or  declara- 
tion of  resolutions,  687  ;  one  of  signers 
of  recommendation  approved  by  Pan- 
American  Conference  on  railway  com- 
munication, 693 

Varas,  E.  C,  Chilian  delegate,  one  of 
signers  of  recommendation  approved 
by  Pan-American  Conference  on  rail- 
way communication,  693 

Velarde,  Juan  Francisco,  Bolivian  dele- 
gate, one  of  signers  of  Plan  of  Arbitra- 
tion as  sent  to  the  Conference,  one  of 
signers  of  Right  of  Conquest,  687  ;  one 
of  signers  of  Plan  of  Arbitration  as 
signed  by  the  Conference,  690  ;  one  of 
signers  of  recommendation  approved 
by  Pan-American  Conference  on  rail- 
way communication,  693 


Vest,  George  G.,  Senator,  read  extracts 
in  Senate  of  Senor  Pierra's  letter,  649 

Vice-Presidents  of  Conference,  two. 
United  States  delegates'  suggestions 
did  not  find  favor,  jealousy  among  dele- 
gates caused  difficulty  in  electing, 
election  of,  643  ;  misunderstanding  in 
regard  to  withdrawal  of  United  States 
delegates,  644 


W 


Whitehouse,  Remsen,  appointed  English 
Secretary  of  Pan-American  Conference, 
697 


Zegarra,  F.  C.  C,  Peruvian  delegate, 
elected  First  Vice-President,  643  ;  made 
model  presiding  officer  of  Conference, 
644  ;  one  of  signers  of  recommendation 
approved  by  Pan-American  Conference 
on  railway  communication,  693 

Zelaya,  Jeronimo,  Hondurian  delegate, 
one  of  the  signers  of  Plan  of  Arbitra- 
tion as  accepted  by  Conference,  690  ; 
one  of  signers  of  recommendation  ap- 
proved by  Pan-American  Conference 
on  railway  communication,  693 


94  17       4  , 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 

Los  Angeles 

This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below. 

"KtCblVLU 

AUG  17  1983 

fa     M 

4 

CIRC.  DEPT.  URL 

RECD  LD-URL 

APR  1  9  1984 

KEC'D  LD-URt 

yuL  0  8  ise. 

SI 

NO.  .. 

NOV  2  6 

0£C 

ft    MAYO^'9^ 

Form  L9- 

'■"  JAN  0  ^  ^^^^ 

,/ 


/ 


Qi 


':5"'TV58  00333  3456 


UC  SOUTHERN  RFGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 


III    IIIJI  III  llll  III!    Ill    II  I  III  I 

AA    001  087  740    5 


NiA 


'     '■'".""rtf;viai;.fsiifrtv.4'4i'.( 


